Facilitating Learning 484t6x

Facilitating learning: A Meta-cognitive Process

“If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing that person for the past. If you teach a person how to learn, you are preparing that person for its future.”   - Cyril Houle  

Teaching – giving/transferring Learning – acquiring/accepting EDUCATIVE PROCESS Learner – given focus Teacher – prime mover Learning Environment – headway

Learner – embodied spirit Sentient body - rational soul Experiencing sensation - self-reflection - free will - intellectual abstractions

cognitive & affective faculties instinct feelings imagining emotions intellect free rational memory volition

Influences/different Factors to become Different to each other: - environment/home - biological aspect - Teacher - Personal attributes - Professional attributes Badge of Profession – sense of service (teacher) Effective – doing the right thing Efficiency – time, effort, motivation, method

7m’s should be Managed: MMMMMMM-

oney aterials oment anpower achine arket anner

P – lanning O– rganizing L – eading C– ontrolling S – taffing

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning process. They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to 1)cognitive and metacognitive, 2)motivational and affective, 3)developmental and social, and 4)individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.

Cognitive and Meta-cognitive Factors 1. Nature of the learning process . learning of complex subject matter 2. Goals of the learning process . can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. 3. Construction of knowledge . can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategic thinking  can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. 5. Thinking about thinking  beyond thinking/ deepening of knowledge 6. Context of learning  influenced by environmental factors

Motivational and Affective Factors 7. Motivational and emotional influences on Learning  What and how much is learned? 8. Intrinsic motivation to learn  learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity (w/in yourself) stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty 9. Effects of motivation and effort acquisition of complex knowledge and

Developmental and Social Factors 10. Developmental influences on learning different opportunities and constraints for learning physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains. * appropriateness of material * intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains * macro skills – interest and level of the student * prior or past experiences – from school, home, culture, and community factors. * early and continuing parental – language interactions and two-way * awareness and understanding of development differences among children – understand

11. Social influences on learning influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. Individual Differences Factors 12. Individual differences in learning  different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.

13. Learning and diversity  Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into . 14. Standards and assessment  Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process.

Alexander & Murphy summary of the 14 Principles: 1. The knowledge base 2. Strategic processing and control 3. Motivation and affective 4. Development and Individual differences 5. Situation or context

Review of the Developmental Theories

Freud 3 Components of Personality 5 Psychosexual Stages of development

Erikson 8 Psycho-social Stages of Development

Piaget 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Theories Related To The Learner’s Developme nt

Kohlberg 3 Stages and 6 Substances of Moral Development

Vygotsky • On Language • Zone of Proximal Development

Brofenbrenner Bio-Ecological System

Freud Psycho-Sexual Theory • Freud proposed that there were 5 stages of development. Freud believed that few people successfully completed all 5 of the stages. Instead, he felt that most people tied up their libido at one of the stages, which prevented them from using that energy at a later stage.

Stage

Erogenous Zone

Oral (birth to 18 months)

Mouth

Anal (18-32 months)

Anus

Phallic (3 – 6 years)

Genitals

Latency (6- puberty)

Genital (puberty +)

Genitals

Fixation Drinking , eating, smoking or nail biting Anal retentive and anal expulsive Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development “The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things ,not simply to repeating what other generaions have done – men who are creative, inventive and discovers”.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive development theory • Children "construct" their understanding of the world through their active involvement and interactions. • Studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew but how they knew it. • Described children's understanding as their "schemas” and how they use: – assimilation – accommodation.

• Schema: – The term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.

• Assimilation: – This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema.

• Accommodation: – This is the process of creating a new schema.

• Equilibration – Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation

– Disequilibrium • this means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibriumonce more.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages • Sensori-motor – Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor abilities to understand the world • Pre-operation – Ages 2-7: the child uses metal representations of objects and is able to use symbolic thought and language • Concrete operations – Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or principles when solving problems • Formal operations – Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a systematic fashion and with the ability to use abstractions

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages • Stage 1 : Sensory Motor Stage.(birth to infancy) – This is the stage when child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage

Crisis

Maladaptati on

Malignanc y

Virtue

Infancy

Trust vs. Mistrust

Sensory Distortion

Withdrawal

Hope

Early Adulthhood

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Impulsivity

Compulsion

Will Power

Pre-school

Initiative vs. Guilt

ruthlessness

Inhibition

Purpose

School Age

Industry vs. Inferiority

Narrow Virtuosity

Inertia

Competence

Adolescence

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Fanaticism

Repudiation

Fidelity

Young Adulthood

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Promiscuity

Exclusivity

Love

Middle Adulthood

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Over extention

Rejectivity

Care

Maturity

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Presumption

Disdain

Wisdom

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development • Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers • Proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional • Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards of society • Each level has two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral reasoning

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lev Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory

• Definition – Sociocultural theory results from the dynamic interaction between a person and the surrounding social and cultural forces. – 3 claims of Vygotsky – a) Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools – b) Functioning emerges out of social processes – c) Developmental methods (Zone of Proximal Development)

• Strategies to utilize the benefits of ZPD • a) Scaffolding –requires demonstration, while controlling the environment so that one can take things step by step. • b) Reciprocal teaching – open dialog between student and teacher which goes beyond simple question and answer session.

• Vygotsky theorized that human development is not something that is fixed and eternal. It will change as a result of  historical development.

 Cultural Influences – a) Imitative learning – b) Instructed learning – c) Collaborative learning

Principles – a) Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age. – b) Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

5 Main Points • a) Use of Zone of Proximal Development • b) Interaction with other people is important for cognitive growth • c) Culture can make daily living more efficient and effective. • d) Advanced mental methods start through social activities. • e) Increase of the independent use of language and thought during a child’s first few years of life.

Developmental Systems Theory The belief that development can't be explained by a single concept, but rather by a complex system

Urie Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory or bioecological theory • The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a child's development. • Both the environment and biology influence the child's development. • The environment affects the child and the child influences the

environment

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Model •

•

•

• •

The microsystem - activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc. The mesosystem - relationships among the entities involved in the child's microsystem: parents' interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the daycare provider The exosystem - social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community resources The macrosystem - broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources The chronosystem - changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like the birth of a sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.

Outline of 20th Century Theories • Psychoanalytical Theories – Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud – Psychosocial: Erik Erikson • Cognitive Theories – Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget – Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky • Systems Theories – Ecological Systems: Urie Bronfenbrenner

Students with Exceptionalities What is Special Education? Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability. Before 1975 and the age of the first federal special education law, four million children with disabilities did not receive the help they needed in school and another one million were completely excluded from school.

Discrimination and the Beginning of Change • Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,” some professionals began questioning whether separate classes provided students with disabilities with an appropriate education • After decades of research, what had become clear was that the special education was not just a means of assisting children with disabilities; it had also become a means of discriminating against students who might be perceived by educators as more challenging to reach

Prevalence of Students with Disabilities • Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities • Students with specific learning disabilities represent approximately half of all those receiving special education, followed by speech or language impairments, mental retardation, and emotional disabilities

Prevalence of Students with Disabilities • In the past decade, the number of students indentified in having disabilities has grown significantly • Some suggest that this increase is in part because of the desire on the part of educators and parents to give help to struggling students • What other factors do you think might contribute to this rise?

