Lactase Enzyme Lab 5o6416

Design​ ​an​ ​Experiment:​ ​The​ ​Effects​ ​of​ ​Temperature​ ​on​ ​Lactase Activity Introduction Enzymes​ ​are​ ​a​ ​class​ ​of​ ​protein​ ​molecules​ ​that​ ​act​ ​as​ ​biological​ ​catalysts.​ ​You​ ​may already​ ​know​ ​some​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts.​ ​They​ ​increase​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​a​ ​reaction,​ ​but are​ ​not​ ​used​ ​up​ ​in​ ​the​ ​reaction.​ ​Enzymes​ ​share​ ​these​ ​features​ ​with​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts,​ ​but​ ​also have​ ​some​ ​important​ ​differences.​ ​One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​most​ ​important​ ​differences​ ​is​ ​that​ ​enzymes​ ​are usually​ ​much​ ​more​ ​specific​ ​than​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts.​ ​Enzymes​ ​recognize​ ​particular​ ​reactant molecules,​ ​called​ ​substrates,​ ​and​ ​convert​ ​them​ ​into​ ​products.​ ​In​ ​contrast,​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts usually​ ​act​ ​on​ ​a​ ​broad​ ​range​ ​of​ ​reactants.​ ​In​ ​an​ ​enzymatic​ ​reaction,​ ​the​ ​enzyme​ ​“recognizes” the​ ​substrate​ ​by​ ​its​ ​shape​ ​and​ ​by​ ​the​ ​position​ ​of​ ​its​ ​hydrogen​ ​bonding​ ​sites​ ​and​ ​binds​ ​the substrate​ ​to​ ​itself​ ​at​ ​the​ ​active​ ​site.​ ​Once​ ​at​ ​the​ ​active​ ​site,​ ​the​ ​substrate​ ​rapidly​ ​undergoes​ ​the enzyme​ ​catalyzed​ ​reaction. The​ ​enzyme​ ​you​ ​will​ ​be​ ​studying​ ​in​ ​this​ ​experiment​ ​is​ ​lactase,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​it catalyzes​ ​is​ ​the​ ​hydrolysis​ ​of​ ​the​ ​disaccharide​ ​lactose​ ​into​ ​the​ ​monosaccharides​ ​galactose​ ​and glucose.​ ​Humans​ ​require​ ​this​ ​enzyme​ ​for​ ​digestion​ ​of​ ​lactose​ ​found​ ​in​ ​milk​ ​and​ ​other​ ​dairy products.​ ​The​ ​medical​ ​condition​ ​known​ ​as​ ​lactose​ ​intolerance​ ​results​ ​when​ ​the​ ​body​ ​produces insufficient​ ​amounts​ ​of​ ​lactase​ ​to​ ​digest​ ​the​ ​lactose​ ​found​ ​in​ ​these​ ​foods.​ ​Lactose​ ​intolerance can​ ​cause​ ​intestinal​ ​discomfort​ ​and​ ​symptoms​ ​such​ ​as​ ​cramps,​ ​bloating​ ​and​ ​diarrhea.​ ​In​ ​the dairy​ ​case​ ​at​ ​the​ ​grocery​ ​store,​ ​you​ ​may​ ​have​ ​noticed​ ​“lactose-free”​ ​milk.​ ​This​ ​type​ ​of​ ​milk​ ​has lactase​ ​enzyme​ ​added​ ​to​ ​it​ ​to​ ​hydrolyze​ ​the​ ​lactose​ ​before​ ​you​ ​drink​ ​it.​ ​Individuals​ ​with​ ​lactose intolerance​ ​can​ ​then​ ​enjoy​ ​the​ ​benefits​ ​of​ ​milk​ ​without​ ​the​ ​unpleasant​ ​side​ ​effects.

