Language, Culture, And Society 55571f

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Chapter 1: Introducing Linguistic Anthropology

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Brief History of Anthropology

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B OX 1 . 1 S A P I R O N L I N G U I S T I C A N D C U LT U R A L C O M P L E X I T Y

All attempts to connect particular types of linguistic morphology with certain correlated stages of cultural development are vain. Rightly understood, such correlations are rubbish. . . . Both simple and complex types of language of an indefinite number of varieties may be found spoken at any desired level of cultural advance. When it comes to linguistic form, Plato walks with the Macedonian swineherd, Confucius with the headhunting savage of Assam. It goes without saying that the mere content of language is intimately related to culture. A society that has no knowledge of theosophy need have no name for it; aborigines that had never seen or heard of a horse were compelled to invent or borrow a word for the animal when they made his acquaintance. In the sense that the vocabulary of a language more or less faithfully reflects the culture whose purposes it serves it is perfectly true that the history of language and the history of culture move along parallel lines. But this superficial . . . kind of parallelism is of no real interest to the linguist except in so far as the growth or borrowing of new words incidentally throws light on the formal trends of the language. The linguistic student should never make the mistake of identifying a language with its dictionary. from Edward Sapir, Language (1921), 234

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Brief History of Anthropology

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Anthropology, Linguistics, and Linguistic Anthropology

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B OX 1 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C S CO N T R A S T E D W I T H L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O LO G Y

Unlike linguists, [linguistic] anthropologists have never considered language in isolation from social life but have insisted on its interdependence with cultural and social structures. In this sense, their technical linguistic analyses are a means to an end, data from which it is possible to make inferences about larger anthropological issues. Hence, under the . . . label “language and culture,” anthropologists study topics such as the relations between world views, grammatical categories and semantic fields, the influence of speech on socialization and personal relationships, and the interaction of linguistic and social communities. . . . As Hymes has aptly remarked, “language is not everywhere equivalent in communicative role and social value . . . [and] no normal person, and no normal community is limited in repertoire to a single variety of [style], to an unchanging monotony which would preclude the possibility of indicating respect, insolence, mock-seriousness, humor, role-distance, etc., by switching from one code variety to another.” Consequently, the relation between languages and social groups cannot be taken for granted, but is a problem which must be ethnographically investigated. from Pier Paolo Giglioli, ed., Language and Social Context (1972), 9–10

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Summary and Conclusions

15

UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMTVCGJFMETPGBOUISPQPMPHZKVTUBTUIFTVCGJFMEDPODFSOFE XJUIDVMUVSFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTDVMUVSBMBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFPOFDPODFSOFEXJUI MBOHVBHFJTBQUMZSFGFSSFEUPBTMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ5IJTJTUIFUFSNVTFE UISPVHIPVUUIJTPL*UTUBUFTFYBDUMZXIBUUIFTVCGJFMEJTBVU‰UIFTUVEZ PGMBOHVBHF PSTQFFDI XJUIJOUIFGSBNFXPSLPGBOUISPQPMPHZ Summary and Conclusions *OJUTNPEFSOGPSN MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZXBTUIFMBTUTVCGJFMEPGBOUISP QPMPHZ UP CF EFWFMPQFE BOE SFDPHOJ[FE BOE XBT QSBDUJDFE QSJNBSJMZ CZ /PSUI"NFSJDBOBOUISPQPMPHJTUT*UTCFHJOOJOHTHPCBDLUPUIFJOUFSFTUPG OJOFUFFOUIDFOUVSZTDIPMBSTJOUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPG/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJ FUJFTBOEUIFMBOHVBHFTUIFZTQPLF-JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTWJFXMBOHVBHF JOJUTDVMUVSBMGSBNFXPSLBOEBSFDPODFSOFEXJUIUIFSVMFTGPSJUTTPDJBMVTF UIFBOBMZTJTPGJUTTUSVDUVSFJTUIFSFGPSFPOMZBNFBOTUPBOFOE#ZDPOUSBTU MJOHVJTUTJOUIFJSTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFTFNQIBTJ[FMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFBOEUIF IJTUPSJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBOHVBHFT +VTUBTJOUIFSFTUPGBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFEBUBGPSMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZBSF GPSUIFNPTUQBSUPCUBJOFEJOUIFGJFME0WFSUIFEFDBEFT GJFMEXPSLFSTIBWF EFWFMPQFEUFDIOJRVFTBOENFUIPETUPUIFQPJOUUIBUBOUISPQPMPHZEFQBSU NFOUTXJUIBTJ[BCMFQSPHSBNJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZOPXPGGFSDPVSTFTJO MJOHVJTUJDGJFMENFUIPET

2 Methods of Linguistic Anthropology

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18

Chapter 2: Methods of Linguistic Anthropology

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The Fieldwork Component

19

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20


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21

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B O X 2 . 1 PA R T I C I PA N T O B S E R VAT I O N

During [Malinowski’s] trip to do his first fieldwork, World War I broke out. When he landed in Australia, he learned that he was now the enemy, and the Australians informed him that he was stuck for the duration. But he convinced them that they should let him go and wander the territories, do a little ethno-exploring. He spent two extensive periods of time on a little string of atolls called the Trobriand Islands. Malinowski became the patron saint of ethnography. He dived right in, lived with the “natives,” and learned their language as they spoke it while they went about their everyday business. He talked about the goal of it all in romantic tones—“to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world,” or, as he sometimes put it, “to get inside the native’s skin.” The name for this approach to fieldwork, a name that is now enshrined in the jargon, is participant observation. You don’t just stand around and watch like a parody of a lab technician; you jump in and do everyday life with people to get a firsthand feel for how things go. At the same time, you keep a third eye at an altitude of several feet above the action and watch what’s going on in a more distant way. Never mind that this is difficult, to ionately commit to the flow of experience and keep your distance at the same time. The concept expresses the right contradiction. Besides, participant observation hides Malinowski’s secret about culture. Like Boas and Whorf, he wrote about culture as what “those people” have. But participant observation carries with it a commitment to connect, to put your body and mind on the line, to engage what “those people” are doing and figure out why, at first, you didn’t understand. Participant observation signals that culture has to get personal. Given the gregarious nature in general and his devotion to participant observation in particular, it’s no surprise that Malinowski[’s . . . ] first love was the real situations that made up the daily life of the Trobriand Islanders. Language wasn’t an isolated object that consisted of words and the rules for stringing them together into sentences. Language was the way that people came together in those situations and got things done. from Michael Agar, Language Shock (1994), 92

A Checklist for Research in the Field

27

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A Checklist for Research in the Field

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NBJOUBJOJOHGSJFOEMZDPOUBDUT JGQPTTJCMF XJUIUIFNFNCFSTPGUIF HSPVQTUVEJFE Summary and Conclusions -JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUTWJFXMBOHVBHFJOJUTDVMUVSBMGSBNFXPSLBOEBSF DPODFSOFEXJUIUIFSVMFTGPSJUTTPDJBMVTFUIFBOBMZTJTPGJUTTUSVDUVSFJTUIFSF GPSFPOMZBNFBOTUPBOFOE#ZDPOUSBTU MJOHVJTUTJOUIFJSTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFT FNQIBTJ[FMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFBOEUIFIJTUPSJDBMEFWFMPQNFOUPGMBOHVBHFT +VTUBTJOUIFSFTUPGBOUISPQPMPHZ UIFEBUBGPSMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZBSF GPSUIFNPTUQBSUPCUBJOFEJOUIFGJFME0WFSUIFEFDBEFT GJFMEXPSLFSTIBWF EFWFMPQFEUFDIOJRVFTBOENFUIPETUPUIFQPJOUUIBUTPNFBOUISPQPMPHZEF QBSUNFOUT XJUI B TJ[BCMF QSPHSBN JO MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ OPX PGGFS DPVSTFTJOMJOHVJTUJDGJFMENFUIPET'PSUIFCFOFGJUPGUIPTFXIPEPOPUIBWF BDDFTTUPTVDIQSPHSBNT BDIFDLMJTUGPSSFTFBSDIJOUIFGJFMEIBTCFFOJO DMVEFEJOUIJTDIBQUFS

3 Language Is Sound: Phonology

5IFOBUVSFPGFUIOPHSBQIJDGJFMEXPSLNBLFTJUFTTFOUJBMGPSBOUISPQPMPHJTUTUP BDRVJSFBXPSLJOHLOPXMFEHFPGUIFMBOHVBHFPGUIPTFXIPNUIFZTUVEZ UPMFBSO TPNFUIJOHBVUJUTTUSVDUVSF BOEUPCFBCMFUPXSJUFJUEPXOUPSFDPSEXPSET VUUFSBODFT PSUSBEJUJPOBMOBSSBUJWFT"NFSJDBOBOUISPQPMPHJTUTIBWFMPOHCFFO DPODFSOFEXJUIMBOHVBHF JOMBSHFQBSUCFDBVTFPGUIFHSFBUOVNCFSBOEWBSJFUZ PG/BUJWF"NFSJDBOMBOHVBHFTTQPLFOJOUIFJSPXOMJOHVJTUJDCBDLZBSE &BDIMBOHVBHFSFQSFTFOUTBQBSUJDVMBSWBSJFUZPGUIFHFOFSBMMBOHVBHFDPEF‰ JOPUIFSXPSET OPUXPMBOHVBHFTBSFBMJLF BMUIPVHITPNFBSFTUSVDUVSBMMZTJN JMBSXIFSFBTPUIFSTBSFRVJUFEJGGFSFOU6OEFSTUBOEJOHUIFXPSLJOHTPGBGPSFJHO MBOHVBHFSBUIFSUIBOTJNQMZMFBSOJOHUPTQFBLJUSFRVJSFTTPNFBDRVBJOUBODF XJUIUIFQMBOBDDPSEJOHUPXIJDIBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFDPEFJTDPOTUSVDUFE 4VDIBDRVBJOUBODFDBOOPUCFHBJOFECZVTJOHUIFUSBEJUJPOBMHSBNNBSPG&OH MJTI PSTPNFPUIFSMBOHVBHFUBVHIUJOTDIPPMT BTBGSBNFXPSL5IFSFBSFTFW FSBMJNQPSUBOUSFBTPOTGPSBNPSFTZTUFNBUJDBOETQFDJBMJ[FEBQQSPBDI 0OFNBKPSSFBTPOIBTUPEPXJUIDPOWFSUJOHUPXSJUUFOGPSNBMBOHVBHF UIBUQSFWJPVTMZIBTPOMZCFFOTQPLFO5PBDDPNQMJTIUIJTUBTL POFNVTU MFBSOUIFQSJODJQMFTPGQIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO5IFVTFPGUIFDPOWFOUJPOBM TQFMMJOHTZTUFNPGUIFBOUISPQPMPHJTUTPXOMBOHVBHFJTJOWBSJBCMZPVUPGUIF RVFTUJPO/PUPOMZTIPVMEPOFFYQFDUUIFTPVOETPGPOFMBOHVBHFUPEJGGFS GSPNUIPTFPGBOPUIFS CVUUIFTPVOETBOEUIFPSUIPHSBQIJDDPOWFOUJPOTUIBU SFQSFTFOUUIFNJOUIFXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFBSFOPUMJLFMZUPDPSSFTQPOEUPFBDI PUIFSPOBPOFUPPOFCBTJT&OHMJTITQFMMJOHJTOPUPSJPVTGPSJUTMBDLPGDPS SFMBUJPOXJUITQPLFO&OHMJTI'PSFYBNQMF UIFTPVOETI PGTIZ JTXSJUUFOJO 31

32

Chapter 3: Language Is Sound: Phonology

&OHMJTIJOUXFMWFBEEJUJPOBMXBZT BTJODIFG DPOTDJFODF GVDITJB JTTVF NBO TJPO OBVTFPVT PDFBO QPUJPO QTIBX TDIJTU TVHBS BOETVTQJDJPO5IFUXP TFOUFODFTi5IFTVOTSBZTNFFUwBOEi5IFTPOTSBJTFNFBUwTPVOEFYBDUMZ BMJLFEFTQJUFUIFJSEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHTBOEPSUIPHSBQIJDSFQSFTFOUBUJPOT BOE JOi8IFSFEPUIFTFMFBEQJQFTMFBE w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iPVSNPUIFSw