Providing an Unwavering Commitment • At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken such bold and noble measures to mandate the educational rights of all children, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities • Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the guarantee for a free and appropriate public education, the courts have repeatedly and consistently ruled that schools simply must provide the necessary resources to teach all children, regardless of the physical or mental handicaps they may manifest.

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped children act (1975) • First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children to free appropriate public education • It requires the school systems to include the parents when meeting about the child or making decisions about his/ her education • It mandated an individualized education program (IEP) which must include short and long term goals • It also requires that the child be placed in the least restrictive environment

Least Restrictive Environment • "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who has a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible. • They should have access to the general education curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other program that non-disabled peers would be able to access • The student should be provided with supplementary aids and services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a setting with non-disabled peers

Individualized Education Program (IEP) • If team decide that a student is eligible for special education, they then prepare an IEP • This document summarizes all of the information gathered concerning the student, sets the expectations of what the student will learn over the next year, and it prescribes the types and amount of special services the student will receive. • Must be received and updated annually

Required Components of an IEP • Must address how the student’s disability affects involvement and progress in the general education • Annual goals and short term objectives • Supplementary aids and services, assistive technology, participation with peers who do not have disabilities, accommodations for testing, dates of effectiveness of IEP

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments (1983) • Allows for federal funding to create parent training and information centers so that parents can learn how to protect the rights of their child • Also provided financial incentives for transition services from school to adult living for students with disabilities

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)(1990) • Renamed earlier laws and their amendments • More importantly, it replaced the word “handicapped” with the word “disabled”, therefore expanding services for these students • It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater inclusion in community schools

Accomplishments and Disappointments of Special Education Law • The age of federal special education law was revolutionary and it had many positive effects; many students who had been completely left out of the public school system were now guaranteed an education • However, the age of the law did not address all the issues of educating students with disabilities

Confidentiality • IDEA specifies that information regarding a student’s disability is highly confidential • That information may not be shared with anyone who is not directly working with the student • Once records are not longer needed, a procedure must be in place so that they are destroyed

Who Receives Special • Hearing Education? • Specific learning disabilities • Speech or language impairments • Mental retardation • Emotional disturbance • Deaf/ blindness (both) • Visual impairments

• • • • • •

impairments Orthopedic impairments Other health impairments Autism Traumatic brain injury Multiple disabilities Developmental delays

Educational Practices • Inclusive Practices…lots of debates! • Inclusion is a belief system shared by every member of a school as a learning community about the responsibility of educating all students so that they can reach their potential. • Inclusion encomes students who are gifted and talented, those who are at risk for failure because of their life circumstances, those with disabilities, and those who are average learners. • Accommodations…mark in book, separate setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced number of items per page, alternate test

Inclusion • In today’s schools, what is considered inclusive practice varies widely depending on state and local policies related to inclusion, the resources available, teacher and understanding and commitment, and parent and community • It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room every day for the entire class period or a few times a week for ½ a class period

Implications • Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are reporting all too often the hardships they face due to the lack of available resources • The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary funding of exceptional children so that no child has to use materials that are worn, out of date, or even worse, contain information that is no longer current • It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by providing them the resources that are required for a sound education

What EC teachers are Saying • Success must never be based on single test scores • No other issue has raised more concern with EC teachers than that of paperwork • HUGE SHORTAGE!!

What about Gifted and Talented Students? • IDEA does not provide for special education for these students • Only 30 states mandate education of students who are gifted and talented • Important to note that sometimes students with disabilities are also gifted and talented

What is Giftedness? • Gifted and talented students are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance • Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-related area, or unusual organizational power to bring about desired results • These children may require differentiated educational programs and services beyond those normally provided by the regular school program in order to realize their contribution to self and society

Prevalence • Estimates vary considerably due to disagreement over definition • On average, school districts serve 12% of students under the “gifted” label • Depending on the state, the prevalence may range from 2 to 22% of students being served

Characteristics • Students who are gifted usually display curiosity, a strong need to know and to understand how the world works • A student who is gifted may understand language and mathematics at an earlier age than is typical and become known to parents and teachers by these skills • They may bring high energy levels to school tasks, may display characteristics of perfectionism

Educational Practices • • • • • • • •

Ability Grouping Full time or part time separate classes Specialized schools Cluster Grouping Inclusive practices Acceleration Enrichment Differentiation

Individual Differences (Student Diversity) Individual Differences Factors

Benefits of Diversity in the Classroom Classroom Strategies for Student Diversity

Individual Differences Factors Socioeconomic Status Thinking/Learning Style Exceptionalities

Benefits of Diversity in the Classroom Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity Student diversity contributes to cognitive development

Benefits of Diversity in the Classroom

 Student diversity prepares learners for their role as

responsible of the society  Student diversity can promote harmony

Classroom Strategies for Student Diversity

 Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences  Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students' multicultural awareness.

and

cross-cultural

Classroom Strategies for Student Diversity  Aside from highlighting diversity, identify

patterns

of

unity

that

transcend group differences.  Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.

 Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.  Vary

the

illustrate

examples concepts

you in

use

to

order

to

provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.

 Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.  Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.

 Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural backgrounds, etc.

Learning/Thinking styles and multiple intelligences

LEARNING/THINKING STYLEs -refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. - they describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, ing or problem solving.

SENSORY PREFERENCES Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types : -Visual Learners - Auditory Learners - Tactile/ Kinesthetic Learners

Visual learners- tend to learn better when a variety of visual aids are used.

Visual- iconic -refers to those who are more interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, pictures. Visual- symbolic - refers to those who feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formula or the written word.

AUDITORY LEARNERS- recieve information best by listening.

Listeners - they things said to them and make the information their own. Talkers - they are the one who prefer to talk and discuss. ( auditory- verbal processors)

Tactile/ kinesthetic learnersthey tend to prefer learning by doing/ experiencing things.

Characteristics of tactile learners: - Is good at sports. - Can’t sit still for long. - Is not great at spelling. - Does not have great handwriting. - Like science lab. - Studies with loud music on. - Like adventure books, movies. - Likes role playing. - Takes breaks when studying. - Builds models. - Is involved in martial arts, dance - Is fidgety during lectures.

Global–analytic continuum analytic- they tend toward the linear, step- by- step processes of learning. (tree seers) Global- they lean towards non- linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. (forest seers)

Left- brain/ right- brain continuum left- brained PERSON- is portrayed as the linear. (analytic) right- brained person- is viewed as non- linear. (global)

Successive processor (left brain) - details leading to a conceptual understanding. SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR (RIGHT BRAIN) - general concept going on to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN( ANALYTIC) Successive Hemispheric Style 1. VERBAL 2. RESPONDS TO WORD MEANING 3. SEQUENTIAL 4. PROSESSES INFORMATION LINEARLY 5. RESPONDS TO LOGIC 6. PLANS AHEAD 7. RECALLS PEOPLE’S NAME 8. SPEAKS WITH FEW GESTURES 9. PUNCTUAL 10. PREFERS FORMAL STUDY DESIGN 11. PREFERS BRIGHT LIGHTS WHILE STUDYING.

right brain(global) Simultaneous Hemispheric Style 1. 2. 3. 4.