In​ ​this​ ​experiment,​ ​you​ ​will​ ​monitor​ ​the​ ​enzyme​ ​activity​ ​by​ ​determining​ ​how​ ​much glucose​ ​has​ ​formed.​ ​ ​Because​ ​glucose​ ​is​ ​a​ ​product​ ​of​ ​lactose​ ​hydrolysis,​ ​measuring​ ​the​ ​amount of​ ​glucose​ ​gives​ ​a​ ​direct​ ​measurement​ ​of​ ​how​ ​much​ ​lactose​ ​has​ ​reacted.​ ​You​ ​will​ ​monitor​ ​the enzyme​ ​activity​ ​using​ ​test​ ​strips​ ​that​ ​measure​ ​the​ ​level​ ​of​ ​glucose​ ​in​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​mixture.​ ​These are​ ​the​ ​same​ ​strips​ ​that​ ​diabetics​ ​use​ ​to​ ​monitor​ ​glucose​ ​levels​ ​with​ ​a​ ​home​ ​test​ ​kit.​ ​The presence​ ​of​ ​glucose​ ​in​ ​solution​ ​will​ ​change​ ​the​ ​test​ ​strip​ ​from​ ​a​ ​blue-green​ ​color​ ​to​ ​dark​ ​brown. Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

PRE-LAB​ ​QUESTIONS 1.​ ​How​ ​are​ ​enzymes​ ​and​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts​ ​similar?​ ​They​ ​are​ ​similar​ ​in​ ​that​ ​they​ ​both change​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​but​ ​remain​ ​unchanged​ ​once​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​is​ ​completed. 2.​ ​How​ ​are​ ​enzymes​ ​and​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts​ ​different?​ ​Enzymes​ ​are​ ​different​ ​from​ ​chemical catalysts​ ​in​ ​that​ ​they​ ​bind​ ​to​ ​specific​ ​reactants​ ​(substrates)​ ​whereas​ ​chemical​ ​catalysts work​ ​with​ ​a​ ​wide​ ​range​ ​of​ ​reactants. 3.​ ​Lactose​ ​is​ ​composed​ ​of​ ​what​ ​two​ ​monosaccharides?​ G ​ alactose​ ​and​ ​Glucose 4.​ ​How​ ​does​ ​the​ ​industry​ ​make​ ​“lactose-free”​ ​milk?​ ​They​ ​add​ ​extra​ ​lactase​ ​molecules​ ​to hydrolyze,​ ​or​ ​separate,​ ​the​ ​lactose​ ​molecule​ ​so​ ​that​ ​persons​ ​who​ ​are​ ​lactose-intolerant can​ ​ingest​ ​milk​ ​without​ ​side​ ​effects. 5.​ ​In​ ​this​ ​experiment,​ ​how​ ​will​ ​you​ ​know​ ​how​ ​much​ ​lactose​ ​reacted?​ B ​ y​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​of glucose​ ​molecules,​ ​since​ ​glucose​ ​is​ ​a​ ​direct​ ​product​ ​of​ ​lactose. 6.​ ​If​ ​glucose​ ​is​ ​present​ ​in​ ​a​ ​solution,​ ​what​ ​color​ ​change​ ​will​ ​you​ ​notice​ ​on​ ​a​ ​glucose​ ​test​ ​strip? Blue-green​ ​to​ ​dark​ ​brown​ ​color​ ​change.

We​ ​will​ ​be​ ​using​ ​the​ ​Engineering​ ​Design​ ​Process​ ​to​ ​design​ ​this​ ​experiment.​ ​ ​A​ ​few​ ​things to​ ​note​ ​for​ ​this​ ​experiment: ●