PSXIFUIFSPUIFSTBSFJODMVEFE CVUUIFBEESFTTFF IFBSFS JTFYDMVEFE BTXIFOBNPUIFSUBMLTUPBWJTJUPS BVUiPVSDIJMESFO w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

The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech

33

#POUPLJTBMBOHVBHFTQPLFOCZBQFPQMFJOUIFNPVOUBJOTPGOPSUIFSO -V[POJOUIF1IJMJQQJOFT"NPOHUIFNBOZXPSETDPSSFTQPOEJOHUP&OHMJTI OPVOTBOEBEKFDUJWFTBSFUIFGPMMPXJOHGPVSTUFNTGJLBT ATUSPOH LJMBE ASFE CBUP ATUPOF BOEGVTVM AFOFNZ5PFYQSFTTUIFJEFBUIBUTPNFPOFJTCFDPNJOH XIBUUIFOPVOPSBEKFDUJWFSFGFSTUP UIF#POUPLXPVMEVTFUIFGPMMPXJOH XPSETEFSJWFEGSPNUIFGPVSTUFNTBWFGVNJLBT AIFJTCFDPNJOHTUSPOH LVNJMBE AIFJTCFDPNJOHSFE CVNBUP AIFJTCFDPNJOHTUPOF BTJOBNZUI

BOEGVNVTVM AIFJTCFDPNJOHBOFOFNZ5IPTFOPUUSBJOFEJOMJOHVJTUJDTNBZ GJOEUIFTFGPSNTBCJUDPOGVTJOH QFSIBQTFYQFDUJOH BTBSFTVMUPGCFJOHOBUJWF TQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTI UIBUJOFBDIFYBNQMFTFWFSBMXPSETXPVMECFOFFEFEUP JOEJDBUFUIBUBOJOEJWJEVBMJTVOEFSHPJOHTPNFTPSUPGDIBOHF‰CFDPNJOH TUSPOH SFE TUPOF PSBOFOFNZ"OFYBNJOBUJPOPGUIF#POUPLEBUBSFWFBMTB TJNQMFSVMFUIBUBDDPVOUTGPSUIFNFBOJOHAIFJTCFDPNJOH‰‰‰‰‰‰‰ JOTUBUJOH UIFSVMF XFBSFBWPJEJOHUFSNJOPMPHZUIBUNJHIUCFVOGBNJMJBSUPSFBEFST *OTFSUUIFTPVOET XSJUUFOIFSFBTVN BGUFSUIFJOJUJBMDPOTPOBOUPGUIFTUFN 5IJTSVMFQSPEVDFTGVNJLBT GSPNGJLBT BOETPPO/PXUIBUXFLOPXUIJT QBSUJDVMBSQJFDFPG#POUPLTUSVDUVSF XFDBOHVFTTBUUIFXPSEUIBUXPVME NPTU MJLFMZ NFBO AIF JT CFDPNJOH XIJUF JG XF BSF HJWFO QVLBX AXIJUF‰ OBNFMZQVNVLBXDPOWFSTFMZ XFDBOHVFTTXIBUUIFTUFNNFBOJOHAEBSL XPVMECFGSPNUIFXPSEŋVNJUBE AIFJTCFDPNJOHEBSL‰OBNFMZŋJUBE 'PDVTJOHPOSFDVSSJOHQBUUFSOTPGCFIBWJPSPGNFNCFSTPGBTPDJFUZ‰JO PUIFSXPSET USZJOHUPEJTDPWFSUIFTUSVDUVSFPGBDVMUVSBMTZTUFN‰IFMQTVT CFDPNFGBNJMJBSXJUIIPXUIFTZTUFNPQFSBUFT5IJTJTQBSUJDVMBSMZUSVFPG UIFUIPVTBOETPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFTZTUFNTXFDBMMMBOHVBHFT The Anatomy and Physiology of Speech 5IFDBQBDJUZGPSTQFBLJOHBOETQFFDIJUTFMGBSFUBLFOTPNVDIGPSHSBOUFE UIBUGFXJOEJWJEVBMTFWFSTUPQUPXPOEFSIPXTPVOETBSFQSPEVDFEBOEXIZ UIFZWBSZBTNVDIBTUIFZEP"MUIPVHIJUJTUSVFUIBUTQFBLFSTVTFUIFJS NPUIFSUPOHVFBVUPNBUJDBMMZ XJUIPVUDPODFOUSBUJOH JUJTFRVBMMZUSVFUIBU UIFQSPEVDUJPOPGBEP[FOUPBTDPSFPGTQFFDITPVOETQFSTFDPOESFRVJSFT FYUSFNFMZXFMMDPPSEJOBUFEBOEQSFDJTFNPWFNFOUTBOEQPTJUJPOJOHTPGWBS JPVTQBSUTPGUIFTQFFDIBQQBSBUVTMPDBUFECFUXFFOUIFEJBQISBHNBOEUIF MJQT TFF'JHVSF 5IFFYUFOUPGUIFTFFMBSBUFHZNOBTUJDTJTBMMUIFNPSFSFNBSLBCMFXIFO XFSFNJOEPVSTFMWFTUIBUUIFQSJNBSZGVODUJPOTPGUIFWBSJPVTQBSUTPGUIF

34


TQFFDIBQQBSBUVTBSFOPUUIPTFBTTPDJBUFEXJUIQSPEVDJOHTPVOET'PSFY BNQMF UIFUPOHVF SJDIJOUBDUJMFTFOTPSZOFSWFFOEJOHT JTUIFTFBUPGUIF TFOTFPGUBTUFBOEIFMQTJOTXBMMPXJOHGPPEBOEUIFNBJOQVSQPTFPGUFFUI JTUPCJUFPGGGPPE JODJTPST BOEUIFODIFXJU NPMBST *OTIPSU TQFFDIJTB TFDPOEBSZGVODUJPOGPSXIBUXFSFGFSUPBTUIFWPDBMUSBDU PSWPDBMPSHBOT 5IFQSPEVDUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOET XIJDIJTBDPNQMFYQSPDFTTJOWPMWJOH BVUPOFIVOESFENVTDMFTBTXFMMBTPUIFSUJTTVFT SFRVJSFTQSFDJTFDPPSEJ OBUJPO8IFOPOFTQFBLT BJSJTUBLFOJOUPUIFMVOHTNPSFSBQJEMZUIBOJO UIFOPSNBMDPVSTFPGJOCSFBUIJOHBOEUIFOFYIBMFEJOBTMPXBOETUFBEZ TUSFBN*UJTGPSDFEGSPNUIFMVOHTUISPVHIUIFUSBDIFB XJOEQJQF BOEVO EFSHPFTJNQPSUBOUNPEJGJDBUJPOTJOUIFMBSZOY MPDBUFEBUUIFVQQFSFOEPG UIFUSBDIFB5IFMBSZOY UIFQPTJUJPOPGXIJDIJTNBSLFEFYUFSOBMMZCZUIF "EBNTBQQMF IPVTFTUXPCBOETPGNVTDVMBSUJTTVFLOPXOBTUIFWPDBMDPSET PSWPDBMGPMET5IFWPDBMGPMETTUSFUDIGSPNGSPOUUPCBDLBOESFHVMBUFUIF TJ[FPGUIFFMPOHBUFEPQFOJOHCFUXFFOUIFN UIFHMPUUJT%VSJOHTXBMMPXJOH JOBEEJUJPOUPCFJOHQSPUFDUFECZUIFGPMEFEFQJHMPUUJTGSPNBWF UIFWPDBM DPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFS XJUIUIFHMPUUJTDMPTFE UPQSFWFOUMJRVJETPSGPPE QBSUJDMFTGSPNFOUFSJOHUIFMVOHTGPSUIFQSPEVDUJPOPGWPJDFE TPVOET TVDI BTUIPTFNBLJOHVQUIFXPSECV[[ UIFDPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFSBOENBEF UPWJCSBUFBTUIFBJSTUSFBNGPSDFTJUTXBZCFUXFFOUIFNJOXIJTQFSJOH UIFZ BSFCSPVHIUDMPTFUPHFUIFS XJUIUIFHMPUUJTOBSSPXFEGPSUIFQSPEVDUJPOPG WPJDFMFTT TPVOET TVDIBTUIPTFIFBSEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHBOEFOEPGUIFXPSE TIJQ UIFZBSFTQSFBEBQBSUCVUUFOTFEBOEEVSJOHOPSNBMCSFBUIJOH UIFZBSF SFMBYFEBOETQSFBEBQBSU5IFUFOTJPOPGUIFWPDBMDPSETEFUFSNJOFTUIFGSF RVFODZPGUIFJSWJCSBUJPOBOEUIFSFGPSFUIFQJUDI XIFSFBTUIFGPSDFPGUIF PVUHPJOHBJSSFHVMBUFTUIFMPVEOFTTPGTPVOET )BWJOHQBTTFEUISPVHIUIFMBSZOY UIFBJSQSPDFFETPVUUISPVHIUIFQIBS ZOYUPXBSETUIFPSBMBOEOBTBMDBWJUJFT8IFOUIFTPGUQBMBUF WFMVN JOUIF SFBSVQQFSQBSUPGUIFNPVUI KVTUBWFUIFVWVMB JTMPXFSFEBOEUIFMJQTBSF DMPTFE UIFBJSJTSFMFBTFEUISPVHIUIFOPTF QSPEVDJOHOBTBMTPVOET TVDIBT UIFUISFFEJGGFSFOUPOFTJOUIF4QBOJTIXPSENB×BOB AUPNPSSPXPSUIFGJOBM POFJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSELJOH *GUIFTPGUQBMBUFJTMPXFSFECVUUIFBJSBMMPXFE UPFTDBQFTJNVMUBOFPVTMZUISPVHIUIUIFOPTFBOEUIFNPVUI OBTBMJ[FE TPVOETBSFUIFSFTVMU BTJOUIF'SFODIO AHPPE5IFNBKPSJUZPGTPVOETJO UIFMBOHVBHFTPGUIFXPSMEBSFPSBM XJUIUIFBJSFTDBQJOHPOMZUISPVHIUIF NPVUICFDBVTFUIFTPGUQBMBUFJTGVMMZSBJTFE NBLJOHDPOUBDUXJUIUIFCBDL XBMMPGUIFQIBSZOYBOETIVUUJOHPGGUIFFOUSBODFUPUIFOBTBMDBWJUZ

35

F I G U R E 3 . 1 The Speech Apparatus. (a) A cross-section of the human head showing the principal parts of the vocal tract. The lungs and the diaphragm below them are not shown.

E L N O P T 1 2 3 4

esophagus (gullet) larynx (voice box) nasal cavity oral cavity pharynx trachea upper lip upper teeth (incisors) alveolar ridge (hard) palate

5 velum (soft palate) 6 uvula 7 molars 8 lower lip 9 lower teeth (incisors) 10 tongue tip 11 tongue blade 12 tongue root 13 epiglottis 14 vocal cords 15 direction of outgoing air (b) A view of the glottis (16), with a vocal cord on each side, during normal breathing. (c) The same view, but with vocal cords vibrating during speech. Adapted from Bohuslav Hála: Uvedení do fonetiky c1 esˇtiny, Prague, 1962, p. 63.

