Cho-chon-fats.docx 5u2s28

1 CARBOHYDRATES Organic compounds that consist of CARBON, HYDROGEN & OXYGEN.  “Carbo” + Water (Hydrated Carbon Atom)  It is stored in the muscles & in the liver & can be converted quickly when the body needs energy  Carbohydrates provide the major source of energy for people all over the world  They provide approximately half the calories 55 – 70 % for Filipino RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF CHO: Filipino diet” 55 – 70% of the daily total calorie intake Majority should come from complex CHO(starches & fibers) Moderate Sugar intake is encourage amounting to maximum of 10% of total calories. Enough for pleasure but not enough to displace more nutritious food. Recommended intake of dietary fibers is 35 – 30 grams per day Example: A 5’4” individual needing 200 Kcal/day will have a CHO allowance of 300 grams Soln: 2000 x .60 = 1200 kcal / 4 kcal/g = 300 grams 

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FUNCTIONS: PROVIDING ENERGY is the major function of carbohydrates. Each gram of carbohydrate provides 4 calories. The body needs to maintain a constant supply of energy. Therefore, it stores approximately half a day’s supply of carbohydrate in the liver and muscles for use as needed. In this form, it is called glycogen. PROTEIN-SPARING ACTION When enough carbohydrates (at least 50– 100 g/day) are ingested to supply a person’s energy needs  SPARE PROTEINS for their primary function of building and repairing body tissues. NORMAL FAT METABOLISM Requires an adequate supply of carbohydrates. If there are not enough carbohydrates to fulfill the energy requirement, an abnormally large amount of fat is metabolized to help meet it. During such an emergency need for energy, fat oxidization in the cells is not complete and substances called ketones are produced. Ketones are acids that accumulate in the blood and urine, upsetting the acid-base balance. When fat is broken down, ketone bodies are made and can accumulate in the body. High levels of ketones are toxic to the body. The condition is called ketoacidosis. Such a condition is called ketoacidosis. It can result from IDDM

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4. PROVIDING FIBER  In the diet is another important function of carbohydrates.  Dietary fiber is found in grains, vegetables, and fruits.  Fiber creates a soft, bulky stool that moves quickly through the large intestine. FUNCTIONS 1. Chief source of energy (4Kcal/gm) 2. CHON sparer  When the body needs fuel, glucose are first used as energy before proteins are utilized making this nutrient available for its vital function of building, and repairing tissues. 3. Regulator of fat metabolism  Prevents incomplete oxidation of fat. 4. Sole energy source for brain and nerve tissues  Brain and nerve tissues utilize only glucose for energy. 5. Functions of fiber:  Act as a broom in our digestive tract.  Reduces incidence of colon Ca.  Reduces blood cholesterol level by binding with bile acids, increasing excretion of unwanted constituents.  It is important in the management of diabetic diets  delays gastric emptying and slows down glucose absorption.  Ease Elimination  it absorbs water, preventing constipation.  Decreases incidence of hemorrhoids  large stools ease elimination for the rectal muscles and reduce the pressure in the lower bowel, making it less likely that rectal veins swell.  Decreases incidence of diverticulitis  fiber stimulates GI tract muscle so that they retain their strength and resist bulging out into pouches called DIVERTICULATIS.  Decreases incidence of appendicitis  regular bowel movement prevent constipation of the intestinal contents, which could obstruct the appendix and permit bacteria to invade and infect it. 6. Special function  Galactose and glucose in the cerebrosides are constituents of the brain and nerve tissues.