VISUAL RESPONDS TO TONE OF VOICE RANDOM PROCESSES INFORMATION IN VARIED ORDER 5. RESPONDS TO EMOTION 6. IMPULSIVE 7. RECALLS PEOPLE FACES 8. GESTURES WHEN SPEAKING 9. LESS PUNCTUAL 10. PREFERS SOUND/ MUSIC BACKGROUND WHILE STUDYING 11. PREFERS FREQUENT MOBILITY WHILE STUDYING

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES - is an educational theory, first developed by Howard Gardner, that describes an array of different kinds of intelligences exhibited by human beings. Howard Gardner - he believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities and all of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength and skill. - the theory was first laid out in Gardner’s 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and has been further refined in subsequent years.

intelligences - an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures. 9 DISTINCT FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE 1.VISUAL/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (pICTURE SMART) - learning visually and organizing ideas spatially. 2.VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART) - learning through the spoken and written word. 3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGICAL ( NUMBER SMART/ LOGIC SMART) - learning through reasoning and problem solving.

4. BODILY/ KINESTHETIc ( BODY SMART) - learning through interaction with one’s environment. 5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART) - learning through patterns, rhythms and music. 6. INTRAPERSONAl (SELF SMART) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. 7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART) - learning through interaction with others. 8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART) - learning through classification,categories and hierarchies. 9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART) - learning by seeing the “big picture”

Students with Exceptionalities What is Special Education? • Specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability • Before 1975 and the age of the first federal special education law, four million children with disabilities did not receive the help they needed in school and another one million were completely excluded from school

Discrimination and the Beginning of Change • Shortly after the 1954 Brown vs. Board of Education decision clarifying that “separate cannot be equal,” some professionals began questioning whether separate classes provided students with disabilities with an appropriate education • After decades of research, what had become clear was that the special education was not just a means of assisting children with disabilities; it had also become a means of discriminating against students who might be perceived by educators as more challenging to reach

Prevalence of Students with Disabilities • Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent of the school-age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25 students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities • Students with specific learning disabilities represent approximately half of all those receiving special education, followed by speech or language impairments, mental retardation, and emotional disabilities

Prevalence of Students with Disabilities • In the past decade, the number of students indentified in having disabilities has grown significantly • Some suggest that this increase is in part because of the desire on the part of educators and parents to give help to struggling students • What other factors do you think might contribute to this rise?

Providing an Unwavering Commitment • At no point in history have we, as a nation, taken such bold and noble measures to mandate the educational rights of all children, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities • Under the Individuals with Disabilities Act and the guarantee for a free and appropriate public education, the courts have repeatedly and consistently ruled that schools simply must provide the necessary resources to teach all children, regardless of the physical or mental

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 94-142 Education for all handicapped children act (1975) • First law to clearly define the rights of disabled children to free appropriate public education • It requires the school systems to include the parents when meeting about the child or making decisions about his/ her education • It mandated an individualized education program (IEP) which must include short and long term goals • It also requires that the child be placed in the least restrictive environment

Least Restrictive Environment • "Least restrictive environment" means that a student who has a disability should have the opportunity to be educated with non-disabled peers, to the greatest extent possible. • They should have access to the general education curriculum, extracurricular activities, or any other program that non-disabled peers would be able to access • The student should be provided with supplementary aids and services necessary to achieve educational goals if placed in a setting with non-disabled peers

Individualized Education Program (IEP) • If team decide that a student is eligible for special education, they then prepare an IEP • This document summarizes all of the information gathered concerning the student, sets the expectations of what the student will learn over the next year, and it prescribes the types and amount of special services the student will receive. • Must be received and updated annually

Required Components of an IEP • Must address how the student’s disability affects involvement and progress in the general education • Annual goals and short term objectives • Supplementary aids and services, assistive technology, participation with peers who do not have disabilities, accommodations for testing, dates of effectiveness of IEP

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 98-199 Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments (1983) • Allows for federal funding to create parent training and information centers so that parents can learn how to protect the rights of their child • Also provided financial incentives for transition services from school to adult living for students with disabilities

The Law and Exceptional Children • PL 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)(1990) • Renamed earlier laws and their amendments • More importantly, it replaced the word “handicapped” with the word “disabled”, therefore expanding services for these students • It strengthened the law’s commitment to greater inclusion in community schools

Accomplishments and Disappointments of Special Education Law • The age of federal special education law was revolutionary and it had many positive effects; many students who had been completely left out of the public school system were now guaranteed an education • However, the age of the law did not address all the issues of educating students with disabilities

Confidentiality • IDEA specifies that information regarding a student’s disability is highly confidential • That information may not be shared with anyone who is not directly working with the student • Once records are not longer needed, a procedure must be in place so that they are destroyed

Who Receives Special • Hearing Education? • Specific learning disabilities • Speech or language impairments • Mental retardation • Emotional disturbance • Deaf/ blindness (both) • Visual impairments

• • • • • •

impairments Orthopedic impairments Other health impairments Autism Traumatic brain injury Multiple disabilities Developmental delays

Educational Practices • Inclusive Practices…lots of debates! • Inclusion is a belief system shared by every member of a school as a learning community about the responsibility of educating all students so that they can reach their potential. • Inclusion encomes students who are gifted and talented, those who are at risk for failure because of their life circumstances, those with disabilities, and those who are average learners. • Accommodations…mark in book, separate setting, extended time, read alouds, reduced number of items per page, alternate test

Inclusion • In today’s schools, what is considered inclusive practice varies widely depending on state and local policies related to inclusion, the resources available, teacher and understanding and commitment, and parent and community • It may look like an EC teacher who is in your room every day for the entire class period or a few times a week for ½ a class period

Implications • Exceptional Children’s teachers in North Carolina are reporting all too often the hardships they face due to the lack of available resources • The state must do all within its means to secure the necessary funding of exceptional children so that no child has to use materials that are worn, out of date, or even worse, contain information that is no longer current • It is painfully obvious that state funds are insufficient to meet the needs of North Carolina’s exceptional children by providing them the resources that are required for a sound education

What EC teachers are Saying • Success must never be based on single test scores • No other issue has raised more concern with EC teachers than that of paperwork • HUGE SHORTAGE!!