36


"TUIFBJSQBTTFTUISPVHIUIFVQQFSQBSUPGUIFTQFFDIUSBDU OVNFSPVT NPEJGJDBUJPOTPGUIFWPDBMDIBOOFM JOWPMWJOHTVDIBSUJDVMBUPSTBTUIFTPGU QBMBUF UPOHVF BOEMJQT NBLFQPTTJCMFUIFUSFNFOEPVTWBSJFUZPGTPVOET IFBSEJOUIFTFWFSBMUIPVTBOEPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT5IFTFTPVOETBSFDVT UPNBSJMZDMBTTJGJFEBDDPSEJOHUPUIFNBOOFSBOEQMBDFPGBSUJDVMBUJPOBOE USBOTDSJCFECZNFBOTPGQIPOFUJDTZNMT XIJDIBSFFODMPTFEJOTRVBSF CSBDLFUT<> Articulation of Speech Sounds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‰VTVBMMZCVUOPUBMXBZTBWPXFM 7

XJUIPSXJUIPVUB DPOTPOBOU $ PS DPOTPOBOUT CFGPSF PS BGUFS JU 5IF GPMMPXJOH &OHMJTI XPSET‰B PO NF QJO TQJO ESJGU BOETUSFOHUIT‰BMMDPOTJTUPGPOFTZMMBCMF BOE NBZ CF SFQSFTFOUFE BT 7 7$ $7 $7$ $$7$ $$7$$ BOE $$$7$ $ $$ SFTQFDUJWFMZ*OUIFXPSECVUUPO UIFOVDMFVTPGUIFTFDPOE TZMMBCMFJTUIFOBTBM CFDBVTFUIFPSUIPHSBQIJDWPXFMP JTOPUQSPOPVODFE "DPOTPOBOUGVODUJPOJOHBTUIFDFOUFSPGBTZMMBCMFJTTBJEUPCFTZMMBCJD 5IFWPXFMTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTIEJBMFDUTPDDVSGPSUIFNPTUQBSUTJOHMZ BT JOUIFXPSETMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ <***əɒəJ>)PXFWFS TPNFUJNFT UIFSFJTBDIBOHFJOWPXFMRVBMJUZXJUIJOBTZMMBCMF BTJOUIFXPSETCJUF VU BOEZ 8IBUPDDVSTJOFBDIPGUIFTFUISFFXPSETBOEPUIFSTMJLFUIFNJTB NPWFNFOUGSPNUIFGJSTU NPSFQSPNJOFOUWPDBMJDQBSUUPUIFTFDPOE XIJDI

e bait; German See ‘sea’ ε bet æ bat

lower mid

low (open)

mid

bit

lower high I

i beat

high (close)

unrounded (spread)

front

ö German schön ‘lovely’ ɔ¨ French peur ‘fear’

ü German kühl ‘cool’

rounded

a body

ï occurs in Turkish

Russian быть ‘to be’ I– as in just (you wait) ə the second vowel of sofa

butt

unrounded

unrounded

central

nasal(ized)

oral

rounded

ɒ pot; in London English, not

o boat; French beau ‘beautiful’ ɔ bought

u book

u boot

back

It is not easy to illustrate various vowel types by examples from English because of wide dialect variation. For example, people native to eastern New England, the central Atlantic seaboard, and the coastal South pronounce the words Mary, marry, and merry differently, whereas in the rest of the United States, these three words are usually pronounced alike.

According to the position of the highest point of the tongue in the mouth (according to the closeness of the tongue to the roof of the mouth)

If the air excapes through the mouth If the air escapes also through the nose According to the part of the tongue that is raised According to the position of the lips

Vowel Types

Types of Vowels According to Place and Manner of Articulation

Place and Manner of Articulation

TA B L E 3 . 1

37

38


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TA B L E 3 . 2

Lower lip and upper teeth Lips

Teeth

Area where the palate and the alveolar ridge meet Alveolar ridge

Example(s)

the r sound frequently heard in German (voiced variety) or French (voiceless) initial sound of calf

glottal stop that in some dialects of English replaces the t sound (-tt-) in such words as bottle common in Arabic

Bilabial

Both lower and upper lips articulate.

Interdental

Dental

Alveolar

Retroflex

the initial and final sound of bob

the initial sounds of fan and van

the initial sounds of thin and this

t and d sounds of Irish English

typically, t and d sounds in English as spoken by East Indians the initial sound of sit

the final sound of the German ich ‘I’ Palato-alveolar initial sound of ship

Palatal

Velar

Labiodental

Back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate. Front of the tongue articulates with the hard palate. Blade of the tongue (and sometimes the tip) articulates with the palato-alveolar area. Tip of the tongue, curled back, articulates with the palato-alveolar area. Front of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge. Tongue tip articulates with the upper teeth.

Velum, or soft palate (Hard) palate

Uvular

Pharyngeal

Glottal

Consonant Type

Tongue tip is positioned between the upper and lower teeth. Lower lip articulates with the upper teeth.

Back wall of the pharynx articulates with the root of the tongue. Back of the tongue articulates with the uvula.

Pharynx

Uvula

Vocal folds are positioned so as to cause a closure or friction.

General Description

Types of Consonants According to Place of Articulation

Glottis

Place of Articulation

39

complete closure at some point in the mouth, with soft palate lowered and air escaping through the nose

complete closure at some point in the mouth, with soft palate raised; gradual release of air pressure

an articulator flapping loose or one articulator tapping against another

a single tap by one articulator against the roof of the mouth

partial closure in the mouth allowing the air to escape around one or both sides of the closure

Total

Total

Total

Intermittent

Intermittent

Partial

CLOSURE

NARROWING

complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, with soft palate raised; sudden release of air pressure

Subtype of Constriction

Type of Constriction

at some point in the vocal tract the opening is narrowed so as to produce audible friction

General Description

Types of Consonants According to Manner of Articulation

TA B L E 3 . 3

Fricative

Lateral

Flap

Trill

Affricate

Nasal

Plosive, or stop

Consonant Type Examples with Description

the initial and final sounds of fuss; air is forced between the lower lip and upper teeth, and between the front of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, respectively

the initial sound of law; the middle part of the tongue touches the top of the mouth

the r sound in British English pronunciation of very or in the Spanish pero ‘but’; the tongue taps the alveolar ridge

the r sound in Scottish pronunciation or in the Spanish perro ‘dog’; the tongue vibrates against the alveolar ridge

the initial and final sound of judge; the tongue blade forms closure with the front of the hard palate

the initial and final sound of mom; closure at the lips

the initial sound of pick; closure at the lips

40

From Phones to Phonemes

41

B O X 3 . 1 A C R O B AT I C S O F S P E A K I N G

The sounds that we hear when spoken to and that we emit when speaking are produced by complex gymnastics executed by our lips, tongue, velum, larynx, and lungs. The activities of these independent anatomical structures are coordinated with a precision that should be the envy of the most highly trained ballet dancer; yet this truly remarkable exercise is performed at the drop of a hat by even the clumsiest person. In contrast, even the most adroit primates have never been able to master it, despite intensive training. These facts suggest that the ability to speak is linked to our genetic endowment, that it is one of the aspects in which humans differ from all other mammals. The gymnastic feats involved in speaking are clearly not the whole story. Speech is not just some noise that humans are capable of emitting; it is a noise that is produced to convey meaning. And how speech conveys meaning is surely one of the great puzzles that has intrigued thinkers for centuries. from Morris Halle, The Rules of Language (1980), 54

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42


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From Phones to Phonemes

43

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44


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Phonemes of English

45

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TPNFMBOHVBHFTDPOUBJOOPNPSFUIBOBEP[FOTFHNFOUBMQIPOFNFT GPSUIFNPTUQBSUUIFZBSFNFNCFSTPGUIF*OEP1BDJGJDBOE"VTUSPOFTJBO MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFT

XIJMFBGFXMBOHVBHFTBSFSFQPSUFEUPIBWFJOFYDFTTPG POFIVOESFE NFNCFSTPGUIF,IPJTBOGBNJMZJOTPVUIFSO"GSJDB 5IFNFBO OVNCFSPGDPOTPOBOUTQFSQIPOFNJDJOWFOUPSZJTJOUIFMPXUXFOUJFT

UIBUPGWPXFMTDMPTFUPOJOF *ONPTUMBOHVBHFT UIFUPUBMOVNCFSPG DPOTPOBOUTJTNPSFUIBOUXJDFBTMBSHFBTUIFOVNCFSPGWPXFMT5IFNPTU DPNNPO DPOTPOBOUBM TVCTZTUFN JODMVEFT GSPN GJWF UP FMFWFO QMPTJWFT TUPQT

JODMVEJOHBGGSJDBUFTPOFUPGPVSGSJDBUJWFTUXPUPGPVSOBTBMTBOE GPVSDPOTPOBOUTPGPUIFSUZQFT5IFNPTUDPNNPOWPXFMTBSFUIPTFDMBTTJ GJFEBTIJHIGSPOUVOSPVOEFE IJHICBDLSPVOEFE NJEGSPOUVOSPVOEFE NJE

46 TA B L E 3 . 4 Typical Vowel Phonemes in American English

Phonemic Symbol

Example

Single vowels /i/ /i/ /e/ /ε/ /æ/ // (unstressed = /©/) /a/ /u/ /u/ /o/ /ɔ/ Diphthongs /ai/ /au/ /ɔi/

bead bid bade (rhyming with made) bed bad bud body boot book bode bought bite bout boy

TA B L E 3 . 5 Consonant Phonemes in American English

Phonemic Symbol /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ /O/ /jˇ/ /f/ /v/ /θ/ /ð/ /s/ /z/ /sˇ/ /•/ /h/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /r/ /w/ /y/

Examples pit, supper, rip bit, fiber, rib tip, meaty, kit dip, odor, kid cap, locker, pick gap, soggy, pig chin, itchy, rich gin, pudgy, ridge fat, gopher, belief vat, ivy, believe thin, ether, breath then, either, breathe seal, icy, hiss zeal, cozy, his show, potion, rush —, leisure, rouge hasp, ahoy, — moon, simmer, loom noon, sinner, loon —, singer, king limb, miller, reel rim, mirror, rear wet, lower, — yet, layer, —

Prosodic Features

47

CBDL SPVOEFE BOE MPX DFOUSBM VOSPVOEFE 5IF JOWFOUPSZ PG TFHNFOUBM QIPOFNFTJO&OHMJTIBQQFBSTUPCFNVDIMJLFUIFTZTUFNTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPG UIFCVMLPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT5IJTJTOPUUPTBZ IPXFWFS UIBU&OHMJTIJT BUZQJDBMMBOHVBHF"MUIPVHIBMMOBUVSBMMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFFEEJTUJODUWBSJB UJPOTPOBDPNNPOUIFNF‰IVNBOMBOHVBHF‰FBDIIBTJUTPXOQFDVMJBSGFB UVSFTPGTUSVDUVSFUIBUNBLFJUVOJRVF Prosodic Features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i8JMMZPVQFSNJUNFUPVTFZPVS QFSNJU wUIFXPSEQFSNJU GVODUJPOJOHBTBWFSCJTTUSFTTFEEJGGFSFOUMZGSPN QFSNJU VTFEBTBOPVO4PNFMJOHVJTUTDMBJNUIBUUPEFTDSJCF&OHMJTIBEF RVBUFMZ BTNBOZBTGPVSEFHSFFTPGTUSFTTBSFOFFEFE SBOHJOHGSPNQSJNBSZ UPXFBL

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

48


TA B L E 3 . 6

Syllable

The Four Distinctive Tones of Mandarin Chinese

Tone Number

Description

Tone Letter

Pitch Pinyin Contour Transcription

Meaning

ma

1

high and level

5–5

mother

ma

2

rising

3–5

hemp

ma

3

falling, then rising

2–1–4

horse

ma

4

high falling

5–1

to scold

The tone letter provides a simplified time-pitch graph of each syllable under normal stress. The time-pitch graph is drawn from left to right, with the vertical line serving as a reference scale for pitch range. Similarly, the pitch contour represents pitches by numbers from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest.