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Lactose has a special function in infant feeding.  In the liver, glucuromic acid, which is a metabolite of glucose, has a detoxifying effect by combining with chemical and bacterial toxins.  Glycosides are important in drug therapy.  Insulin which belongs to the partially digestible polysaccharides is important medicine for the so called “insulin clearance test”, a test for kidney function.  Ribose and deoxyribose are important constituents of nucleic acids. RECOMMENDED INTAKES: 50 – 60% of total caloric requirement should be provided by CHO A. SIMPLE CHO  “SIMPLE SUGAR” 1. MONOSACCHARIDE  Simplest form CHO; sugars that cannot be further reduced by hydrolysis and can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the small intestines.  They are sweet, require no digestion, and can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the small intestine.  They include glucose, fructose, and galactose. a. GLUCOSE  “DEXTROSE”, “BLOOD SUGAR”, “PHYSIOLOGIC SUGAR”  It is the form of CHO to which all other form are converted for eventual metabolism.  It is the simple CHO that circulates in the blood and is the main source of ENERGY for CNS & BRAIN.  Sources: Fruits, honey, corn syrup, and other certain roots.  It is found naturally in corn syrup and some fruits and vegetables.  The central nervous system, the red blood cells, and the brain use only glucose as FUEL; therefore, a continuous source is needed. b. FRUCTOSE  “Fruit Sugar” , “Levulose”  It is the sweetest sugar.  The arrangement of the atoms stimulates the taste buds to produce sweet sensation.  Sources: honey, ripe fruits.  Widely used in pharmaceutical companies, & food processing. c. GALACTOSE  “Milk Sugar”  It is product of digestion of MILK and is part of disaccharide lactose.  It is converted into glucose by the liver. d. SUGAR ALCOHOL  “Sugar Replacer”  These are nutritive sweeteners that provide 2-3 Kcal/g.

4  Hydrogenated form of CHO.  Mannitol, Sorbitol, Sylitol  * They are less carcinogenic, it does not encourage the growth of bacteria in the mouth that leads to tooth decay. Mannitol (also referred to as mannite or manna sugar) is a white, crystalline solid that looks and tastes sweet like sucrose. It was originally isolated from the secretions of the flowering ash and called manna after its resemblance to the Biblical food. In plants it is used to induce osmotic stress. Mannitol has several industrial uses, but is mainly used to produce tablets of medicine. Sorbitol also known as glucitol, is a sugar alcohol with a sweet taste which the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, changing the aldehyde group to a hydroxyl group. Most sorbitol is made from corn syrup, but it is also found in apples, pears, peaches, and prunes. Xylitol  is a sugar alcohol used as a sweetener. s naturally found in low concentrations in the fibers of many fruits and vegetables, and can be extracted from various berries, oats, and mushrooms, as well as fibrous material such as corn husks and sugar cane d. SUGAR ALCOHOL  ADVANTAGE: They are less carcinogenic, It does not encourage the growth of bacteria in the mouth that leads to tooth decay.  They are absorbed slowly and incompletely than CHO due to longer absorption time leads to a slower rise in blood glucose levels.  Delays hunger  DISADVANTAGE: Large quantities(It may ferment in the GI due to its slow absorption rate)  Gas & DIARRHEA e. PENTOSE  “Ribose & Ribolose”  Found in Nucleic Acid of MEAT & SEAFOODS. NUCLEIC ACID  a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)  important component in our body. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  is a nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in converting genetic information from genes into the amino acid sequences of proteins. 2. DISACCHARIDES  Sugar composed of pairs of MONOSACCHARIDES.

5 Are pairs of the three sugars. They are sweet and must be changed to simple sugars by hydrolysis before they can be absorbed.  Disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose a. SUCROSE  “Cane Sugar”, “Table Sugar”  Is formed from pairing of units of glucose and fructose.  Least expensive and most common sugar in the diet.  SOURCE: Molasses (is a viscous byproduct of the refining of sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar.), Maple syrup, sorghum b. MALTOSE  “Malt Sugar”  It is produced whenever starch breaks down.  It also occurs during fermentation process that yields ROH.  Mostlty natural  Maltose is the disaccharide produced when amylase breaks down starch. It is found in germinating seeds such as barley as they break down their starch stores to use for food. It is also produced when glucose is caramelized c. LACTOSE  “Milk Sugar”  Formed when galactose and glucose are paired.  Enhances absorption of Ca+ & promotes growth of bacterial flora (Synthesis of Vit. K.)  