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Each​ ​group​ ​table​ ​will​ ​have​ ​either​ ​a​ ​beaker​ ​of​ ​ice​ ​water​ ​or​ ​a​ ​beaker​ ​of​ ​water​ ​on​ ​a​ ​hot plate.​ ​ ​Use​ ​caution​ ​when​ ​around​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​plates​ ​-​ ​the​ ​beaker,​ ​water,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​plate​ ​can burn​ ​you! Each​ ​group​ ​will​ ​prepare​ ​the​ ​lactase​ ​solution​ ​that​ ​they​ ​will​ ​be​ ​using​ ​for​ ​the​ ​experiment. To​ ​do​ ​this,​ ​crush​ ​one​ ​lactase​ ​enzyme​ ​tablet​ ​with​ ​the​ ​pill​ ​crusher​ ​and​ ​add​ ​it​ ​to​ ​200​ ​mL​ ​of water.​ ​ ​Stir​ ​until​ ​dissolved. Test​ ​samples​ ​will​ ​be​ ​placed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​tubes​ ​Forceps​ ​will​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​remove​ ​the microfuge​ ​tubes​ ​from​ ​the​ ​ice​ ​water​ ​and​ ​hot​ ​water​ ​baths. The​ ​temperatures​ ​we​ ​will​ ​be​ ​testing​ ​are​ ​0℃,​ ​25℃,​ ​40℃,​ ​60℃,​ ​and​ ​80℃.​ ​ ​Each​ ​table​ ​will have​ ​one​ ​of​ ​these​ ​conditions. The​ ​Lactase​ ​solution​ ​in​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​tubes​ ​should​ ​sit​ ​in​ ​the​ ​water​ ​bath​ ​for​ ​5​ ​minutes (Make​ ​sure​ ​the​ ​cap​ ​snaps​ ​shut​ ​before​ ​placing​ ​it​ ​in​ ​the​ ​water!).

To​ ​help​ ​you​ ​design​ ​the​ ​experiment,​ ​determine​ ​the​ ​following: ASK 1. What​ ​is​ ​the​ ​problem?​ ​Design​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​that​ ​examines​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​temperature​ ​on lactase​ ​activity. Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

2. What​ ​are​ ​the​ ​requirements?​ ​Use​ ​the​ ​Engineering​ ​Design​ ​Process,​ ​Use​ ​the​ ​materials provided,​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​observe​ ​the​ ​glucose​ ​levels 3. What​ ​are​ ​the​ ​constraints?​ ​ ​Has​ ​to​ ​take​ ​place​ ​within​ ​a​ ​class​ ​period,​ ​temperature 4. Conduct​ ​research​ ​to​ ​find​ ​information​ ​on​ ​the​ ​subject​ ​and​ ​possibly​ ​even​ ​articles​ ​describing previous​ ​experiments​ ​that​ ​have​ ​investigated​ ​this​ ​same​ ​problem.​ ​ ​Summarize​ ​your research​ ​below​ ​(Be​ ​sure​ ​to​ ​cite​ ​the​ ​source​ ​in​ ​APA​ ​format). The​ ​enzyme​ ​lactase,​ ​acts​ ​as​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​at​ ​which​ ​to​ ​break​ ​down​ ​lactose​ ​into galactose​ ​and​ ​glucose.​ ​Like​ ​many​ ​enzymes,​ ​lactase​ ​works​ ​best​ ​in​ ​its​ ​most​ ​optimal conditions.​ ​Those​ ​conditions​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​be​ ​primarily​ ​affected​ ​by​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​pH​ ​to which​ ​the​ ​enzyme​ ​can​ ​be​ ​denatured​ ​if​ ​the​ ​change​ ​is​ ​large​ ​enough.​ ​For​ ​temperature,​ ​this means​ ​that​ ​if​ ​it​ ​exceeds​ ​or​ ​goes​ ​below​ ​the​ ​range​ ​of​ ​70​ ​to​ ​120​ ​degrees​ ​Fahrenheit,​ ​the enzyme​ ​can​ ​be​ ​altered.​ ​Low​ ​temperatures​ ​tend​ ​to​ ​slow​ ​down​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​while​ ​extremely high​ ​temperatures​ ​denature​ ​the​ ​enzyme.​ ​pH,​ ​to​ ​which​ ​the​ ​working​ ​range​ ​is​ ​between​ ​2​ ​to 7​ ​can​ ​be​ ​altered​ ​with​ ​extreme​ ​shifts​ ​as​ ​well.​ ​Typically,​ ​shifts​ ​that​ ​lie​ ​above​ ​the​ ​range​ ​to​ ​to result​ ​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lactase​ ​enzyme​ ​becoming​ ​denatured. Seattlepi.​ ​(n.d.).​ ​The​ ​Effects​ ​of​ ​PH​ ​and​ ​Temperature​ ​on​ ​Enzyme​ ​Activity​ ​of​ ​Lactase​ ​on Lactose.​ ​Retrieved​ ​October​ ​17,​ ​2017,​ ​from http://education.seattlepi.com/effects-ph-temperature-enzyme-activity-lactase-lac o​se-7​34.html