UIBUBDDPNQBOJFTUIFRVFTUJPOi8IPSBOPGG .PUIFS wBEESFTTFEUPUIF TQFBLFSTNPUIFS NBZFMJDJUTPNFTVDIBOTXFSBTi:PVSTJTUFSw8JUIUIFBQ QSPQSJBUFMZEJGGFSFOUJOUPOBUJPO UIFRVFTUJPOi8IPSBOPGG‰.PUIFS wBE ESFTTFEUPTPNFPUIFSNFNCFSPGUIFGBNJMZNBZFMJDJUTPNFTVDIBOTXFSBT i:FT XJUIPVUFWFOMFBWJOHBOPUFw 5IFQIZTJDBMEVSBUJPOPGBTPVOEJTSFGFSSFEUPBTJUTRVBOUJUZ PSMFOHUI *O&OHMJTIUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFTIPSUWPXFMJOCJU BOEUIFMPOHFSPOF JOCFBU JTOPUTUSJDUMZPSQSJNBSJMZBEJGGFSFODFJOMFOHUICFDBVTFUIFUXPWPX FMTWBSZJOPUIFSSFTQFDUT:FUUIFDPOTPOBOUXSJUUFOBTUUJODBUUBJM JTTPNF XIBUMPOHFSUIBOUIBUXSJUUFOBTUUJODBUUMF *O$[FDI UIPVHI MFOHUIJT DPOUSBTUJWFTVDIXPSEQBJSTBTMBL AWBSOJTIBOEMÈL AQJDLMF CSJOF PSEBM AIF HBWFBOEEÈM AGBSUIFSBSFBMJLFFYDFQUGPSUIFDPOTJEFSBCMFMFOHUIFOJOHPGUIF WPXFM JO UIF TFDPOE XPSE PG FBDI QBJS NBSLFE JO DPOWFOUJPOBM $[FDI TQFMMJOHCZUIFEJBDSJUJD}PWFSUIFWPXFM 4PNFMJOHVJTUTBMTPEJTUJOHVJTIQIPOFUJDGFBUVSFTUIBUNBSLUIFKPJOJOHPG POFHSBNNBUJDBMVOJUUPBOPUIFSTPDBMMFEKVODUVSFT &OHMJTIFYBNQMFTJO DMVEFUIFBVEJCMFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFNFNCFSTPGTVDIQBJSTBTOJUSBUF BOEOJHIUSBUF *TDSFBN BOEJDFDSFBN BOEBOBJN BOEBOBNF

Etics and Emics

49

Etics and Emics -FUVTGJSTUCSJFGMZSFWJFXUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOQIPOFUJDTBOEQIPOFNJDT "QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO PSEFTDSJQUJPO PGBQBSUJDVMBSMBOHVBHFJTBOBU UFNQUUPBDDPVOUGPSBMMUIFBVEJCMFPSQFSDFJWBCMFEJGGFSFODFTBNPOHUIF TPVOETPGUIBUMBOHVBHF'PSFYBNQMF UIFQIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPG&OHMJTI XPSETXPVMESFHJTUFSUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFQ TPVOETPGQJLF BOETQJLF UIFGJSTU JTBTQJSBUFEXIFSFBTUIFTFDPOE JTOPU PSCFUXFFOUIF JOJUJBMDPOTPOBOUTPGTIPPU BOETIFFU UIDPOWFOUJPOBMMZXSJUUFOBTTI UIF GJSTU <Ý„> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTSPVOEFEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPGBSPVOEFE WPXFMUIFTFDPOE <Ý> JTQSPOPVODFEXJUIUIFMJQTTQSFBEJOBOUJDJQBUJPOPG BOVOSPVOEFEWPXFM #ZDPOUSBTU UIFQIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOPGUIFTFGPVS TPVOETJOUIFUXPQBJSTPGXPSETXPVMECFTJNQMZQBOETCFDBVTFJO&OH MJTIOFJUIFS BOE OPS<Ý„>BOE<Ý>EJTUJOHVJTINFBOJOHJOUIFXBZO BOEŋ EP GPSFYBNQMF JOTJO BOETJOH XPSETHJWFOEJGGFSFOUNFBOJOHCZ WJSUVFPGOWFSTVTŋ 5IFUFSNTFUJD BOEFNJD BOEUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOH OPVOTFUJDT BOEFNJDT XFSFEFSJWFEGSPNQIPOFUJD T BOEQIPOFNJD T BOE DPJOFECZUIFMJOHVJTU,FOOFUI-1JLF o JOBXPSLJOXIJDIIFBU UFNQUFEUPSFMBUFUIFTUVEZPGMBOHVBHFUPBVOJGJFEUIFPSZPGUIFTUSVDUVSFPG IVNBOCFIBWJPS "DDPSEJOHUP1JLF

UIFSFBSFTFWFSBMJNQPS UBOUEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOUIFFUJDBOEFNJDBQQSPBDIFTUPMBOHVBHFBOEDVM UVSF'PSFYBNQMF TPDJBMTDJFOUJTUTXIPTUVEZCFIBWJPS JODMVEJOHMBOHVBHF

GSPNPVUTJEFBQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFNBSFGPMMPXJOHUIFFUJDBQQSPBDICFDBVTFUIF VOJUTUIFZVTFBSFBWBJMBCMFJOBEWBODF BTBSFUIFOVNFSPVTQIPOFUJDTZN MTSFQSFTFOUJOHUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPGTPVOETPDDVSSJOHJOUIFNBOZMBO HVBHFTPGUIFXPSME #ZDPOUSBTU UIFFNJDBQQSPBDIJOWPMWFTBTUVEZGSPNXJUIJO5IFFNJD VOJUTNVTUCFEJTDPWFSFECZTVCKFDUJOHBQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFNUPBOBMZTJT BMJO HVJTUBSSJWFTBUUIFQIPOFNFTPGBMBOHVBHFPOMZBTBSFTVMUPGBOBOBMZTJT .PSFPWFS UIFFUJDBQQSPBDIJTQPUFOUJBMMZDSPTTDVMUVSBMBOEDPNQBSBUJWFJO UIBUJUNBZCFBQQMJFEUPTFWFSBMMBOHVBHFTPSDVMUVSFTBUBUJNFUIFFNJDBQ QSPBDIJTMBOHVBHFoPSDVMUVSFTQFDJGJDCFDBVTFJUDBOCFBQQMJFEPOMZUPPOF BUBUJNF'VSUIFSNPSF FUJDDSJUFSJBBSFEJSFDUMZNFBTVSBCMFBOENBZCFDPO TJEFSFEBCTPMVUF'PSFYBNQMF UI&OHMJTIBOE$[FDIJODMVEFTPVOETUIBU BSFQIPOFUJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEBT BOE<ŋ >&NJDDSJUFSJB IPXFWFS BSF SFMBUJWFUPPOFQBSUJDVMBSTZTUFN*O&OHMJTIN O BOEŋ BSFQIPOFNJ DBMMZEJTUJODU BTJOTVN TVO BOETVOH CVUJO$[FDIPOMZNBOEOBSF

50


F I G U R E 3 . 2 Deetz’s “Facteme” and “Allofacts” Illustrated

on Arrowheads

CFDBVTF<ŋ >JO$[FDIJTBOBMMPQIPOFPGO JUPDDVSTCFGPSFWFMBSDPOTP OBOUT /BUJWFTQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHF PGDPVSTF EPOPULOPXBOEEPOPU IBWFUPLOPXUIFQIPOFNJDTZTUFNPGUIFJSNPUIFSUPOHVFUIFZJOUFSOBMJ[F JUXIFOUIFZMFBSOUIFJSMBOHVBHFJOFBSMZDIJMEIPPE "OPUIFSXBZUPFYFNQMJGZUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOFUJDTBOEFNJDTJTUP QPJOUPVUUIBUOBUJWFTQFBLFSTPG&OHMJTIFODPEFUIFJSNFTTBHFTFUJDBMMZ‰ BMUIPVHIVOBXBSFUIBUUIFZBTQJSBUFTPNFQTTUSPOHMZ PUIFSTXFBLMZ BOE TUJMMPUIFST BGUFSBOT PGUIFTBNFTZMMBCMF OPUBUBMM‰CVUVODPOTDJPVTMZEF DPEFUIFNFNJDBMMZ QBZJOHBUUFOUJPOPOMZUPEJTUJODUJWFGFBUVSFT TVDIBTUIF WPJDJOHUIBUEJTUJOHVJTIFTCGSPNQJOCVODI BOEQVODI CFTU BOEQFTU BOE PUIFSTVDIQBJST 1JLFTFYUFOTJPOPGUIFDPODFQUTPGFUJDTBOEFNJDTUPUIFTUVEZPGDVMUVSF TUJNVMBUFEPUIFSTDIPMBSTUPBQQMZUIFTFDPODFQUTUPUIFGJFMETPGUIFJSPXO TQFDJBMJ[BUJPO+BNFT'%FFU[ o

BOBSDIBFPMPHJTU TVHHFTUFE o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

BOEBOZJOEJWJEVBMOPUDIJOH SFHBSEMFTTPGTIBQF DBOCFUFSNFE B GBDU CZ BOBMPHZ UP QIPOF *O UIJT UFSNJOPMPHZ GBDU JT BO FUJD VOJU GBDUFNFJTBOFNJDVOJU BOEBMMPGBDUSFQSFTFOUTBHSPVQXIPTFFUJDNFN CFSTDPOTUJUVUFBOFNJDVOJU *OTJNJMBSGBTIJPO UIFGPMLMPSJTU"MBO%VOEFT o DPJOFEUIF UFSNTNPUJGFNF BOEBMMPNPUJG UPTVQQMFNFOUUIFFTUBCMJTIFEUFSNNPUJG

Etics and Emics

51

'PSFYBNQMF GPMLOBSSBUJWFTGSPNBMMQBSUTPGUIFXPSMEDPOUBJOBNPUJGFNF UIBUDPVMECFEFTDSJCFEBTiUIFIFSPJTTVCKFDUFEUPBEJGGJDVMUPSEBOHFSPVT UFTUw5IFUFTUDBOUBLFBHSFBUNBOZGPSNT FBDIPGXIJDIXPVMECFBOBMMP NPUJGPGUIFNPUJGFNF‰GPSFYBNQMF TXBMMPXJOHSFEIPUTUPOFT USJDLJOHB XPNBOXIPLJMMTIFSIVTCBOETBOEMPWFSTCZNFBOTPGIFSUPPUIFEWBHJOB IBUDIJOHJMFEFHHT DBSSZJOHXBUFSJOBTJFWF BOEIVOESFETPGPUIFSNFBOT PGUFTUJOHUIFIFSP&BDIBDUVBMUFMMJOHPGBIFSPTUFTUXPVMESFQSFTFOUUIFPD DVSSFODFPGBNPUJGJOUIFOBSSBUJWF %VOEFT )PXJTUIFTUVEZPGOPOWFSCBMCFIBWJPSUPCFBQQSPBDIFE‰FUJDBMMZ FNJ DBMMZ PSUI‰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o

XBTUIFGPSFNPTUQSPQPOFOU iFUJDBOBMZTJTis   BTUFQQJOHTUPOe . . UP UIFEJTDPWFSZPGFUJDTUSVDUVSFT5IFJOUFOUJTOFJUIFSUPDPOWFSUFUJDTUPFNJDT OPSFNJDTUPFUJDT CVUSBUIFSUPEFTDSJCFUIBOEJGQPTTJCMFUPFYQMBJOPOF JOUFSNTPGUIFPUIFSw )BSSJT "OEGVSUIFS iFUJDT GPS1JLF FWFOBU UIFQIPOFUJDMFWFM JTJOQBSUUIFPCTFSWFSTFNJDTJODPSSFDUMZBQQMJFEUPBGPS FJHOTZTUem. . . *G1JLFIBENFBOUCZFUJDTOPUIJOHCVUUIFFNJDTPGUIFPC TFSWFS XIZEJEIFUIFSUPJOUSPEVDFUIFUFSNFUJDT 8IZOPUTJNQMZCF DPOUFOUXJUIUIFPQQPTJUJPOAFNJDTPGUIFPCTFSWFSWFSTVTAFNJDTPGUIFOB UJWFQBSUJDJQBOU w )BSSJT "HPPEBOUISPQPMPHJDBMSFQPSU BDDPSE JOH UP )BSSJT TIPVME EJTUJOHVJTI CFUXFFO PO UIF POF IBOE XIBU UIF PCTFSWFSIBTTFFOBOEIFBSEUPUIFCFTUPGIJTPSIFSPCKFDUJWFBCJMJUZ BOE XIJDIDBOUIFSFGPSFCFJOEFQFOEFOUMZWFSJGJFE BOE POUIFPUIFSIBOE XIBU JTJOUIFIFBETPGUIFOBUJWFJOGPSNBOUTXIFOUIFZDPNNFOUPOUIFJSPXO DVMUVSF&UJDBOBMZTJTJTUIFSFGPSFUPCFDPOTJEFSFEBOFOEJOJUTFMG 5IFGJOFSQPJOUTPGUIFFUJDTFNJDTEFCBUFBSFRVJUFUFDIOJDBMBOEUIFSFGPSF PVUTJEF UIF TDPQF PG BO JOUSPEVDUJPO UP MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ 0O UIF