What about Gifted and Talented Students? • IDEA does not provide for special education for these students • Only 30 states mandate education of students who are gifted and talented • Important to note that sometimes students with disabilities are also gifted and talented

What is Giftedness? • Gifted and talented students are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance • Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across intellectual areas, within a specific academic or arts-related area, or unusual organizational power to bring about desired results • These children may require differentiated educational programs and services beyond those normally provided by the regular school program in order to realize their contribution to self and society

Prevalence • Estimates vary considerably due to disagreement over definition • On average, school districts serve 12% of students under the “gifted” label • Depending on the state, the prevalence may range from 2 to 22% of students being served

Characteristics • Students who are gifted usually display curiosity, a strong need to know and to understand how the world works • A student who is gifted may understand language and mathematics at an earlier age than is typical and become known to parents and teachers by these skills • They may bring high energy levels to school tasks, may display characteristics of perfectionism

Educational Practices • • • • • • • •

Ability Grouping Full time or part time separate classes Specialized schools Cluster Grouping Inclusive practices Acceleration Enrichment Differentiation

MODULE 10

ALBINO, Anne Marie CANICULA, Marielle CORDOBA, Joel Mari DELA CRUZ, Mikko and SUAREZ, Rafael Lawrence together with

Theories of Learning

Sr. Angelina Julom, CSFN present

Edward Chace Tolman

Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959) • Born in Newton, Massachusetts • Received academic degrees in Electrochemistry and Psychology (M.A. 1912, Ph.D. 1915) • He was released from Northwestern University for “lack of teaching

• His theory of learning can be looked on as a blend of Gestalt theory and behaviorism • He saw little value in the introspective approach • He agreed on molar behavior rather than molecular behavior

Molar Behavior • Purposive • Tolman’s major work was entitled Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men • Related to the Gestalt theory • Tolman felt that whole behavior patterns had a meaning that would be lost if studied from an elementistic viewpoint • It is in contrast with the idea of molecular behavior

Purposive Behaviorism • Explains goal-directed behavior • behavior is PURPOSIVE, COGNITIVE & MOLAR

Example: the searching behavior of a rat in a maze will persist until food is found  • Goal or Purpose of Rat: To find the food • The purposive behavior is the fact that the rat still keeps up with the maze

Major Theoretical Concepts • According to Tolman, taking his lead from the Gestalt theorists, learning is essentially a process of discovering what leads to what in the environment. • Emphasizer – an organism’s drive state determines which aspect of the environment will be emphasized in its perceptual field.

• Principle of Least Effort – when an organism chooses the one that will require the shortest route/shortcuts or anything that will only require minimum amount of energy.

• Cognitive map – a picture of something that an organism usually is encountering when it do something. Example: when a person walks on the same street everyday, he will know that when he looks/turns to his left, he will see this and when he looks/turns to the right, he will see that.

Vicarious Trial and Error • Vicarious Trial and Error characteristic of rats wherein they consistently stop or pause at choice points. • Tests in this type of trial and error are cognitively Learning vs.tested Performance rather than behaviorally. • Latent Learning – learning that is not translated into performance

 Tolman and Honzik (1930) ran an experiment involving 3 groups of rats learning to solve a maze.  The first group was regularly reinforced. The second one had to wait until the 11th day. The third one was Tolman’s interest.  After the experiment, he concluded that the performance of those who were reinforced after the 11th day, compared to the one which was reinforced continually, was much better if not equally better.

• 3 things that Tolman observed: (1) There is a slight improvement in the performance of the group that was never really reinforced. (2) The reinforced group showed steady improvement throughout the duration. (3) When the reinforcement was introduced, performance vastly improved.

• The results from the experiment proved Tolman’s statement that reinforcements are performance variable not a learning variable. • Latent Extinction – occurs simply because the organism was presented in a situation where a reinforcer is no longer present. Such extinction does not depend on the performance of non-reinforced response.

Response Learning vs. Place Learning

• Response Learning – learning of specific responses that are effective in solving a problem and thereby providing reinforcement. • Place learning – learning where an object is located. For Tolman, once the location of an object is known, it can be reached by any number of alternate routes.

Reinforcement Expectancy

• Tolman predicted that if reinforcers were changed, behavior would be disrupted because in Reinforcement Expectancy, a particular reinforcer becomes a part of what is expected. • Cognitive dissonance – negative drive state and the person experiencing it seeks ways to reduce it, just as the person

Individual Difference Variables • As per suggested by Tolman, • • • •

H = heredity A = age T = previous training E = special endocrine, drug, or vitamin conditions

Intervening Variables • Created by the theorist to aid in explaining the relationship between the independent and dependent variables • In-between behavior and environmental and individual difference variables • Examples: Demand, Appetite, Differentiation, Motor Skill, Hypotheses, Biases

Behaviorist Perspective

Pavlov,Thorndike,Watson ,Skinner Behaviorism:

Behaviorism • focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. •It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement ( rewards and punishment ) •It does not give much attention to the mind , and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. •Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

•a Russian psychologist is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.

Ivan Pavlov

•Most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion.

Classical Conditioning

•Stimulus generalization- once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sound. •Extinction- if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell. •Spontaneous recoveryextinguished responses can be recovered after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

•Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not. •Higher-order conditioning- once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with the food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the

Edwar d Thornd ike

•He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such association or habits become strengthened or weakened by nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. •The main principle of connectionism was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal

Theory of connectionism - stated that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. Three primary law 1.Law of effect- S-R is strengthened when the consequence is positive and weakened when the consequence is negative. 2.Law of exercise- when S-R bond is practice the stronger it will become. 3.Law of readiness- the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

Principles derived from theory of connectionism: 1.Learning requires both practice and rewards (law of effect/exercise). 2.A series of S-R connection can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness). 3.Transfer of learning occurs because previously encountered situations. 4.Intelligence is a function of the

John Watson

• work with Pavlov's ideas •Considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. •Experiment on Albert and a white rat •His work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli.

•

Burrhus Frederi ck Skinner

operant conditioning

•Reinforcement +R-any stimulus given or added to increase the response. -R- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed.

Albert Bandura: Social / Observational Learning • Basic Premise • We learn behavior through observation • Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through observing consequences of behaviors of others • Modelling • Observe behavior of others and repeat the behavior • Bobo doll studies (1963) • Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through exposure to a model

Factors Influencing Modeling: Impact Tendency to Imitate • Characteristics of the models: similarity, age, sex, status, prestige, simple vs. complex behavior • Characteristics of observers: Low self-confidence, low self-esteem, reinforcement for imitation • Reward consequences of behavior: Directly witnessing associated rewards

The Observational Learning Process: 4 Steps • • • •

Attentional processes Retention processes Production processes Incentive and motivational processes

Step 1: Attentional Processes • Developing cognitive processes to pay attention to a model- more developed processes allow for better attention • Must observe the model accurately enough to imitate behavior

Step 2: Retention Processes • To later imitate behavior, must aspects of the behavior • Retain information in 2 ways: – Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex: Forming a mental picture – Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex: Silently rehearsing steps in behavior

Step 3: Production Processes • Taking imaginal and verbal representations and translating into overt behavior- practice behaviors • Receive on accuracy of behavior- how well have you imitated the modeled behavior? • Important in mastering difficult skills – Ex: Driving a car

Step 4: Incentive and Motivational Processes • With incentives, observation more quickly becomes action, pay more attention, retain more information • Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated reinforcements

Aspects of the Self: Selfreinforcement and Self-efficacy • Self-reinforcement: Rewards or punishments given to oneself for reaching, exceeding or falling short of personal expectations – Ex: Pride, shame, guilt

• Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with life – Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy – Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy

Self-Efficacy • High self-efficacy – Believe can deal effectively with life events – Confident in abilities – Expect to overcome obstacles effectively

• Low self-efficacy – Feel unable to exercise control over life – Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile

Sources of Information in Determining Self-efficacy • Performance attainment – Most influential – Role of – More we achieve, more we believe we can achieve – Leads to feelings of competency and control

Sources of Information in Determining Self-efficacy • Vicarious experience – Seeing others perform successfully – If they can, I can too

• Verbal persuasion – Verbal reminders of abilities

• Physiological and emotional arousal – Related to perceived ability to cope – Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy – Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-efficacy • Childhood – Infancy: Direct modeling immediately following observation, develop selfefficacy with control over environment – By age 2: Developed attentional, retention and production processes to model behavior some time after observation, not immediately

Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-efficacy • Adolescence – Involves coping with new demands – Success depends on level of self-efficacy established during childhood

Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-efficacy • Adulthood: 2 Periods – Young adulthood: • Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood • High self-efficacy to adjust successfully

– Middle adulthood: • Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life • Need to find opportunities to continue to enhance self-efficacy

Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-efficacy • Old age: – Decline in mental/physical function, retirement – Requires reappraisal of abilities – Belief in ability to perform a task is key throughout the lifespan

Application of Social Learning Theory: Behavior Modification • Fears and phobias – Guided participation: Observe and imitate – Covert modeling: Imaginal

• Anxiety – Fear of medical treatment – Test anxiety

Assessment of Bandura’s Theory: Self-efficacy • • • • • • •

Age and gender differences Physical appearance Academic performance Career choice and job performance Physical health Mental health Coping with stress

Assessment of Bandura’s Theory: Television and Aggressive Behaviors • Relationship between watching violence and imitating violence Assessment of Bandura’s Theory • Strengths: – Focus on observable behavior- research – Practical application to real-world problems – Large-scale changes

"In psychology ... we have wholes which, instead of being the sum of parts existing independently, give their parts specific functions or properties that can only be defined in relation to the whole in question." Wolfgang Köhler: Human Perception. (La perception humaine, 1930)

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY  The term “gestalt” means “form” or “configuration”.  Proponents are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Kofka  They studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) were not ive, but rather active.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES

 Law of Proximity  Law of Similarity  Law of Closure  Law of Good Continuation  Law of Good Pragnanz  Law of Figure / Ground

 Law of Proximity  Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object.

 Law of Similarity  Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.

 Law of Closure  We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive.

 Law of Good Continuation  Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction.

 Law of Good Pragnanz  The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible.

 Law of Figure / Ground  We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

“An individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning.” Kurt Lewin

Inner Forces  Motivation  Attitudes  Feelings

Outer forces  Attitude  Behavior

MODULE 13 INFORMATION PROCESSING

BRUNER'S CONSTRUCTI VIST THEORY

Jerome Bruner Born in New York City, October 1, 1915. He received his A.B. degree from Duke University in 1937 and his Ph.D in 1947 from Harvard.

He

was

Department

on of

the

faculty

Psychology

at

in

the

Harvard

University from 1952-1972. Next, he was at Oxford from 1972-1980. Later, he ed the New York University of Law.

Jerome Bruner

In 1960, he published

The

Process

of

Education; a landmark book which led to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs in 1960’s. Howard

Gardner

and

other

young

researchers worked under Bruner and were muchinfluenced by his work. In the early 70’s, he left Harvard to teach in University of Oxford for several years. He returned to Harvard in 1979.

BRUNER'S MAIN CONCEPTS Three ways to represent knowledge Spiral Curriculum Principles of instruction by Bruner Discovering Learning Four major aspects that should address in theory of instruction Four things about object Several Kinds of Categories

Three Ways to Represent Knowledge 1. Enactive Representation At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions.

2. Iconic Representation This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using models and pictures.

3. Symbolic In this Representation third stage, the learner has

developed the ability to think in abstract .

Spiral Curriculum Teachers must revisit the curriculum by

teaching

the

same

content

in

different ways depending on students’ developmental levels.

Principles of instruction by Bruner

Readiness Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn.

Spiral Organization Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student.

Going Beyond the Information Given Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps.

Discovering Learning Refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself.

Four major aspects that should address in theory of instruction

Predisposition to Learn He

introduced

the

“readiness for learning.”

ideas

of

Structure of Knowledge The

ways

in

which

a

body

of

knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.

Effective Sequencing No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.

Reinforcement Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.

Four things about object

Criterial Attributes Required

characteristics

for

inclusion of an object in a category.

How the criterial attributes are combined The second rule prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.

Weight to various properties The third rule assigns weight to various properties.

Sets acceptance limits on the attributes The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.

Several Kinds of Categories

Identity Categories Categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

Equivalent Categories Equivalence can be determined by affective objects

criteria, equivalent

which by

render emotional

reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions.

Coding Systems Categories that serve to recognize sensory input.

I S ' T R C E U N R U T R S B N O Y T C S R I O V E

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret world mostly in

of similarities in

differences.

This

is

contribution

to

how

a

valuable individuals

construct their own models or view of the world.

David Ausubel : Meaningful Verbal Learning & Subsumption Theory David P. Ausubel was born in 1918 Grew up in Brooklyn, NY Attended the University of Pennsylvania, taking the pre-medical course and majoring in Psychology

In 1973 he retired from academic life to devote full time to his psychiatric practice His principal interests in psychiatry have been general psychopathology, ego development, drug addiction, and forensic psychiatry In 1976 he received the Thorndike Award from the American Psychological Association for "Distinguished Psychological Contributions to Education".

Introduction

-ed the theory that pupils form & organise knowledge by themselves -Emphasized the importance of verbal learning / language-related learning which he consider to be very effective for pupils of the age 11 or 12 & above

-Pupils gradually learn to associate new knowledge with existing concepts in their mental structures -To ensure meaningful teaching, necessary to avoid rote memorising of facts. Pupils need to manipulate ideas actively

Advance Organizer

-Presents an overview of the information to be covered in detail during the exposition that follows -Can be classified : exposition or comparison type

Advance Organizer of the Exposition Type -While presenting new material -Use beginning of lesson -Presents several encoming generalisations where detailed contents will be added later

Advance Organizer of the Comparison Type -Useful when the knowledge to be presented is new to pupils -Compares new material with knowledge already known by emphasising the similarities between 2 types of material & showing the information that is to be learnt -Ausubel’s teaching approach is deductive in nature

SPECIFIC

Step 4:The pupils study specific examples Step 3:The teacher presents examples Step 2:The teacher explains important Step 1:The teacher presents general statement or abstraction of lesson ADVANCE ORGANIZER GENERAL Deductive Teaching Model: Advance Organizer as the basis of the lesson

A concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a learning activities

Learning is based on the representational, superordinate and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information.