5. Write​ ​a​ ​hypothesis​ ​for​ ​this​ ​experiment. If​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​increases​ ​then​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​lactase​ ​activity​ ​will​ ​increase. IMAGINE Brainstorm/whiteboard​ ​with​ ​your​ ​group​ ​a​ ​plan​ ​of​ ​action​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​perform​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​that will​ ​help​ ​you​ ​answer​ ​the​ ​problem. 5. Insert​ ​a​ ​picture​ ​of​ ​your​ ​brainstorming​ ​whiteboard.

Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

​​ 6. What​ ​steps​ ​were​ ​decided​ ​upon​ ​early​ ​in​ ​the​ ​process?​ ​ ​Which​ ​steps​ ​were​ ​more​ ​difficult​ ​to agree​ ​upon?​ ​Most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​steps​ ​were​ ​decided​ ​upon​ ​pretty​ ​early​ ​however​ ​we​ ​had​ ​a bit​ ​of​ ​difficulty​ ​with​ ​deciding​ ​upon​ ​the​ ​sixth​ ​step. PLAN 7. List​ ​the​ ​materials​ ​that​ ​you​ ​will​ ​be​ ​using​ ​below​ ​(Follow​ ​the​ ​Formal​ ​Lab​ ​Report Guidelines!). ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

1%​ ​milk,​ ​0.5​ ​mL Water,​ ​600​ ​mL Hot​ ​plate Ice, Timer Lactase​ ​Solution​ ​(Dairy​ ​Relief), Pipettes,​ ​2 Diastix​ ​(Glucose​ ​test​ ​strips),​ ​5 Pill​ ​Crusher Forceps Stir​ ​Rod Goggles Microcentrifuge​ ​tubes,​ ​5 Beakers,​ ​6

Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

● Sharpie ● Thermometer 8. Write​ ​the​ ​steps​ ​in​ ​your​ ​procedure​ ​below​ ​(Follow​ ​the​ ​Formal​ ​Lab​ ​Report​ ​Guidelines!).​ G ​ et teacher​ ​approval​ ​before​ ​you​ ​move​ ​on​ ​to​ ​the​ ​next​ ​stage​ ​of​ ​the​ ​EDP. Handling​ ​Procedures: Hot​ ​plate:​ ​Make​ ​sure​ ​that​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​plate​ ​is​ ​only​ ​transferred​ ​when​ ​turned​ ​off​ ​and​ ​fully cooled.​ ​Avoid​ ​touching​ ​when​ ​hot. Beaker​ ​(hot):​ ​Use​ ​tongs​ ​to​ ​move​ ​the​ ​beaker​ ​on​ ​the​ ​plate.​ ​Only​ ​move​ ​the​ ​beaker when​ ​it​ ​is​ ​fully​ ​cooled. Safety​ ​Instructions: Wear​ ​goggles​ ​for​ ​the​ ​duration​ ​of​ ​the​ ​experiment.