52


XIPMF JUTFFNTUIBUUIFEJTUJODUJPOCFUXFFOUIFFUJDBOEFNJDBQQSPBDIFTJT NPSFFBTJMZBQQMJDBCMFUPMJOHVJTUJDEBUBUIBOUPOPOWFSCBMDVMUVSBMCFIBWJPS Summary and Conclusions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

UIBUJT QIPOFNJD GPSFYBNQMF BOE JO&OHMJTI EJGGFSFOUJBUJOHCFUXFFOCVMM BOEQVMM

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

4 Structure of Words and Sentences

#FDBVTFNBOZPGUIFMBOHVBHFTUIFZFODPVOUFSIBWFPOMZCFFOTQPLFO OFWFS XSJUUFO BOUISPQPMPHJTUTNVTUBEFRVBUFMZJEFOUJGZBMMUIFTPVOETCFGPSFUIFZ DBOUSBOTDSJCFBOEMBUFSBOBMZ[FXIBUTQFBLFSTPGUIFTFMBOHVBHFTIBWFTBJE 4JODFBDDVSBUFUSBOTDSJQUJPODBOOPUCFNBEFBUUIFTQFFEBUXIJDIQFPQMF UBML NBHOFUJDUBQFSFDPSEFSTIBWFCFFOPGHSFBUIFMQJONPEFSOGJFMEXPSL 8IFOFUIOPHSBQIJDSFQPSUTBSFQVCMJTIFEJOXIJDIOBUJWFXPSETPSUFYUTBSF UPCFDJUFE BSFMJBCMFNFUIPEPGXSJUJOHEPXOUIFMBOHVBHFNVTUCFEFWJTFE 1IPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOJTUIFNPTUFDPOPNJDBOEBUUIFTBNFUJNFBDDVSBUF XBZPGSFDPSEJOHVUUFSBODFTSBOHJOHGSPNTIPSUDPNNFOUTUPMPOHDFSFNP OJBMTQFFDIFT "HPPEUSBOTDSJQUJPOJTFTTFOUJBMGPSBOBOBMZTJTCFDBVTFPOMZXJUIBSFMJ BCMFUFYUJOIBOEDBOUIFMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUEFUFSNJOFBMBOHVBHFT HSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSFBOEFYBDUNFBOJOH'VMMVOEFSTUBOEJOHSFRVJSFTUIF JEFOUJGJDBUJPOPGFWFOUIFTNBMMFTUNFBOJOHGVMTFHNFOUT NPSQIFNFT UIBU NBLF VQ UIF UFYU &WFSZ MBOHVBHF IBT JUT PXO TUPDL PG NPSQIFNFT BOE BSSBOHFTUIFNJOUPXPSET QISBTFT BOETFOUFODFTJOBQBSUJDVMBSXBZ BOE FWFSZMBOHVBHFIBTJUTPXOHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSJFTUIBUWBSZGSPNPOFMBO HVBHFUPUIFOFYU *OXIBUVOJUTEPQFPQMFDPNNVOJDBUF 5IFBOTXFSEFQFOETPOUIFBQ QSPBDIPOFUBLFTUPUIFTUVEZPGTQFFDI"OJNQPSUBOUVOJUPGMJOHVJTUJD BOBMZTJTJTUIFTFOUFODF XIJDIJTJOUVSOTVCEJWJEBCMFJOUPTNBMMFSDPO TUJUVFOUT‰GPSFYBNQMF OPVOQISBTFTBOEWFSCQISBTFTPSUIFTVCKFDU WFSC BOEPCKFDU5IFQSJODJQBMBOBMZUJDBMVOJUPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSJO 53

54

Chapter 4: Structure of Words and Sentences

MJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZJTEJTDPVSTF 5IFDPODFQUPGEJTDPVSTFJTOPUFBTZUP EFGJOFCFDBVTFJOEJWJEVBMTDIPMBSTVTFJUEJGGFSFOUMZ%JTDPVSTFNBZCFBT TIPSUJOEVSBUJPOBTBHSFFUJOHPSBTMPOHBTBQSPUSBDUFEBSHVNFOUPSUIF UFMMJOHPGBUSBEJUJPOBMOBSSBUJWFJUDBOCFPSBMPSXSJUUFO QMBOOFEPSVO QMBOOFE QPFUJDPSCVTJOFTTMJLF BOEJUDBOCFFYFNQMJGJFECZBOZPOFPGUIF HFOSFTDIBSBDUFSJTUJDPGUIFTQFFDICFIBWJPSPGBQBSUJDVMBSDVMUVSF"HSFBU EFBMPGBOZDVMUVSFJTUSBOTNJUUFECZNFBOTPGEJTDPVSTF BOEEJTDPVSTFNBZ CFTBJEUPDPOTUJUVUFBTJHOJGJDBOUQBSUPGBOZDVMUVSF"T+PFM4IFS[FSQVUJU %JTDPVSTFJTUIFCSPBEFTUBOENPTUDPNQSFIFOTJWFMFWFMPGMJOHVJTUJDGPSN DPOUFOU BOEVTe . . UIFQSPDFTTPGEJTDPVSTFTUSVDUVSJOHJTUIFMPDVT PGUIFMBOHVBHFDVMUVSFSFMBUJPOTIJQ. . . *UJTJODFSUBJOLJOETPGEJTDPVSTF JO XIJDITQFFDIQMBZBOEWFSCBMBSUBSFIFJHIUFOFE BTDFOUSBMNPNFOUTJOQP FUSZ NBHJD QPMJUJDT SFMJHJPO SFTQFDU JOTVMU BOECBSHBJOJOH UIBUUIFMBO HVBHFDVMUVSFEJTDPVSTF SFMBUJPOTIJQ DPNFT JOUP TIBSQFTU GPDVT BOE UIF PSHBOJ[JOHSPMFPGEJTDPVSTFJOUIJTSFMBUJPOTIJQJTIJHIMJHIUFE 4IFS[FS o

-JOHVJTUJDUIFPSJFTBOENFUIPETVOEFSXFOUHSFBUDIBOHFTEVSJOH UIF UXFOUJFUI DFOUVSZ UIF USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWF BQQSPBDI PG SFDFOU EFDBEFTSBQJEMZHBJOJOHGPMMPXFST"OEBMUIPVHIMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT BSFNPSFDPODFSOFEXJUIUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOMBOHVBHFBOEDVMUVSFBOE TPDJFUZUIBOXJUIMJOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFJOBOEPGJUTFMG UIFZOFWFSUIFMFTTGPMMPX DVSSFOUMJOHVJTUJDSFTFBSDIXJUIJOUFSFTUBOEXIFOBQQMJDBCMFVTFJUTSFTVMUTJO UIFJSPXOXPSL Morphemes and Allomorphs "O PWFSWJFX PG QIPOFUJDT BOE UIF GVOEBNFOUBM QSJODJQMFT PG QIPOFNJD BOBMZTJTXBTQSFTFOUFEJOUIFQSFWJPVTDIBQUFS-FUVTOPXTIJGUUPUIFMFWFM PG BOBMZTJT DPOWFOUJPOBMMZ SFGFSSFE UP BT HSBNNBS $POTJEFS UIF QISBTF TIPDLJOHMZEJTHSBDFGVMBDUT XIJDIDBOCFTVCEJWJEFEJOUPUIFGPMMPXJOHNFBO JOHGVMTFHNFOUT UPTJNQMJGZNBUUFST DPOWFOUJPOBMTQFMMJOHJOTUFBEPGQIPOF NJDUSBOTDSJQUJPOJTVTFECFMPX TIPDL NFBOJOHiUPTUBSUMF PGGFOE EJTUSFTT w JOH BOBEKFDUJWBMTFHNFOUNFBOJOHiDBVTJOHUP    w

Morphemes and Allomorphs

55

MZ BOBEWFSCJBMTFHNFOUNFBOJOHiJOa . . NBOOFS w EJT NFBOJOHiOPU PQQPTJUFPG w HSBDF NFBOJOHiQSPQSJFUZ EFDFODZ w GVM NFBOJOHiDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZ w BDU NFBOJOHiEFFE wBOE T NFBOJOHiNPSFUIBOPOF w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‰JO UIFFYBNQMFBWF HSBDF TIPDL BOEBDU 4PNFNPSQIFNFT CVUVTVBMMZSFM BUJWFMZGFX BSFVOENPSQIFNFTCFDBVTFUIFZOPSNBMMZEPOPUPDDVSPO UIFJSPXOCVUPOMZJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIBOPUIFSNPSQIFNF‰GPSFYBNQMF EJT JOH MZ BOET 5IFTUFNJTUIBUQBSUPGUIFXPSEUPXIJDIJOGMFDUJPOBM BGGJYFT TVDIBTUIFQMVSBM BSFBUUBDIFE *O&OHMJTIBOEPUIFSMBOHVBHFT VOENPSQIFNFTPDDVSJOMJNJUFE OVNCFST 5IFSF BSF MBOHVBHFT UIPVHI JO XIJDI NPTU NPSQIFNFT BSF VOE&TLJNPJTVTVBMMZDJUFEBTBOFYBNQMFPGTVDIBMBOHVBHF*OTUJMM PUIFSMBOHVBHFT UIPTFOPVOTUFNTUIBUTUBOEGPSPCKFDUTXIJDIBSFUZQJ DBMMZQPTTFTTFEEPOPUPDDVSBTGSFFNPSQIFNFT5IJTJTUSVF GPSFYBNQMF PG"SBQBIPOPVOTSFGFSSJOHUPEZQBSUT LJOTIJQSFMBUJPOTIJQT BOEBGFX PUIFSSFGFSFOUT *O"SBQBIP UIFBDVUFBDDFOU<}>NBSLTTUSFTTFEWPXFMT XJUIIJHIFSQJUDIMPOHWPXFMTBSFXSJUUFOEPVCMZ &YBNQMFTPGEFQFOE FOU OPVOT BSF CÏUFF A TPNFPOFT IFBSU XPOPUØOPʔ A TPNFPOFT FBS OPUØØOF ANZEBVHIUFS CÏÓUFIʔ ÏÓ A TPNFPOFT GSJFOE BOECFUÏÓ AMPVTF GMFB CFDBVTFUIFSFJTOPTVDIUIJOHBTBIFBSUPSBOFBSBQBSUGSPNBIVNBOPS BOBOJNBM BEBVHIUFSXJUIPVUBNPUIFSPSGBUIFS BGSJFOEVOBUUBDIFEUP BOPUIFSCZBGGFDUJPO PSBMPVTFPSGMFBUIBUDPVMETVSWJWFXJUIPVUEFSJWJOH