B. COMPLEX CHO 1. OLIGOSACCHARIDES  is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to nine) of simple sugars (monosaccharides). Oligosaccharides can have many functions; for example, they are commonly found on the plasma membrane of animal cells where they can play a role in cell-to-cell recognition. 2. POLYSACCHARIDES  are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages and on hydrolysis give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.  Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans.  are commonly called complex carbohydrates because they are compounds of many monosaccharides

6 (simple sugars). Three polysaccharides are important in nutrition: starch, glycogen, and fiber. a. STARCH  The most abundant and cheap form of CHO; plant cells stores glucose as starch.  It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in such staple foods as potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava.  is a polysaccharide found in grains and vegetables.  It is the storage form of glucose in plants.  Vegetables contain less starch than grains  Legumes (dried beans and peas) are another important source of starch COMPONENTS: AMYLOSE  is important in plant energy storage. It is less readily digested than amylopectin; however, because it is more linear than amylopectin, it takes up less space. As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage in plants. It makes up about 30% of the stored starch in plants, though the specific percentage varies by species. The digestive enzyme αamylase is responsible for the breakdown of the starch molecule into maltotriose and maltose, which can be used as sources of energy. AMYLOPECTIN  The outer portion of a starch granule consisting of insoluble, highly branched polysaccharides of high molecular weight. For energy storage and food reserve. b. FIBER  Are non-starch polysaccharide that are not digested by human digestive enzymes, although some are digested by GI tract.  The hard, woody, or stiff substance in plants that , coat, or protect plant cells, is composed of complex CHO compound  Also called “ROUGHAGE”  It has beneficial effect.  Recommended fiber: 25 grm/day adult women 35 grms/day men.  It includes cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums and mucilages  also called roughage, is indigestible because it cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes.  Some fiber is insoluble (it does not readily dissolve in water), and some is soluble (it partially dissolves in water) .Insoluble fibers include cellulose, some hemicellulose, and lignins.  Soluble fibers are gums, pectins, some hemicellulose, and FIBER CELLULOSE  the primary constituent of plant cell walls 

7 and therefore occurs in all vegetables, fruits and legumes. The bonds linking its glucose molecules together resist digestion by human enzymes. HEMICELLULOSE  are the main constituent of cereal fibers. The many backbones and side chains make the hemicellulose a diverse group, some are soluble, while others are insoluble. PECTINS  commonly found in vegetables and fruits, may be isolated abnd used by the food industry to thicken jelly, keep salad dressing from separating, and otherwise control texture and consistency. Pectins can perform these functions because they readily forms gel in water. GUMS & MUCILAGES  when cut, a plant secrete gums from the site of injury. Gums such as Arabic are used as additives by the food industry. Mucilages are similar to gums in structure; they include guar and carrageenan, which are added to foods as stabilizers. INSOLUBLE FIBER  Indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water  Resistant to absorption in the body/  It moves quickly through the digestive system, reducing pxs in the GIT.  It absorbs water making stool softer and bulkier.  FOUND primarily in WHOLE GRAINS, NUTS & SEEDS, vegetables * cooked dried beans & pees  WHOLE GRAINS: wheat bran, wheat, rice bran, unpolished rice SOLUBLE FIBER  Is associated with reducing blood cholesterol levels.  It will bind to certain substances & prevent their absorption either binding BILE ACIDS or COATING the intestines. c. GYCOGEN  It is the storage form of CHO in the body, chiefly in the liver and muscle.  is sometimes called animal starch.  In the healthy adult, approximately onehalf day’ssupply of energy is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.  The hormone GLUCAGON helps the liver convert glycogen to glucose as

8 needed for energy. FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION OF CHO