Procedure: Turn​ ​on​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​plate.​ ​Be​ ​careful​ ​the​ ​plate​ ​will​ ​be​ ​hot. Fill​ ​beaker​ ​with​ ​200mL​ ​of​ ​water. Use​ ​the​ ​pill​ ​crusher​ ​to​ ​crush​ ​one​ ​lactase​ ​enzyme​ ​tablet. Pour​ ​the​ ​crushed​ ​tablet​ ​into​ ​200mL​ ​of​ ​water.​ ​Stir​ ​until​ ​dissolved. Using​ ​a​ ​pipette,​ ​add​ ​0.5​ ​ml​ ​dissolved​ ​substance​ ​in​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​tubes. Fill​ ​another​ ​beaker​ ​with​ ​water​ ​and​ ​place​ ​on​ ​the​ ​hot​ ​plate.​ ​Once​ ​heated​ ​to​ ​one​ ​of the​ ​following​ ​temperatures:​ ​0​ ​degrees​ ​Celsius,​ ​25​ ​degrees​ ​Celsius,​ ​40​ ​degrees Celsius,​ ​60​ ​degrees​ ​Celsius,​ ​and​ ​80​ ​degrees​ ​Celsius,​ ​place​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​tube into​ ​the​ ​beaker​ ​for​ ​5​ ​minutes.​ ​Label​ ​all​ ​centrifuges​ ​with​ ​its​ ​assigned​ ​temperature and​ ​the​ ​lab​ ​person’s​ ​initials​ ​(if​ ​there​ ​is​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one​ ​experimental​ ​group).​ ​Make sure​ ​the​ ​cap​ ​is​ ​fully​ ​closed​ ​before​ ​placing​ ​in​ ​the​ ​water​ ​bath. 7. Using​ ​the​ ​forceps,​ ​remove​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​from​ ​the​ ​beaker.​ ​Be​ ​careful​ ​when removing​ ​the​ ​microfuge​ ​as​ ​it​ ​is​ ​hot. 8. Pour​ ​milk​ ​into​ ​an​ ​additional​ ​container.​ ​Then,​ ​using​ ​a​ ​pipette,​ ​add​ ​0.5​ ​ml​ ​of​ ​1%​ ​milk into​ ​the​ ​centrifuge.​ ​Wait​ ​2​ ​minutes​ ​until​ ​the​ ​enzyme​ ​fully​ ​hydrolyzes​ ​the​ ​lactase. 9. Place​ ​one​ ​diastix​ ​into​ ​centrifuge​ ​until​ ​half​ ​soaked​ ​then​ ​slide​ ​the​ ​strip​ ​onto​ ​the​ ​side of​ ​the​ ​centrifuge.​ ​Wait​ ​30​ ​seconds​ ​for​ ​the​ ​diastix​ ​to​ ​set​ ​and​ ​compare​ ​the​ ​color​ ​of the​ ​stick​ ​to​ ​the​ ​colors​ ​listed​ ​on​ ​the​ ​packaging.​ ​Write​ ​down​ ​the​ ​results​ ​of​ ​the glucose​ ​test​ ​trip​ ​for​ ​each​ ​temperature​ ​in​ ​the​ ​table​ ​provided. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

CREATE Conduct​ ​your​ ​experiment​ ​by​ ​following​ ​your​ ​written​ ​procedure.​ ​ ​Collect​ ​and​ ​write​ ​your​ ​data​ ​in Figure​ ​1. Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

Figure​ ​1. 0℃ Amount​ ​of Glucose (g/dL)

1/4

25℃ 1/2

40℃ 1/10

60℃ 1/10

80℃ 1/10

9. Insert​ ​a​ ​line​ ​graph​ ​of​ ​Figure​ ​1.​ ​ ​Include​ ​a​ ​title​ ​and​ ​X-​ ​and​ ​Y-axis​ ​labels​ ​with​ ​units.