Meaningful Meaningful Reception Reception LearningTheory Theory Learning

Meaningful learning results when new information is acquired by linking the new information in the learner's own cognitive structure

A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a nonverbatim basis (previous knowledge)

Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning

The processes of meaningful learning Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning can occur : Derivative subsumption Correlative subsumption Superordinate learning Combinatorial learning

Derivative subsumption •

Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a concept that pupils have already learned Example (Stage 1) : PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE : Let's suppose Ali have acquired a basic concept such as "tree” – have green leave, branch, fruits Ali learn about a kind of tree that he have never seen before “persimmon tree” conforms to his previous understanding of “tree’’ His new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to the concept of tree, without substantially altering that concept in any way

Correlative subsumption more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept Example (Stage 2) : • Now, let's suppose Ali encounter a new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than green • Accommodate this new information Ali have to alter or extend your concept of “tree’’ to include the possibility of red leaves

Superordinate learning Example (Stage 3) : • Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees etc., but pupils still did not know, until they were taught that these were all examples of deciduous trees In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept itself until it was taught to pupils.

Combinatorial learning Example (Stage 3) : •Ali learn about modification on the plants part, Ali might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of how papyrus tree used to produce paper •

It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is comes from his previous knowledge (in a different, but related, "branch")

•

Students could think of this as learning by analogy

Principles Principles of of Ausubel's Ausubel's Meaningful Meaningful Reception Reception Learning Learning Theory Theory within withinaa classroom classroom setting setting •

General ideas of a subject (general statement): – Must be presented first – then progressively differentiated in of detail and specificity.

•

Instructional materials : – should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information – Using comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Principles Principles of of Ausubel's Ausubel's Meaningful Meaningful Reception Reception Learning Learning Theory Theory within within aa classroom classroom setting setting •

Advance organizers : – Instructors should incorporate advance organizers when teaching a new concept

•

Examples : – Instructors should use a number of examples and focus on both similarities and differences.

The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows..

Gagné’s Conditions of Learning What is learning?

• Gagné believed that an external observer could recognize learning by noting behavioral changes that remains persistent over time (Gagné, 1974) • He also stated that maturation is not learning because the individual does not receive stimulation from the outside environment (Gagné, 1974). • Learning has two parts, one that is external to

Gagnè’s Conditions of Learning

Conditions of Learning • Learning is an important causal factor in development • Human learning is cumulative Learning of certain skills contributes to the learning of more complex skills

• Human learning is both complex and diverse • Learning is set of cognitive processes that transforms the stimulation from the environment into capabilities

Gagne’s Principle

Five Varieties of Learning

The five varieties of Learning

The five varieties of Learning

The five varieties of Learning

Nine Instructional Events 1. Gaining attention (reception) 2. Informing learners of the objectives (expectancy) 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 6. Eliciting performance (responding) 7. Providing (reinforcement) 8. Assessing performance (retrieval) 9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

CONSTRUCTIVISM: KNOWLEDGE CONTRUCTION/ CONCEPT LEARNING Constructivism - is a theory of learning based on the idea that learner’s construct knowledge for themselves.

TWO VIEWS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM INDIVIDUAL CONSTRUCTIVISM (COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM) - it emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM - it emphasizes that knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared with others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM 1. Learners construct understanding. 2. New learning depends on current understanding. 3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.

ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE People store knowledge in many different ways.

CONCEPTS - is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind.

Concepts as feature lists - involves learning specific features that characterize positive instance of the concept. DEFINING FEATURE- characteristics present in all instances. CORRELATIONAL FEATURE- is one that is present in many positive instances but not essential for concept hip.

Concepts as prototypes prototype- is an idea or a visual image of a “typical example”.

Concepts as exemplars exemplars- represent a variety of examples.

SCHEMA - is an organized body of knowledge about something.

SCRIPT - is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity .

What is transfer of learning? • “Transfer of learning is about how teachers want their students to apply the knowledge and the skills they learn in class to other situation.”

Transfer of learning is about…. • When one recognizes a situation as something similar in a way to what he has learned before, his tendency is to use the knowledge and skills he has learned to this situation

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

TYPES OF LEARNING

CONDITIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

• Happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials affects performance in another context or with other related materials. • It is applying to another situation what was previously learned.

• The circumstance of learning differs significantly from situations when what is learned is to be applied. • The educational goals are not met until transfer occurs. that's why transfer of learning is a very important aspect of instruction..

• Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context improves performance in some other context. • Negative transfer Refers to transfer between very similar contexts. Also referred to as specific transfer. • Far transfer • Refers to transfer between context that on appearance seem remote and alien to one another. Also called as general transfer

These principles are based on the factors that affect transfer of learning. Conditions/ factors affecting transfer of learning

Principle of transfer

Implication

The more similar the two situations are, the greater the chances that learning from one situation will be transferred to other situation

Involve students in learning situations and tasks that are similar as possible to the situations where they would apply the task

Degree of meaningfulness/ relevance of learning

Meaningful learning leads to greater transfer than rote learning

to provide opportunities for learners to link new material to what they learned in the past

Length of instructional time

The longer the time spent in instruction, the greater the probability of transfer

To ensure transfer, teach a few topics in depth rather than many topics tackled in a shallow manner

Similarity between two learning situations

Conditions/ factors affecting transfer of learning

Principle of transfer

Implication

Variety of learning experiences

Exposure to many examples and opportunities for practice to encourage transfer

Illustrate new concepts and principles with a variety of examples. Plan activities that allow your learners to practice their newly learned skills

Context for learner’s experiences

Transfer of learning is most likely to happen when learners discover that what they learned is applicable to various contexts

Relate topic in one subject in one subject to topics in other subjects or disciplines. Relate it also to real life situation

Focus on principles rather than task

Principles transfer easier that facts.

Zero in on principles related to each topic together with strategies based on those principle s.

Emphasis on metacognition

Student reflection improves transfer of

Encourage students to take responsibility for

MODULE 19 Facilitating Learning and Bloom’s Taxonomy’s of Objectives

Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Knowledge • ing •Memorizing •Recognizing •Recalling identification and •Recall of information

Comprehension • Interpreting • Translating from one medium to another • Describing in ones own words • Organization and selection of facts and ideas

Application • Problem solving • Applying information to produce some result • Use of facts, rules and principles

Analysis • Subdividing something to show how it is put together • Finding the underlying structure of a communication • Identifying motives • Separation of a whole into component parts

Synthesis • Creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be a physical object • Combination of ideas to form a new whole

Evaluation • Making value decisions about issues • Resolving controversies or differences of opinion • Development of opinions, judgements or decisions

Effective Questioning Techniques • Pose the question first, before asking a student to respond. • Allow plenty of “think time” by waiting at least 7-10 seconds before expecting students to respond.

• Make sure you give all students the opportunity to respond rather than relying on volunteers. • Hold students able by expecting, requiring, and facilitating their participation and contributions. • Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by guiding students in the process of learning from their mistakes

Torrance’s Creativity Framework

• “father of Creativity” • “professor of emeritus” of educational psychology • The “Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking”

FLUENCY • Many responses within a category For example…

… …typing

styles

…typing

styles

… …typing

… …typing

styles

styles … …typing

styles

FLEXIBILITY • Stretching or shifting the mind to generate a variety of categories For example…

…typing cases …typing styles …typing …typing sizes sizes

ELABORATE • Adding details for interest or clarity For example…

What specific idea will make the idea easier to understand or more interesting interesting

ORIGINALITY • Unique ideas that are relevant, but not obvious For example… Beginning of “the greatest” tea = ? Design a new ______ that is better than the one you have

Creative Problem Solving Osborn’s Checklist the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative problem solving (S).