Starch digestion Salivary amylase (saliva)  oligosaccharides at pH 6.75 – 7.00 Pancreatic amylase (small intestine)  breaks down any that escaped salivary amylase  oligosaccharides Brush border enzymes (dextrinase, glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, sucrase)  oligosaccharides  monosaccharides ABDORPTION OF CHO Monosaccharide Glucose & galactose are absorbed though the intestinal mucosa & travel to the liver through the portal vein.  Small amounts of starch & fiber that haven't been digested are excreted in feces.  Soluble fiber slows the absorption of glucose, delaying the rise in serum glucose that occur after eating. METABOLISM OF CHO

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In the LIVER, FRUCTOSE & GALACTOSE are converted to glucose. The LIVER then releases glucose into the bloodstream, where its level is maintained by the action of hormone(INSULIN)

*Rise in serum blood glucose stimulates INSULIN, which moves glucose out of the blood cells & into the cells. *BODY Uses up the ENERGY  decrease Blood

9 glucose  stimulates PANCREAS to release  GLUCAGON, which cause the LIVER the RELEASE of GLUCOSE from its supply of GLYCOGEN - Rise in GLUCOSE to NORMAL 

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HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING CHO NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES  Foods that contains lots of added sugar such as cakes, candies and sodas deliver glucose and energy with few, if any, other nutrients.  Sugar can contribute to nutrient deficiencies only by displacing nutrients. DENTAL CARIES  Bacteria  ferments the sugars and in the process produce an acid that dissolves the tooth enamel. LACTOSE INTOLERENCE  Lactase  the enzymes that hydrolyzes lactose  CAUSES: o LACTASE DEFICIENCY  Develops when the intestinal villi are damage by disease certain medicine, prolonged diarrhea or malnutrition and in rare cases infant born with lactase deficiency. o LACTASE declines dramatically during childhood and adolescence. Only about 30% of the people in the world retain enough lactase to digest and absorb lactose efficiently throughout adult life. o MANAGEMENT:  Can consume foods containing 6 g of lactose 1/2 cup of milk) without experiencing signs and symptoms. Can tolerate fermented milk.  Give acidophilus milk  these are cultured milk created by adding Lactobacillus Acidophilus (It breaks down lactose to galactose & glucose).  Hard cheese / cottage cheese  most of the lactose is removed with whey during manufacturing and continues to diminish as the cheese ages  Use of enzyme tablets, enzyme drops  On strict lactose-free diet DM  Metabolic disorder of CHO metabolism characterized by altered glucose regulation and utilization from absent, insufficient or ineffective insulin.  TYPES: o TYPE 1  IDDM

10 o TYPE 2  NIDM 5. OBESITY  Develops when a person’s fat cells increases in number, in size or both.

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PROTEINS Are components of every living cell, are large, complex molecules composed of individual building blocks known as AMINO ACIDS. Denotes the unique functions of building and repairing cells and other specialized roles in metabolism that cannot be accomplished or performed by other nutrients. “Proeteios”  is of prime importance. It has CARBON, HYDROHEN, and OXYGEN & NITROGEN atom. It is required for normal growth and development. It is broken down by the body as a source of energy when the supply of CHO and Fats is inadequate. It is stored in muscles, bone, blood skin, cartilage, and lymph CLASSIFICATIONS

A. ACCORDING TO ESSENTIALITY 1. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS  Is one that cannot be synthesized by the body from materials readily available, at a speed to keep up with normal growth rate. ESSENTIAL AA o Phenylalanine o Histidine o Isoleucine o Leucine o Lysine o Threonine o Tryptophan o Valine o Methionine 2. SEMI-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS  Reduces the need for a particular essential amino acids or partially spares it. However it cannot completely replace the EAA. SEAA o Arginine o Tyrosine o Serine o Cysteine o Glycine 3. NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS  Also called “dispensable amino acids” because it is non-dietary essential and can be synthesized by the body given the nitrogen to form the amino group and fragments from CHO and fats to form the rest of the structure. NEAA o Alanine o Arginine o Asparagine o Asparic acid o Cysteine o Glycine o Glutamine