56


CFOFGJUTGSPNBIPTU5IFGPSNTCÏUFF XPOPUØOPʔ OPUØØOF CÏÓUFIʔ ÏÓ BOE CFUÏÓ DPOTJTUPGFJUIFSUIFGJSTUQFSTPOQPTTFTTJWFNPSQIFNFOJOOPUØØ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ÈOØʔ AXPNBO LØOÓʔ AHSBOEDIJME TFXÓʔ ANBHQJF BOETFWFSBMPUIFSTUFNTGPSNUIFQMVSBMCZJOTFSUJOHBOJOGJYJOUIF GPSNPG BWPJDFMFTTMBUFSBMDPOUJOVBOU CFGPSFUIFTFDPOEDPOTPOBOU ZJFMEJOHaká n’óʔ ‘women,’ kó n’íʔ ‘grandchildren,’ and se wíʔ ‘magpies *OGJYBUJPO JT GBJSMZ DPNNPO JO /BUJWF "NFSJDBO 4PVUIFBTU "TJBO BOE "GSJDBOMBOHVBHFT 8IBUBVUTVDIiJSSFHVMBSwQMVSBMTJO&OHMJTIBTGFFU HFFTF NFO BOE NJDF 3BUIFS UIBO CZ BEEJOH B TVGGJY UP UIF TUFNT GPPU HPPTF NBO BOE NPVTF UIFQMVSBMJTGPSNFECZDIBOHJOHUIFTUFNWPXFM‰GPSFYBNQMF JO GPPU m GFFU BOEHPPTF m HFFTF‰CZGSPOUJOHBOEVOSPVOEJOHJU TFF#PY 1MVSBMJ[BUJPOJOTVDIXPSETJTFGGFDUFECZXIBUJTTPNFUJNFTSFGFSSFEUPBTB QSPDFTTNPSQIFNFBOEJTRVJUFEJGGFSFOUGSPNUIFBEEJUJPOPGBTVGGJYBGUFS UIFTUFN BTJODBU QMVTT "QBSUJDVMBSNPSQIFNFEPFTOPUIBWFUPIBWFUIFTBNFTIBQFFWFSZUJNF JUPDDVST5IFQMVSBMPG&OHMJTIOPVOTPGGFSTBOFYDFMMFOUFYBNQMFPGUIFDPO TJEFSBCMFWBSJBUJPOJOUIFQIPOFNJDTIBQFPGBNPSQIFNF/PVOTUFNTFOE JOHJOBTPDBMMFETJCJMBOU BOTMJLFPSTIMJLFGSJDBUJWF GPSNUIFJSQMVSBMCZ BEEJOHBWPXFMQMVTB[ TPVOE WFSZDPNNPOMZ<ə[> BTJOYFT QBTTFT CV[[FT CVTIFT HBSBHFT QBUDIFT BOEKVEHFT5IFHSFBUNBKPSJUZPGOPVO TUFNTFOEJOHJOWPJDFEOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFE<[> XIFSFBTUIPTF FOEJOHJOWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOUTPVOETBEEBWPJDFMFTT BTJOCFBST DBOT DPNNBT MBUIFT QBET QJMMT SJCT SJHT BOETPOHT POUIFPOFIBOE BOE DBUT MBVHIT MJQT BOEUJDLT POUIFPUIFS#VUBOVNCFSPGOPVOTUFNTGPSN

Morphemes and Allomorphs

57

B OX 4 . 1 W H Y E N G L I S H I S S O H A R D

Compared to other Indo-European languages, English has few grammatical affixes. But as in all natural languages, there are some “irregular” forms, as this anonymous poem points out. All the italicized words were used in English before the twelfth century except vow and booth (thirteenth century), boot (fourteenth century), and moose (earliest recorded date of use is 1603). They are old words, not likely to become regularized. We’ll begin with a box, and the plural is boxes, But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes. Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese, Yet the plural of moose should never be meese. You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice, But the plural of house is houses, not hice. If the plural of man is always called men, Why shouldn’t the plural of pan be called pen? The cow in the plural may be cows or kine, But the plural of vow is vows, not vine. And I speak of a foot, and you show me your feet, But I give you a boot—would a pair be called beet? If one is a tooth and a whole set are teeth, Why shouldn’t the plural of booth be called beeth? Then one may be that, and three may be those, Yet the plural of hat would never be hose. We speak of a brother and also of brethren, But though we say mother, we never say methren. So our English, I think you will agree, Is the trickiest language you ever did see.

UIFQMVSBMEJGGFSFOUMZ‰BNPOHUIFNBMVNOB BMVNOVT DIJME DSJTJT DSJUFSJPO EBUVN LJCCVU[ BOEPYUIFJSQMVSBMTBSF SFTQFDUJWFMZ BMVNOBF BMVNOJ DIJM ESFO DSJTFT DSJUFSJB EBUB LJCCVU[JN BOEPYFO "OEUIFOUIFSFBSFBSFMBUJWFMZ GFXOPVOTUFNTUIFQMVSBMTPGXIJDIBSFOPUPWFSUMZNBSLFE GPSFYBNQMF TIFFQ BOETXJOF 5IFTFBOEPUIFSTVDIOPVOTBSFTBJEUPIBWFUIFJSQMVSBMT

58


NBSLFECZB[FSP XSJUUFOBT

UIBUJT CZUIFBCTFODFPGBOPWFSUMJOHVJT UJDGFBUVSF5IFWBSJBOUGPSNTPGBQBSUJDVMBSNPSQIFNFBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTJUT BMMPNPSQIT KVTUBTUIFWBSJFUJFTPGBQIPOFNFBSFDBMMFEBMMPQIPOFT

PS NPSQIFNFBMUFSOBUT"MMPNPSQITPGBHJWFONPSQIFNF UIFO BSFEJGGFSFOU GPSNTPGUIFNPSQIFNF EFQFOEJOHPOUIFDPOUFYUJOXIJDIUIFZPDDVS *OTVNNBSZ UIFO POFNBZTBZUIBUUIFQMVSBMNPSQIFNFJO&OHMJTIIBT BOVNCFSPGBMMPNPSQIT SBOHJOHGSPNUIFNPTUDPNNPOPOFTPG[ T BOEə[ UISPVHITFWFSBMPUIFSTBTTPDJBUFEFTQFDJBMMZXJUIMPBOXPSET UP [FSP"OEJOUIFDBTFPGQMVSBMJ[JOHUIFOPVONBO UPNFO POFXPVMESFQSF TFOUUIFQMVSBMBMMPNPSQIBTmε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orphological Processes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

Morphological Processes

59

FST *O&OHMJTIBMMJOGMFDUJPOBMBGGJYFTBSFTVGGJYFTBOEBSFMJNJUFEUPUIFQMVSBM BOEQPTTFTTJWFNBSLFSTJOOPVOT BTJONPUIFST BOENPUIFST

DPNQBSBUJWF BOETVQFSMBUJWFNBSLFSTJOBEKFDUJWFT BTJOUBMMFS BOEUBMMFTU

BOEUIFUIJSE QFSTPOTJOHVMBSQSFTFOUUFOTFNBSLFSBOEUIFQBTUUFOTF QSPHSFTTJWF BOEQBTU QBSUJDJQMFNBSLFSTJOWFSCT BTJOXBJUT XBJUFE <JT>TJOHJOH BOECFBUFO %FSJWBUJPOBMBOEJOGMFDUJPOBMNPSQIFNFTNBZIBWFUIFTBNFQIPOFNJD TIBQF0OFJOH JO&OHMJTITFSWFTBTUIFEFSJWBUJPOBMTVGGJYDIBOHJOHBWFSC JOUPBOPVOBTJOi&YDFTTJWFFBUJOHJTIBSNGVM wXIFSFBTBOPUIFSJOH JTBO JOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYNBSLJOHUIFQSPHSFTTJWFWFSCGPSNBTJOi5IFZXFSFFBU JOHWPSBDJPVTMZw*O&OHMJTIJOGMFDUJPOBMTVGGJYFTBMXBZTGPMMPXEFSJWBUJPOBM TVGGJYFT BTJOSFBEFST PSHBOJ[FST BOEGSJFOEMJFTU SFBEFST PSHBOJ[ F FST BOEGSJFOEMJFTU "T MBOHVBHFT HP &OHMJTI IBT WFSZ GFX JOGMFDUJPOBM BGGJYFT DPNQBSFE XJUI GPSFYBNQMF -BUJO"TBHBJOTUUIFIBOEGVMPGEJGGFSFOUGPSNTPGBO &OHMJTIWFSC TQFBL TQFBLT TQFBLJOH TQPLF BOETQPLFO

B-BUJOWFSCIBT TDPSFT3FHBSEJOHOVNCFS &OHMJTIEJTUJOHVJTIFTGPSNBMMZPOMZCFUXFFO UIFTJOHVMBSBOEUIFQMVSBM XIFSFBTTPNFMBOHVBHFTIBWFTQFDJBMGPSNT BMTPGPSUIFEVBMUPSFGFSUPUXPPGBLJOE BOEFWFOGPSNTUPSFGFSUPUISFF BOEGPVSPGBLJOE0ME&OHMJTINBSLFEUIFEVBMOVNCFSJOJUTQFSTPOBM QSPOPVOT#FTJEFTJD A*BOEX [ AXF UIFSFXBTXJU AXFUXPCFTJEFTN[ A UP

NFBOEõT A UP VT UIFSFXBTVOD A UP UIFUXPPGVTBOETPPO5IFTF EVBMGPSNTHSBEVBMMZEJTBQQFBSFEEVSJOHUIFTFDPOEQBSUPGUIFUIJSUFFOUI DFOUVSZ IBMGXBZUISPVHIUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE)PXFWFS EFSJWBUJPOBM TVGGJYFTJO&OHMJTIBSFQMFOUJGVMBCMF BTJOSFBTPOBCMF

BEF CMPDLBEF

BHF CSFBLBHF

BM DPBTUBM

BODF BTTJTUBODF

BOU TFSWBOU

BS MJOFBS

BSE ESVOLBSE

BSZ CVEHFUBSZ

BUF BDUJWBUF

BUJD QSPCMFNBUJD

BOE TDPSFTPGPUIFST 4PNFMBOHVBHFTEJTUJOHVJTIOPVOTBDDPSEJOHUPTFWFSBMHFOEFST FBDIPG XIJDINBZSFRVJSFDPSSFTQPOEJOHGPSNTJOQSPOPVOT BEKFDUJWFT BOEFWFO WFSCT'SFRVFOUMZUIFSFJTOPDPSSFMBUJPOCFUXFFOHSBNNBUJDBMBOEOBUVSBM HFOEFS*O&OHMJTIBMMJOBOJNBUFPCKFDUTBSFSFGFSSFEUPCZUIFQSPOPVOJU JO (FSNBO IPXFWFS EFS-ÚGGFM ATQPPOJTNBTDVMJOF EJF(BCFM AGPSLJTGFNJ OJOF BOEEBT.FTTFS ALOJGFJTOFVUFS BTBSFBMTPEBT8FJC AXPNBOBOEEBT .ÊEDIFO AHJSM*O0ME&OHMJTI TUGO ATUPOFBOEXkGNBO AXPNBOXFSFNBT DVMJOF EVSV AEPPS BOE TVOOF ATVO GFNJOJOF BOE XPSE AXPSE BOE XkG AXPNBO XJGFOFVUFS5IFTVCTUJUVUJPOPGOBUVSBMGPSHSBNNBUJDBMHFOEFS BMTPUPPLQMBDFEVSJOHUIF.JEEMF&OHMJTIQFSJPE

60


"OPUIFSHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZUIBUNBZTFSWFBTBOFYBNQMFJTDBTF "M UIPVHI0ME&OHMJTIIBEUISFFDBTFGPSNTGPS TBZ TUGO ATUPOFJOUIFTJOHVMBS OPNJOBUJWFBOEBDDVTBUJWFTUGO HFOJUJWFTUGOFT BOEEBUJWFTUGOF BOEUISFF JOUIFQMVSBM TUGOBT TUGOB BOETUGOVN SFTQFDUJWFMZ