• A basic rule of Brainstorming is build onto ideas already suggested. Alex Osborn, the originator of classical brainstorming, first communicated this. A checklist was formulated as a means of transforming an existing idea into a new one. The checklist is designed to have a flexible, trial and error type of approach.

The Checklist: • Adapt? Is there anything else like this? What does this tell you? Is the past comparable? • Modify? Give it a new angle? Alter the colour, sound, odour, meaning, motion, and shape? • Magnify? Can anything be added, time, frequency, height, length, strength? Can it be duplicated, multiplied or exaggerated? • Minify? Can anything be taken away? Made smaller? Lowered? Shortened? Lightened? Omitted? Broken up?

• Substitute? Different ingredients used? Other material? Other processes? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice? Someone else? • Rearrange? Swap components? Alter the pattern, sequence or layout? Change the pace or schedule? Transpose cause and effect? • Reverse? Opposites? Backwards? Reverse roles? Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek? Transpose ‘+/-‘? • Combine? Combine units, purposes, appeals or ideas? A blend, alloy, or an ensemble?

Classical Brainstorming • Avoid criticising ideas / suspend judgement. All ideas are as valid as each other • Listen to other ideas, and try to piggy back on them to other ideas. • Free-wheeling. Don't censor any ideas, keep the meeting flow going. • Avoid any discussion of ideas or questions, as these stop the flow of ideas. • Generate ideas - either in an unstructured way (anyone can say an idea at any time) or structure (going round the table, allowing people to if they have no new ideas). • Clarify and conclude the session. Ideas that are identical can be combined, all others should be kept. It is useful to get a consensus of which ideas

The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is a very brief skeleton of a very rich process, showing it in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form

• Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns, challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled. – Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If…’ (WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) – BRAINSTORMING to identify desirable outcomes, and obstacles to be overcome. – Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots ( Highlighting ), expressed as a list of IWWMs (‘In What Ways Might…’), and selection in of ownership criteria (e.g. problem-owner’s motivation and ability to influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).

• Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem. – Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where and How) and listing of wants, sources and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a series of question; for each, list possible sources of answers; then follow these up and for each source, list what you found. – Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots (Highlighting); Mindmapping to sort and classify the information gathered; and also restating the problem in the light of your richer understanding of it.

• Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad statement more suitable for idea finding. – Divergent techniques include asking ‘Why?’ etc. – the repeatable questions and  Five W's and H. – Convergent techniques include Highlighting again, reformulation of problem-statements to meet the criteria that they contain only one problem and no criteria, and selection of the most promising statement (but NB that the mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the participants can be as important as the actual statement chosen).

• Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible – Divergence using any of a very wide range of idea-generating techniques. The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such as deferring judgement) are likely to under-pin all of these. – Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of different ideas, and the short-listing of the most promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.

• Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria (using an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include combining) the shortlisted ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).

• Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just selected be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun negativity, and continue to apply deferred judgement – problems are exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are better developed in small groups of 2 – 3 rather than in a large group (unless you particularly want commitment by the whole group). Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth developing several alternative action plans.

m e l b o r P r o f l e Other mod S o lvin g • Branford’s IDEAL model – Identify the Problem – Define the problem – Explore solutions – Act on the strategies – Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity

“Meaning and Types of Motivation”

Motivation – is an inner drive that causes you to: • do something • persevere at something • energizes you to do something • initiate • direct • become intense • persistence of behavior

“Indicator’s of a High Level of Motivation” She/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize. She/he is convinced that accomplishing the things she/he asked is to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals she/he has set for herself/himself and their dream in life.

Indicator’s of a High Level of Motivation” She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals. An example is she/he is willing to give up ing her/his barkada to watch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly for final examinations. She/he persists and perseveres in her/his studies even when things turn out to be difficult. She/he does not give up easily.

In contrast, an unmotivated student: • • • •

does not enjoy learning does not study unless pushed easily gives up lacks of perseverance

“Types of Motivation” • Intrinsic Motivation – the source of motivation is from within the person herself/himself or the activity itself. • Example: A student reads pocketbooks because it is enjoyable.

• Extrinsic Motivation – the source of motivation is something outside herself/himself or the rewards and incentives. • Example: A student studies because she/he was told by her/his teacher or because she/he is afraid to fail and her/his parents makes her/him stop schooling.

“Type of Motivation which is More Beneficial” It is obviously that intrinsic motivation is more beneficial because it comes from within the person and it is not after the incentives or rewards. It is shown in the enjoyment of the activity itself and the inner conviction of the learner that such things are the right

“The Role of Extrinsic Motivation”

• Extrinsic Motivation factors include: • Rewards • Incentives • Praises or words of encouragements • Approval of significant others like teachers, parents, peer group

Opposites:

• • • • •

Punishment Withdrawal Privileges Censure Ostracism

We may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get intrinsically motivated themselves. It plays a significant role in the development of motivated students.

“Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation”

Factors Affecting Motivation – these are the elements that contributes to a particular result that affects motivation.

Attribution Theory - explains that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors. For instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling academic performance. Or you attribute the poor economic condition you are in to the Land Reform of the Phil. Gov’t. (your lands were subjected to land reform) or to the vices of your father. These attributions differ from one another in three ways – locus, stability, and controllability (Ormsrod, 2004).

Locus (“place”): Internal vs. external. If your student traces his good grade to his ability and to his work, he attributes his good grade to internal factors. If your student, however, claims that his good grade is due to the effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities, he attributes his good grades to factors external to himself.

Stability Stable vs. unstable. If you attribute your poor eyesight to what you have inherited from your parents, then you are attributing the cause of your sickness to something stable, something that cannot change because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by an unstable factor, something that can change. (You can prolong or shorten your period of watching tv).

Controllability: Controllable vs. uncontrollable.

If your student claims his poor academic performance is due to his teacher’s ineffective teaching strategy, he attributes his poor performance to a factor beyond his control. If, however, your student its that his poor class performance is due to his poor study habits and low motivation, he attributes the event to factors which are very much within his control.

Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

Attribution Theory • Explains that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors.

3 Ways of Attribution from One Another 1) Locus “place”: Internal vs. external 2) Stability: Stable vs. unstable 3) Controllability: Controllable vs. uncontrollable How does attribution affect motivation?

Self-efficacy Theory • Is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role expectations,or meet a challenging situation successfully.

Self-efficacy enhancing strategies: • Make sure students master the basic skills • Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks • Communicate confidence in students’ abilities through both words and actions • Expose them to successful peers

Self-determination and regulation theories • Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they believe they can determine their learning goals and regulate their learning.

How to enhance students’ sense of selfdetermination about school activities?

Self Regulation

Choice Theory • It is a biological theory that suggests we are born with specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy.