11 o Glutamic acid o Proline o Serine o Tyrosine 4. CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS  Sometimes a non-essential amino acid with becomes essential under special circumstances  Ex. Phenylalanine  can be made into Tyrosine  For patients with PKU, the non-essential amino acid tyrosine becomes conditionally essential B. ACCORDING TO THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THEIR SIDE CHAIN 1. BASIC AMINO ACIDS  Those with additional amino acid group.  Ex. Lysine, Arginine, Histidine 2. ACIDIC AMINO ACIDS  Those that contain additional carboxyl group.  Ex. Aspartic acid 3. NEUTRAL AMINO ACIDS  Those that contains additional acidic or basic group.  Ex. Threonine, Glycine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine C. ACCORDING TO HYDROLYTIC PRODUCTS AND SOURCES 1. GLUCOGENIC  They follow CHO pathways in metabolism. 2. KETOGENIC  They are converted to ketone bodies like acetate 3. ACIDIC, BASIC or NEUTRAL  Depends on pH reactions. D. ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE AND SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF AMINO ACIDS 1. FIBROUS PROTEIN  Long coiled or folded chains of AA bound together in parallel line.  Ex. Keratin – nails, hair Collagen – connective tissue Fibrin – for blood clotting Myosin – In muscles Elastin – For the elasticity of blood vessels 2. GLOBULAR PROTEIN  Its structure are coiled and lightly wounded and is relatively soluble in water.  Ex. Casein – milk, cheese Albumin – egg white and milk Globulin - RBC E. ACCORDING TO AMINO ACID CONTENT OF PROTEIN 1. COMPLETE PROTEIN  Contains all the essential amino acids in amounts sufficient for growth and maintenance of life. Animal protein are complete protein and have a high

12 biological value.  Ex. Casein, albumin 2. PARTIALLY COMPLETE PROTEIN  Are proteins that can maintain life but to do not growth.  Ex. Gliadin – in wheat  Legumin – in legumes 3. INCOMPLETE PROTEIN  Proteins that cannot life and growth. The last two groups found in plant protein have low biological value.  Ex. Zein – corn, gelatin, plant protein FUNCTIONS 1. Body building or structural role a. Lays down the matrix of the protein collagen, a basic substance that gives from to a structure b. Repairing c. Replacement 2. Source of energy and glucose  proteins provides 4kcal/gm 3. Regulator of body process a. enzymes  facilitates chemical reaction b. hormones  Insulin c. helps maintain fluid balance.

d. acid –base balance  maintains the acid base balance of blood and body fluids

e. as antibodies  Giant CHON molecules designed specifically to combat antigens IMPLICATION: Without sufficient protein, the body cannot maintain its army of antibobodies to resist infectios diseases.

An antibody (AB), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large Y-shape protein produced by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, called an antigen.Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a paratope (a

13 structure analogous to a lock) that is specific for one particular epitope (similarly analogous to a key) on an antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize its target directly (for example, by blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival). The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system. f. as transporter o Hemoglobin  carries oxygen from the lungs to cells o Lipoprotein  transport lipids around the body o Special transport protein FERITIN  captures ion that are digested and absorbed, will not release the iron unless the body needs it. TRANSFERRIN  carrier protein of iron which transport iron to different parts of the body. 4. Other roles a. for blood clotting FIBRIN  a stringy, insoluble mass of protein fibers that forms a clot from liquid blood. b. for vision OPSIN  a protein molecule; it is a light sensitive pigment in the cells of the retina which responds to light by changing its shape thus initializing the nerve impulses that convey the sense of sight to the brain. 1. Animal protein (meat, SOURCE fish, poultry and products derived from it. 2. Plants protein (Vegetables, legumesbeans, peas FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOODSTUFFS(CHON)

WAYS OF IMPROVING PROTEIN QUALITY IN FOODS:

14 A. FORTIFICATION  refers to the addition of amino acids that were either not originally presents or present in significant amounts. 2. ENRICHMENT  the addition of amino acids that were lost during processing so that food will meet a specified standard. 3. SUPPLEMENTATION  Refers to addition of protein rich foods to regular diet so as to increase dietary intake or total protein content and improve its standard. 4. COMPLEMENTATION  Two or more proteins whose amino acids complement each other in such a way that the essential amino acids missing from one are supplied by the other. RDA: Weight in kg = 0.8 RECOMMENDED g/kg body weight INTAKES 10 – 15 % of TER HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING PROTEIN 1. PROTEIN ENERGY MALINUTRITION (PEM)  A deficiency of CHON, calorie or both, including marasmus, kwashiorkor and instances in which they overlap. TYPES A. Kwashiorkor  protein malnutrition predominant B. Marasmus  deficiency in calorie intake C. Marasmic Kwashiorkor  marked protein deficiency and marked calorie insufficiency signs present, sometimes referred to as the most severe form of malnutrition A. KWASHIORKOR  Originally a Chnaian word meaning “ the evil spirit that infects the first child when the second child is born”  Reflects a sudden and recent deprivation of food.  EFFECTS: o Loss of weight and body fat o Edema o Prone to infection B. MARASMUS  Name from a Greek word meaning “ dying away”  Reflects severe deprivation of food over a long time (Chronic PEM), and is therefore caused by an inadequate energy and protein (and by inadequate essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals as well.  EFFECTS: o Muscles and hearts weakens

15 Impaired brain development and learning ability o Reduced synthesis of hormones which slows down metabolism and lowers body temperature. o Growth ceases MARASMUS Affects infants and children less than 2 years old Caused by severe deprivation impaired absorption of protein Develops slowly; chronic PEM With severe weight loss Severe muscle and fat wasting No edema detected No fatty liver Anxious, apathetic Hair is sparse, thin and dry, easily pulled out. Skin is dry and easily wringkles o

KWASHIORKOR Affects older o infants and young children o Caused by o inadequate protein intake or more commonly o infection o o Rapid onset; o acute PEM o With some weight o loss o o With some muscle wasting, o with retention of o some body fat o o With edema o With enlarge fatty liver o Irritable and sad o Hair is dry, brittle, easily pulled out, hair loses its color o Skin patchy & scaly, often with sores that fail to heal 2. PHENYLKETONURIA  A rare hereditary disease in newborn in which the enzyme that processes the amino acid phenylalanine hydroxylase, is detective or missing, leading to accumulation of phenylalanine in the blood.  Increase phenylalanine in the blood  Destroys the child’s CNS causing irreversible brain damage or mental retardation, tremors and seizure. 3. NITROGEN BALABCE  An index of the amount of protein utilized by the body.  Nitrogen intake should be equal to nitrogen output.  “Zero nitrogen balance”  The body degrades more CHON than it synthesize. (-) NITROGEN The body loses nitrogen BALANCE as it breaks down muscle and other body protein for energy.  Starvation, burn, injuries, infections, fever. o

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(+) NITROGEN BALANCE

 The body synthesize more than it degrades. The body retains protein in new cells as blood, bone, skin, muscle cells are added to the body.  Growing infants and children  Pregnant individuals  People recovering from CHON deprivation or illness

FLOWCHART OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FOODSTUFFS(CHON)

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 Proteins are crushed and moistened in the mouth, but the real action begins in the stomach.  The major event in the stomach is the partial breakdown (hydrolysis) of proteins. Hydrochloric acid uncoils (denatures) each protein’s tangled strands so that digestive enzymes can attack the peptide bonds. The hydrochloric acid also converts the inactive form of the enzyme pepsinogen to its active form, pepsin.* Pepsin cleaves proteins—large polypeptides—into smaller polypeptides and some amino acids.

 When polypeptides enter the small intestine, several pancreatic and intestinal proteases hydrolyze them further into short peptide chains, tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids.** Then peptidase enzymes on the membrane surfaces of the intestinal cells split most of the dipeptides and tripeptides into single amino acids. Only a few peptides escape digestion and enter the blood intact.