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

NFBOJOHABU OFBS BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPMMB ABUUIFIPVTF FMBUJWF NFBOJOHAPVUPG BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPTUB AGSPN JOTJEF UIFIPVTF JOFTTJWFAJO XJUIJO BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPTTB AJOUIFIPVTF JMMBUJWFAJOUP BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPPO AJOUPUIFIPVTF BMMBUJWFAUP XBSET BQMBDF

BTJOUBMPMMF AUP XBSET UIFIPVTF BOETFWFSBM PUIFST "TQFDU JTBHSBNNBUJDBMDBUFHPSZFYQSFTTJOHIPXBDUJWJUJFTEFOPUFECZ WFSCTBSFSFMBUFEUPUJNF5IJTDBUFHPSZJTQBSUJDVMBSMZXFMMEFWFMPQFEJO 4MBWJDMBOHVBHFT BTTPNFPGUIFGPMMPXJOHFYBNQMFTGSPN$[FDIXJMMTIPX $[FDIWFSCTBSFQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTDPNQMFUFPSDPODMVEFE BT JOUIFTVQQMFUJWFQÑJÝFM iIFIBTDPNF BSSJWFEwGSPNUIFJOGJOJUJWFQÑJKÓU PS JNQFSGFDUJWF FYQSFTTJOHBDUJPOBTJODPNQMFUFPSSFQFBUFE BTJOÝFM AIFXFOU GSPNKÓU AUPHP5IFNVMUJQMJDJUZPGWFSCBMBDUJPOJTFYQSFTTFEJOUIFJUFSBUJWF GPSNOPTJM AIFDBSSJFEBOEUIFNPSFJOUFOTJWFGSFRVFOUBUJWFGPSNOPTÓWBM AIFVTFEUPDBSSZ"QBSUJDVMBSQIBTFPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFTQFDJGJFEBT BOJOJUJBUPSZPOF BTJOWZCZIM AIFSBOPVU BDPNQMFUFEPOF BTJOEPCZIM AIF SFBDIFE CZSVOOJOH BOEBUFSNJOBUJWFPOF BTJOQSPCZIM TF AIFIBE SVO5IFFYUFOUPGBWFSCBMBDUJPONBZCFNPNFOUBSZ BTJOTUÑFMJM AIFUPPL BTIPU PSEVSBUJWF FYQSFTTJWFDPOUJOVJUZ BTJOTUÑÓMFM AIFGJSFEBXBZPSUIF FYUFOUJTTNBMM BTJOVTNÈMTF AIFHBWFBTNJMF wPSMBSHF BTJOOBTNÈMTF AIF IBEBHPPEMBVHI "OJOUFSFTUJOHNPSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTJTSFEVQMJDBUJPO UIFEPVCMJOHPS SFQFUJUJPOPGBQIPOFNFPSQIPOFNFT*O*TUINVT/BIVBU BEJBMFDUPG/BIV BUMTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJOFBTUFSO.FYJDP WFSCTUFNTBSFEFSJWFE

Morphophonemics

61

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‰TPNFUIJOHOPPOFDBOTF SJPVTMZNBJOUBJO"MMMBOHVBHFTBSFGVMMZBEFRVBUFCFDBVTFUIFZFOBCMFOB UJWFTQFBLFSTUPFYQSFTTBMMUIBUUIFZXJTIUPTBZBVUUIFTPDJFUZBOEDVMUVSF JOXIJDIUIFZMJWF Morphophonemics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əCFGPSFUIFQMVSBMTVGGJYJGUIFTUFNFOETJOBTJCJMBOU T [ Ý ä O PS BTJOLJTT LJTTFT PSDIBOHFUIFWPJDFE[UPWPJDFMFTTTJGUIF TUFNUFSNJOBUFTJOBWPJDFMFTTOPOTJCJMBOU BTJOOFDL OFDLT

62


.PSQIPQIPOFNJDSVMFTJOBOZMBOHVBHFBSFTUBUBCMFFWFOJGUIFZBSF GBJSMZDPNQMFY'PSFYBNQMF JO"SBQBIP BO"MHPORVJBOMBOHVBHFTQPLFO CZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTJO8ZPNJOHBOE0LMBIPNB UIFXPSEOÏÓʔ JCÏIFʔ ANZ HSBOENPUIFSJTSFHVMBSMZDIBOHFEUPIJOÓʔ JJXØIPʔ UPNFBOAIJTIFSHSBOE NPUIFS 5IFFYQMBOBUJPOPGXIZUIJTDIBOHFUBLFTQMBDFJTGBJSMZDPNQMFY CVUUPTBUJTGZUIFDVSJPVT IFSFJUJT*OBEEJUJPOUPUIFUXPDPNNPOXPSE JOJUJBMQSFGJYFTNBSLJOHQPTTFTTJPO UIFEJGGFSFODFTCF UXFFOUIFUXPGPSNTBSFBMTPSFHVMBS5IFGJOBMPʔ JOIJOÓʔ JJXØIPʔ JTUIF PCWJBUJWFTVGGJY 5IFWPXFMPGUIFPCWJBUJWF P JOGMV FODFTUIFTFMFDUJPOPGBMJLFWPXFMJOUIFEJNJOVUJWFTVGGJYCFGPSFJU BOEC SFHVMBSMZDIBOHFTJOUPX CFGPSFBCBDLWPXFM<JOUIJTDBTFP>5IFXPSEBQ QBSFOUMZNFBOTAIJTIFSMJUUMFPOF ‰BSBUIFSHFOUMFXBZPGSFGFS SJOHUPPOFTHSBOENPUIFS

"OPUIFSFYBNQMFPGBNPSQIPQIPOFNJDSVMFJTGPVOEJO5VSLJTI POFPG UIFMBOHVBHFTXJUIWPXFMIBSNPOZ UIFSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUWPXFMTXJUIJOB XPSEIBWFBDFSUBJOTJNJMBSJUZ8JUISFMBUJWFMZGFXFYDFQUJPOT 5VSLJTITVG GJYFTDPOUBJOJOHIJHIWPXFMTIBWF J à V

^\ JGUIFQSFDFEJOHTZMMBCMFIBT

JPSF GSPOUVOSPVOEFEWPXFMT

àPSÚ GSPOUSPVOEFE

PSB CBDLVOSPVOEFE

VPSP CBDLSPVOEFE

XIFSFBTTVGGJYFTDPOUBJOJOHMPXWPXFMTIBWF F B

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J F à PSÚ GSPOUWPXFMT

B V PSP CBDLWPXFMT

)PXFWFS PO PDDBTJPO NPSQIPQIPOFNJD DIBOHFT BSF JSSFHVMBS JO UIF TFOTFUIBUUIFZBSFMJNJUFEUPPOFNPSQIFNFBOEBSFOPUSFQFBUFEFMTFXIFSF JOUIFMBOHVBHF&YBNQMFTBSFUIFGPSNTBN BSF JT GSPN UP CF UIFQBTU UFOTFGPSNXFOU GSPN UP HP BOEUIFDPNQBSBUJWFGPSNCFUUFS PSTVQFSMB UJWFCFTU GSPNHPPE 5IFPDDVSSFODFPGQIPOFNJDBMMZVOSFMBUFEBMMPNPSQIT PGBNPSQIFNFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTTVQQMFUJPO BOEUIFTQFDJGJDJOTUBODFTPGJU TVQQMFUJWFGPSNT 4VQQMFUJPOTFFNTUPPDDVSJOBMMOBUVSBM BTPQQPTFEUP

The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis

63

BSUJGJDJBM MBOHVBHFTIPXFWFS JUJTOFWFSFYUFOTJWFCFDBVTFJSSFHVMBSJUZPOB MBSHFTDBMFXPVMEUFOEUPIJOEFSDPNNVOJDBUJPO The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis +VTUBTTQFFDITPVOETOPSNBMMZEPOPUPDDVSJOJTPMBUJPO OFJUIFSEPXPSET "TBSVMF IVNBOVUUFSBODFTBSFNBEFVQPGMBSHFSVOJUT‰QISBTFTBOETFO UFODFT*UJTOPUFBTZUPEFGJOFUIFTFUXPUFSNTSJHPSPVTMZGPSPVSQVSQPTFT MFUVTTBZUIBUBTFOUFODFJTUIFMBSHFTUTUSVDUVSBMVOJUPGUIFHSBNNBSPGB MBOHVBHFBOEUIBUBQISBTF‰GPSFYBNQMF UPNPSSPXFWFOJOH JOUIFTLZ UIF XJDLFEXJUDI‰JTBTUSVDUVSBMVOJUMBSHFSUIBOBTJOHMFXPSECVUTNBMMFSUIBO BDMBVTF 5IFOVNCFSPGEJGGFSFOUTFOUFODFTUIBUDBOCFQSPEVDFEJOBOZMBOHVBHF JTJOGJOJUF'PSFYBNQMF JUJTNPTUVOMJLFMZUIBUUIFTFOUFODFi8IFOFWFSUIF NPPOJTGVMM CBUTHBUIFSUPEJTDVTTUIFTUBUFPGUIFMPDBMFDPOPNZwIBTFWFS CFFOTBJECFGPSF0OFDPVMEFBTJMZHFOFSBUFOPWFMTFOUFODFTCZUIFUIPV TBOET)PXJTJUQPTTJCMFUIBUTQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHFDBOBOEEPQSPEVDFBOE VOEFSTUBOETFOUFODFTDPOGPSNJOHUPUIFSVMFTPGHSBNNBSFWFOUIPVHIUIFZ IBWFOFWFSCFFOTBJEPSIFBSECFGPSF 5IFBOTXFSJTTJNQMF/BUJWFTQFBLFST LOPXUIFTZOUBY PGUIFJSMBOHVBHF‰UIFJOUFSOBMTUSVDUVSFPGTFOUFODFTBOE UIFJOUFSSFMBUJPOTIJQTCFUXFFOUIFWBSJPVTTFOUFODFFMFNFOUT "MMTQFBLFSTIBWFBMBSHFMZVODPOTDJPVTLOPXMFEHFPGUIFTZTUFNPGHSBN NBUJDBMSVMFTUIBUDIBSBDUFSJ[FTUIFJSOBUJWFMBOHVBHFPSBMBOHVBHFJOXIJDI UIFZBSFUSVMZGMVFOU5IJTLOPXMFEHFJTSFGFSSFEUPBTDPNQFUFODF8IBUMBO HVBHFVTFSTBDUVBMMZEPXJUIUIJTLOPXMFEHFJOTQFBLJOHPSDPNQSFIFOEJOH TQFFDI IPXFWFS JTTPNFXIBUEJGGFSFOUBOEJTSFGFSSFEUPBTQFSGPSNBODF "MUIPVHIBOJOEJWJEVBMTDPNQFUFODFNBZCFFYQFDUFEUPSFNBJOGBJSMZTUB CMFGPSBMPOHUJNF QFSGPSNBODFUFOETUPTVGGFSXIFOBTQFBLFSJTTMFFQZ UJSFE JMM QSFPDDVQJFE PSVOEFSUIFJOGMVFODFPGBMDPIPM4FOUFODFTUIBUDPO GPSNUPUIFTZOUBDUJDSVMFTPGBMBOHVBHFBSFHSBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTUIPTF UIBUEPOPUBSFVOHSBNNBUJDBM BTXIFOBTQFBLFSTQFSGPSNBODFIBTOP UJDFBCMZTVGGFSFE (SBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTNBZCFNFBOJOHMFTT BTJOi+BC CFSXPDLZ wUIFQPFN"MJDFXBTBCMFUPSFBECZVTJOHUIFNJSSPSJO-FXJT $BSSPMMT5ISPVHIUIF-PPLJOH(MBTT 5XBTCSJMMJH BOEUIFTMJUIZUPWFT %JEHZSFBOEHJNCMFJOUIFXBCF

64


S

NP

Art

The

VP

N

stream

V

carries

NP

Art

N

the

boat.