Four Basic Psychological Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Goal Theory

Learning Goal vs. Performance Goal LEARNING GOAL • A “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills.” PERFORMANCE GOAL • A “desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others or else look bad and receive unfavorable judgments.

Self-determined Goals • When the lesson objectives are relevant to the life of students, then students turn out to be more motivated to learn.

Goal Setting Major Elements: 1. Goal acceptance 2. Specificity 3. Challenge 4. Performance monitoring 5. Performance

Lesson Objectives must be:

S M A R T

- smart - measurable - attainable - result-oriented - time-bound

• Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they are motivated towards deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-learning performance to get good grades.

Students’ diversity in motivation

What are the factors that influences students motivation?

Students who, by themselves are already as diverse, also differ in motivation. These diversity in motivation may be traced to differences in age, developmental stage, gender, socioeconomic and cultural background.

How these factors influences student’s motivation?

Our class is a conglomerate of students with varying ages, and gender and cultural and socioeconomic background. Their motivational drives reflect the element of the culture in which they grow up – family, their friends, school, books and even church. To motivate all of them for learning, it is best to employ differentiated approaches.

As the adage goes . . . “Different folks, different strokes” meaning . . . What is medicine for one may be poison to others.

There are two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation. 1.Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to their situation. 2.Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves performing the task successfully.(Ormrod, 2004)

1. Students need models who are similar to themselves in of race, cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender, and ( if applicable) disability. (Ormrod,2004.) 2. It must be good to expose our students to models of their age and to models who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds.

Do we have to limit ourselves to live models? Not necessarily. We can make our students read biographies and autobiographies of successful individuals who were in situations similar to them.

MODULE 24 Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation

The Classroom climate Points to Ponder . . . 1.What is a classroom climate that facilitates learning? 2. What takes place in a classroom where a business-

What is a classroom? It is a physical space where learning is facilitated. It is a place where classes meet.

What is climate? It is the prevailing influence or environmental conditions characterizing a group or period. It is synonymous to atmosphere.

What is a classroom climate? The classroom climate is more a product of the interaction between and among teacher and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom. The physical condition of the classroom may exert an influence on the social interaction among the personalities in class but it may not contribute as much as the classroom social interaction does.

Going back to question number 1:

What then is the classroom climate that is conducive for learning? - is one that is non-threatening yet business-like.

In answering question number 2: What takes place in a classroom where a businesslike and a non-threatening atmosphere prevail?

It is a classroom where: • rules and procedure are discussed on the first day of class; • students are involved in the design of rules and procedures; • techniques to acknowledge and reinforce acceptable behavior and provide negative consequences are employed;

• clear limits for unacceptable behavior are established; • there is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation; • the teacher is aware of the needs of different types of students; • the teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class; and • students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced.

To summarize . . . 1. The classroom climate is a by-product of the social interaction between and among teacher and students. 2. The conducive classroom climate is one that is business-like yet nonthreatening. 3. It is a kind of classroom where: a. expectations, rules and procedures, limits on behavior are made from the very first day of school;

b. the teacher, who is the leader, is fully aware of what is happening and is in control of the classroom and proceedings and yet conveys the message that he/she is interested in the concerns of the students as an individual and the class as a whole; c. students are responsible for their own behavior.

The Physical Learning Environment A conducive physical learning environment is one that:

 Allows maximum interaction between teacher and student and among students.  Allows student movement without unnecessary distraction.  Allows teacher to survey the whole class.  It is safe, clean, orderly

 It is well-ventilated, spacious, and adequately lighted  It makes possible rearrangement of chairs as the need arises.

Assessment for Learning ASSESSMENT is basically the process of gathering information about the students’ learning; then analyzing and interpreting them for the purpose of making decision. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT Diagnosis Placement Effectiveness of the Program Student Research

Researched-Based Principle of Assessment for Learning Assessment for learning: Assessment for learning should be part of effective planning and learning Focuses on how students learn. Assessment for learning should focus on how student learn. Is central to classroom practice. Assessment of learning should be considered central to classroom practice.

Is a key professional skill. Assessment of learning should be considered as a key professional skill for teachers. Is sensitive and constructive. Assessment of learning must be sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional impact.

FOSTER MOTIVATION.

Assessment of learning should consider the importance of learner motivation. Promotes understanding of goals and criteria. Assessment of learning should promote commitment to learning goals and a shared understanding of the criteria by which they are assessed.

Helps learners to know to improve. Assessment of learning should include constructive guidance on how learners can improve. Develops the capacity for self-assessment. Assessment of learning develops learners’ skills on self-assessment. Recognizes all educational achievement. Assessment of learning should recognize the full range of achievement of all learners.

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PREAMBLE Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possess dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence. In the practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standard, and values.  

Assessment Assessmentfor forlearning learningisismore morein in line with Authentic Assessment. line with Authentic Assessment. Sometimes Sometimesreferred referredto toas as alternative alternativeassessment, assessment, authentic authenticassessment assessmentseeks seeksto to directly directlyassess assessstudent studentperformance performance through real-life tasks or products. through real-life tasks or products. Example: Example:tasks tasksand andrubrics, rubrics,and and portfolios portfolios

 

ARTICLE 1 Scope and Limitations Section 2: This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary, and secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special, technical or nonformal. The term “teacher” shall include industrial art or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and / or istrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full-time or part-time basis.

Diagnosis – used to determine any special learning need that a learner may have Placement – the learner can be placed in the best learning environment where he can better learn ands develop. Effectiveness of the Program – can also provide data about how a particular curriculum or program is effective in meeting its goals Student – used to communicate to the learner his current level of performance, specifically his strong and weak points. Research – can also be used as a source of very useful data in a wide range topics in the field of educational

Researched-Based Principles of Assessment for Learning The group proposed 10 principles. According to them, assessment for learning:

1. Is part of effective planning. There

should be an opportunity for both the learner and the teacher to use the assessment of progress in looking at the learning goals.

2. Focuses on how students learn. The teacher should understand the nature of learning.

3. Is central to classroom practice.

Teachers would come to realize that a lot of what they do inside the classroom can be seen as a form of assessment.

4. Is a key professional skill. It is vital that

teachers acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and values about the entire assessment process.

5. Is sensitive and constructive. As future

teacher, bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate them to students can affect their self-confidence.

6. Fosters motivation. Assessment should

focus on progress and achievement rather than failure.

7. Promotes understanding of goals and criteria. Assessment of learning should promote commitment to learning goals understanding of the criteria by assessed.

and a shared which they are

8. Helps learners know how to improve. Assessment of learning should include constructive guidance on how learners can improve.

9. Develops the capacity for selfassessment. Assessment should allow learners

to apply metacognitive skills. In this way, assessment empowers the student to take a more active role in his own learning process.

10. Recognizes all educational achievement. Assessment should be able to

integrate the totality of the learner’s achievement.

DIVINE HEIDI G. CABIGUIN BSE – E/ 3 – IRREG.

PROF. ANABELLA C. GOMEZ EDUC 38 FACILITATOR

JANUARY 15, 2013