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Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from noncarbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, andglucogenic amino acids. of glucose from non-CHO sources such as amino acids.

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HEALTH EFFECTS AND OTHER HEALTH RELATED CONCERNS INVOLVING PROTEIN PEM  lack both protein and energy-rich foods.  Children who lack sufficient protein do not grow to their potential size.  Infants born to mothers eating insufficient protein during pregnancy can have permanently impaired mental capacities. MARASMUS  A condition resulting from severe malnutrition, afflicts very young children who lack both energy and protein foods as well as vitamins and minerals  Severe wasting caused by lack of protein and all nutrients or faulty absorption;  Appears EMACIATED but does not have EDEMA.  Hair is dull and dry, and the skin is thin and wrinkled KWASHIORKOR  Deficiency disease caused by extreme lack of protein.  Appears when there is a sudden or recent lack of protein-containing food (such as during a famine).  This disease causes fat to accumulate in the liver, and the lack of protein and hormones results in edema, painful skin lesions, and changes in the pigmentation of skin and hair.  The mortality rate for kwashiorkor patients is high.

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FATS AND OTHER LIPIDS “Lipos” A family of organic compounds that includes triglycerides (Fats and Oils), phospholipids and sterols.  It’s a greasy, waxy substance that in their pure state, are normally tasteless, colourless and odourless. They are lighter and insoluble in it, they are slightly soluble in alcohol and are readily dissolved in fat solvents like chloroform, ether and benzene.  It is composed of CARBON, HYDROGEN, & OXYGEN. Although the proportions of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen is lower.  Because fats have less oxygen, they provide more than double the amount of calories than the same amount of CHO.  Most concentrated form of energy  Contains 9 calories per gram fat  It is recommended 15-25% fat in the diet  The basic unit of fat is called “TRIGLYCERIDE”, which consist of molecule of glycerol attached to the 3 fatty acids FUNCTIONS & FOOD SOURCES *Fat-rich foods are generally more expensive than carbohydrate-rich foods. Like carbohydrates, fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but with a  

substantially lower proportion of oxygen. * Fats are present in both animal and plant foods. The animal foods that provide the richest sources of fats are meats, especially fatty meats such as 1) Important source of calories to provide a continuous supply if energy. 2) Protein sparing 3) Maintain the constant blood temperature 4) Cushions vital organs such as kidney against injury

22 5) Facilitates the absorption of fat soluble

vitamins (ADEK) 6) Provides satiety and delays onset on hunger. 7) Contributes flavor and palatability to the diet

VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE FATS IN FOOD visible fats • fats in foods that are purchased and used as fats, such as butter or margarine invisible fats • fats that are not immediately noticeable such as those in egg yolk, cheese, cream, and salad dressings

CLASSIFICATIONS: I. TRIGLYCERIDES  are composed of three (tri) fatty acids attached to a framework of glycerol  Its structural unit is 1 molecule of glycerol ed to 3 fatty acid chain.  Glycerol is derived from a water-soluble carbohydrate.  Fatty acids are organic compounds of carbon atoms to which hydrogen atoms are attached.  Most lipids in the body (95%) are triglycerides.

23 FATTY ACIDS THEY ARE CLASSIFIED: 1. Essential  are necessary fats hat humans cannot synthesize; EFAs must be obtained through diet. • Are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from linoleic, linolenic, and oleic acids. FAMILIES: a. omega-3 b. omega-6. 2. Nonessential  Some non-essential fatty acids are actually important for the body.  Saturated fats are considered to be non-essential fatty acids because they are not required by the body and instead may cause harm.