Analysis 10. What​ ​temperature​ ​resulted​ ​in​ ​a​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​enzymatic​ ​activity?​ ​25℃ 11. Explain​ ​what​ ​most​ ​likely​ ​contributed​ ​to​ ​the​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​enzymatic​ ​activity​ ​at​ ​each temperature.​​ ​It​ ​is​ ​likely​ ​there​ ​was​ ​a​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​enzymatic​ ​activity​ ​at​ ​higher temperatures​ ​since​ ​this​ ​particular​ ​enzyme​ ​works​ ​best​ ​in​ ​relatively​ ​low Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/

temperatures.​ ​At​ ​higher​ ​temperatures,​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​lactose​ ​molecules​ ​broken down​ ​has​ ​likely​ ​reached​ ​its​ ​saturation.​ ​This​ ​means​ ​that​ ​the​ ​lactase​ ​enzyme​ ​cannot perform​ ​any​ ​more​ ​reactions​ ​and​ ​thus​ ​decrease​ ​its​ ​enzymatic​ ​activity. 12. Summarize​ ​the​ ​effect​ ​of​ ​temperature​ ​on​ ​the​ ​production​ ​of​ ​glucose.​​ ​Based​ ​on​ ​the results,​ ​it​ ​can​ ​be​ ​concluded​ ​that​ ​as​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​surrounding​ ​the​ ​enzyme increases,​ ​glucose​ ​production​ ​decreases. IMPROVE 13. What​ ​were​ ​some​ ​design​ ​errors/flaws​ ​that​ ​occurred​ ​with​ ​your​ ​experiment?​​ ​One noticeable​ ​design​ ​error​ ​was​ ​that​ ​it​ ​wasn’t​ ​specified​ ​in​ ​the​ ​directions​ ​whether​ ​the beakers​ ​provided​ ​would​ ​be​ ​for​ ​each​ ​experimental​ ​group​ ​rather​ ​than​ ​all experimental​ ​groups.​ ​In​ ​class,​ ​the​ ​beakers​ ​used​ ​to​ ​heat​ ​the​ ​centrifuges​ ​were distributed​ ​throughout​ ​all​ ​experimental​ ​groups.​ ​This​ ​made​ ​it​ ​difficult​ ​to​ ​properly ascertain​ ​the​ ​temperature,​ ​since​ ​some​ ​groups​ ​may​ ​not​ ​have​ ​had​ ​their​ ​beakers​ ​in​ ​a timely​ ​manner​ ​to​ ​their​ ​designated​ ​temperature.​ ​Either​ ​we​ ​had​ ​to​ ​wait​ ​for​ ​the beaker​ ​to​ ​cool​ ​down/warm​ ​up​ ​or​ ​simply​ ​place​ ​the​ ​centrifuge​ ​in​ ​at​ ​the​ ​improper temperature.​ ​We​ ​chose​ ​the​ ​latter​ ​and​ ​this​ ​may​ ​have​ ​resulted​ ​in​ ​some​ ​variation​ ​in our​ ​results. 14. What​ ​are​ ​some​ ​possible​ ​solutions​ ​to​ ​those​ ​design​ ​errors/flaws?​ P ​ erhaps​ ​allowing​ ​each experimental​ ​group​ ​to​ ​have​ ​their​ ​own​ ​six​ ​beakers​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​distributing​ ​them throughout​ ​the​ ​classroom​ ​can​ ​better​ ​control​ ​waiting​ ​times​ ​to​ ​a​ ​singular​ ​area, thereby​ ​ensuring​ ​that​ ​the​ ​group​ ​doesn’t​ ​have​ ​to​ ​wait​ ​too​ ​long​ ​for​ ​another​ ​in​ ​order to​ ​heat​ ​their​ ​centrifuges.

Adapted​ ​by​ ​N.​ ​Berg,​ ​NNHS​ ​©2011 From:​ ​http://capital2.capital.edu/faculty/wbecktel/Enzyme.htm​ ​and​ ​http://www.learnnc.org/