3 Forms Fatty Acids 1) SATURATED FATS  Shown to RAISE BLOOD CHOLESTEROL.  Considered the MOST “DANGEROUS” type of fat that lead to raise blood cholesterol may lead to coronary heart disease  Difficult to metabolize causing weight gain Sources: butter, lart, cheese, coconut oil, chocolate, cakes, cookies, meat, poultry, egg yolks, whole milk, whole milk cheeses, cream, ice cream, and butter.  It is recommended that one consume no more than 7% of total daily calories as saturated fats.  Foods containing a high proportion of saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature. 2) MONOUNSATURATED FATS 1) lower level of “bad” cholesterol. 2) It is recommended that one consume 15% of total daily calories as monounsaturated fats. 3) Thought to play little part in atherosclerosis. 4) Sources: Vegetable oil, peanut, soybean, corn, olive oil, canola oil 5) Oils that contain monounsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature but start to turn solid when chilled. 6) Oils rich in monounsaturated fats also contribute vitamin E to the diet, an antioxidant . 7) “Research indicates that monounsaturated fats lower the amount of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (“bad cholesterol”) in the blood, but only when they replace saturated fats in one’s diet” 3) POLYUNSATURATED FATS  LOWER LEVELS OF TOTAL CHOLESTEROL  IT SHOULD NOT EXCEED 8% OF TOTAL

24 DAILY CALORIES. Can help reduce bad cholesterol levels in your blood which can lower your risk of heart disease and stroke  Oils rich in polyunsaturated fats also provide essential fats that your body needs but can’t produce itself – such as omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. You must get essential fats through food. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are IMPORTANT FOR MANY FUNCTIONS IN THE BODY. CLASSES OF POYUNSATURATED FATS 1) Omega 3  have a positive effect on reducing mortality from cardiovascular disease.  Reduced blood clotting tendency and reduced blood pressure. 2) Omega 6  “Linoleic acid” polyunsaturated fatty acid.  lowers cholesterol levels in the blood and helps in the prevention of heart disease. SOURCES OF POLYUNSATURATED FATS : corn, sesame, soybean, sunflower oil, seeds, nuts, dark green vegetables.

TRANS-FATTY ACID  Produced by adding hydrogen atoms to a liquid fat, making it solid.  TFAs raise LDLs and total cholesterol. 10 Foods High Transfats: 1. Spreads – mayonnaise, margarine, butter 2. Package foods – cake mixes, biscuits 3. Soups – noodle soups 4. Fast foods – Mcdonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken 5. Frozen foods – frozen pies, pizza, breaded fish sticks, breaded chicken 6. Baked goods – cupcakes 7. Cookies & cakes 8. Donuts 9. Cream Filled cookies 10. Chips & Crackers II. PHOSPOLIPIDS  Is a group of compound fats that are similar to Triglycerides.

25  

They contain glycerol molecule but only two fatty acid chains. It is naturally occurring in almost foods, including eggs, peanuts and liver.

Roles of Phospholipids Lecithin are constituents of cell membranes. Because phospholipids are soluble in both water and fat, they can help fatsoluble substances, including vitamins and hormones, to easily in and out of cells. • Phospholipids also act as emulsifiers in the body, helping to keep fats suspended in the blood and body fluids III. CHOLESTEROL(STEROL)  is a common constituent (part) of one’s daily diet because it is found so abundantly in egg yolk, fatty meats, shellfish, butter, cream, cheese, whole milk, and organ meats (liver, kidneys, brains, sweetbreads).  Is thought to be a contributing factor in heart disease because high serum cholesterol, also called hypercholesterolemia, is common in clients with atherosclerosis.  A reduction in the amount of total fat, saturated fats, and cholesterol and an increase in the amounts of monounsaturated fats in the diet, weight loss, and exercise all help  The body manufactures 800 to 1,000 mg of cholesterol a day in the liver.  It is considered advisable that blood cholesterol levels not exceed 200 mg/dl (200 milligrams of cholesterol per 1 deciliter of blood).  It is also a precursor of the steroid hormones. • • •

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS

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(lingual lipase) that plays an active role

26 in fat digestion in infants, but a relatively minor role in adults.