F I G U R E 4 . 1 A Simple Sentence Diagrammed in Tree Form

:FUTPNFVOHSBNNBUJDBMTFOUFODFTNBZCFNFBOJOHGVM BTXIFOBGPS FJHOFSTBZT i*OPUTQFBL&OHMJTIHPPEw BOBTUFSJTLJTQMBDFECFGPSFBTFO UFODFUPTIPXUIBUJUJTVOHSBNNBUJDBMPSVOBDDFQUBCMF 5IFOUIFSFBSF TFOUFODFTUIBUBSFHSBNNBUJDBMCVUTUSVDUVSBMMZBNCJHVPVT UIBUJT IBWJOH NPSFUIBOPOFNFBOJOH‰GPSFYBNQMF i7JTJUJOHJOMBXTDBOCFWFSZUSZJOHw *TJUWFSZUSZJOHUPWJTJUJOMBXT PSBSFJOMBXTXIPWJTJUWFSZUSZJOH 5PHBJOTPNFVOEFSTUBOEJOHPG&OHMJTITFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFXFNJHIUMPPLBU UIFTFOUFODFi5IFTUSFBNDBSSJFTUIFBUw5IJTTFOUFODF 4 IBTUXPNBKPS DPOTUJUVFOUT5IFGJSTU DPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFUSBEJUJPOBMTVCKFDUPGUIFTFOUFODF JTUIFOPVOQISBTF /1 iUIFTUSFBNwUIFTFDPOE DPSSFTQPOEJOHUPUIFUSBEJ UJPOBMQSFEJDBUF JTUIFWFSCQISBTF 71 iDBSSJFTUIFBUw5IFTFDPOTUJUVFOUT DPOTJTUVMUJNBUFMZPGMFYJDBMDBUFHPSJFTBOBSUJDMF "SU

BOPVO /

BOEBWFSC 7 5IFUSFFEJBHSBNPGUIFTFOUFODF TFF'JHVSF HJWFTUISFFLJOETPGJO GPSNBUJPOUIFMJOFBSPSEFSPGXPSETUIBUNBLFVQUIFTFOUFODF UIFMFYJDBMDBU FHPSZPGFBDIXPSE BOEUIFHSPVQJOHPGUIFXPSETJOUPTUSVDUVSBMDPOTUJUVFOUT 5IJTTFOUFODFIBTUIFTUSVDUVSFUZQJDBMPGTJNQMF&OHMJTIEFDMBSBUJWFTFO UFODFT UIBUJT TFOUFODFTVTFEUPFYQSFTTTUBUFNFOUT #VUXIBUPGUIFDPSSF TQPOEJOHJOUFSSPHBUJWFTFOUFODF i%PFTUIFTUSFBNDBSSZUIFBU w5IFSVMF UIBUDIBOHFTUIFEFDMBSBUJWFTFOUFODFUPUIFDPSSFTQPOEJOHJOUFSSPHBUJWFTFO

The Sentence as a Unit of Analysis

65

UFODFSFRVJSFTDFSUBJODIBOHFT"OPQFSBUJPOUIBUBEET EFMFUFT PSDIBOHFTFM FNFOUTJOPOFTUSVDUVSFUPQSPEVDFBOPUIFSJTSFGFSSFEUPBTUSBOTGPSNBUJPO BOEUIFHFOFSBMTUBUFNFOUEFTDSJCJOHTVDIBOPQFSBUJPOBTBUSBOTGPSNB UJPOBMSVMF *OUIFTFOUFODFBWF UIFBQQSPQSJBUFGPSNPGUIFWFSCEP JT QMBDFEBUUIFCFHJOOJOHPGUIFTFOUFODFBOEBQQSPQSJBUFDIBOHFTBSFNBEFJO UIFNBJOWFSC BTJOi.PUIFSLOPXTCFTUwm i%PFT.PUIFSLOPXCFTU w 5IJTJTPOMZBWFSZCSJFGJMMVTUSBUJPOPGIPXPOFBQQSPBDIFTUIFTUVEZPG TFOUFODFTUSVDUVSF"DPNQMFUFEFTDSJQUJPOPGUIFHSFBUWBSJFUZPGTFOUFODF UZQFTJO&OHMJTIBOEUIFQSPDFTTFTPGUIFJSEFSJWBUJPOXPVMEFBTJMZGJMMBTJ[ BCMFPL4VDIBEFTDSJQUJPOXPVMEJODMVEFUSBOTGPSNBUJPOTIBWJOHUPEP XJUIDPNNBOET FYDMBNBUJPOT DPNQMFYTFOUFODFT DPOTJTUJOHPGBNBJO DMBVTFBOEBUMFBTUPOFTVSEJOBUFDMBVTF

FNCFEEJOH BTJOi5IFNBOXIP TVEEFOMZBQQFBSFEJOUIFEPPSXBTNZGJSTUDPVTJO wJOXIJDIi5IFNBOTVE EFOMZBQQFBSFEJOUIFEPPSwJTFNCFEEFEJOUIFNBUSJYTFOUFODFi5IFNBO XBTNZGJSTUDPVTJOw

BOENBOZPUIFSDPOTUSVDUJPOT "TTIPXOJO'JHVSF BOBMZTJTJTNPUJWBUFECZFNQJSJDBMFWJEFODF UIBU JT JUDBOCFWFSJGJFEPSSFKFDUFEPOUIFCBTJTPGPCTFSWBUJPOPSJORVJSZ/PU POMZEPMJOHVJTUTSFKFDUVUUFSBODFT TFOUFODFT OBUJWFTQFBLFSTDPOTJEFSVO HSBNNBUJDBM CVUUIFZNBZPDDBTJPOBMMZBTLXIFUIFSUXPDMPTFMZTJNJMBSVU UFSBODFTIBWFUIFTBNFNFBOJOH GPSFYBNQMF i%POUZPVXBOUTPNFTPVQ w BOEi%POUZPVXBOUBOZTPVQ w‰NBOZTQFBLFSTXPVMEDPOTJEFSUIFNUP CFTMJHIUMZEJGGFSFOU PSBDDPVOUGPSTUSVDUVSBMBNCJHVJUJFT GPSFYBNQMF UIF QISBTFi'SFODIIJTUPSZQSPGFTTPSwNBZNFBOiBIJTUPSZQSPGFTTPSXIPJT 'SFODIw PS iB QSPGFTTPS XIP UFBDIFT 'SFODI IJTUPSZ w BOE BDDPSEJOHMZ JU XPVMECFSFQSFTFOUFEBT

F

h

p

F

h

p

PS

EFQFOEJOHPOXIBUUIFTQFBLFSIBEJONJOE

66


Inflections and Word Order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

"MJPOUSBDLTBIVOUFS -FPWFOBUPSFNWFTUJHBU -FWTUPQVKFMPWDF

"MUIPVHIUIFNFBOJOHTPGUIFUXP&OHMJTITFOUFODFTBSFRVJUFEJGGFSFOU UIFGJWFXPSETPGFBDITFOUFODFBSFFYBDUMZUIFTBNF8IFUIFSUIFIVOUFSPS UIFMJPOJTUIFHSBNNBUJDBMTVCKFDUPSUIFHSBNNBUJDBMPCKFDU UIBUJT UIF HPBMPGUIFBDUJPOPGUIFXPSEiUSBDLTw

UIFTBNFGJWFXPSETBSFBMMUIBUBSF OFFEFE8IPJTUSBDLJOHXIPNJTGVMMZJOEJDBUFECZUIFXPSEPSEFS‰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‰EJSFDUPCKFDUGPSNTNF IJN IFS VT BOEUIFN PGUIF QFSTPOBMQSPOPVOT* IF TIF XF BOEUIFZ 5PTIPXUIFSJDIOFTTPGUIFJOGMFDUJPOBMTZTUFNJO-BUJO IFSFBSFUIFGPSNT DBTFT PGUIFOPVOWFOBUPS JOUIFTJOHVMBS JODMVEJOHUIFQMVSBMXPVMEJO DSFBTFUIFOVNCFSPGGPSNTCZUISFF WFOBUPS OPNJOBUJWF JOEJDBUJOHUIF

Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar

67

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B OX 4 . 2 CO N T R A S T I N G T H E D E S C R I P T I V E A N D G E N E R AT I V E A P P R O A C H E S

Consider the operation of a gas-powered automobile. Like a language, a car that runs is a complex functioning whole. Like a language, too, it consists of many different parts that make up various systems (the drive train, the electric system, the cooling system, and others), each of which operates according to specific principles. Applying the view of Chomsky and his followers to this example, one can liken the descriptivist approach to the skills and operations of a mechanic who is well acquainted with the various automobile parts and their functions but who is not seriously concerned with how and why a car runs. Very much like the descriptivist linguist, who restricts his or her analysis to surface structures, the mechanic is familiar with the car only superficially, although capable of maintaining it in good running condition. According to Chomsky, such an approach is not truly scientific because it makes no effort to explain. A real understanding of what makes a car run comes from the comprehension of such fundamental principles as those of combustion, friction, application of force, and the like. Not until these principles are grasped can one say significant things not only about a particular make of car but about cars in general, and about other conveyances that utilize these principles (for example, snowmobiles). Consequently, the fundamental principles, like the rules of grammar, are prior; and the parts and their arrangements, like the linguistic units and their arrangements, assume secondary importance. . . . Nevertheless, for the anthropological field worker, who is mainly concerned with recording native in a serviceable phonemic transcription and who rarely possesses intuitive knowledge of the language he or she is dealing with, the descriptivist approach continues to be useful. from Oriol Pi-Sunyer and Zdenek Salzmann, Humanity and Culture (1978), 356–357

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Summary and Conclusions .PSQIPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZBOEEFTDSJQUJPOPGXPSEGPSNBUJPO5IFQSJODJQBM VOJUPGNPSQIPMPHZJTUIFNPSQIFNF UIFTNBMMFTUNFBOJOHGVMQBSUPGMBO HVBHF5IFSFBSFUIPVTBOETPGNPSQIFNFTJOBOZMBOHVBHF5IPTFUIBUNBZ CFVTFECZUIFNTFMWFTBSFUFSNFEGSFFUIPTFUIBUPDDVSPOMZBUUBDIFEUP PUIFSNPSQIFNFTBSFUFSNFEVOE.BOZNPSQIFNFTIBWFNPSFUIBOPOF QIPOFNJDTIBQFUIFWBSJBOUGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNFBSFJUTBMMPNPSQIT(SBN NBS‰UIF WBSJPVT SVMFT UIBU HPWFSO UIF XPSLJOHT PG B MBOHVBHF BOE UIF QSPDFTTFTUIBUJNQMFNFOUUIFTFSVMFT‰WBSJFTGSPNPOFMBOHVBHFUPUIFOFYU 4PNFMBOHVBHFTBSFDIBSBDUFSJ[FECZNBOZJOGMFDUJPOBMGPSNT GPSFYBNQMF -BUJO

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5 Nonve rbal Communication

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SFQSFTFOUUIFMFUUFSTPGUIFBMQIBCFU BTJO 73

74

Chapter 5: Nonverbal Communication

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Paralinguistics

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Paralinguistics $IBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGWPDBMDPNNVOJDBUJPODPOTJEFSFENBSHJOBMPSPQUJPOBM BOEUIFSFGPSFFYDMVEBCMFGSPNMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTBSFSFGFSSFEUPBTQBSB MBOHVBHF 5IFNPTUDPNNPOQBSBMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFTBSFVTVBMMZBTTJHOFE UPUISFFDBUFHPSJFT 7PJDFRVBMJGJFST IBWFUPEPXJUIUIFUPOFPGWPJDFBOEQBDJOHPGTQFFDI BOEUIFZJODMVEFWBSJBUJPOTJOWPMVNFPSJOUFOTJUZ GPSFYBNQMF PWFSMPVE PWFSTPGU

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76


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Kinesics

77

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78


TA B L E 5 . 1 The Four Distance Zones of Informal Interpersonal Space Among

Middle-Class Americans of North European Heritage

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80


B OX 5 . 1 H A L L O N P ROX E M I C S I N A C R O S S - C U LT U R A L C O N T E X T

In Latin America the interaction distance is much less than it is in the United States. Indeed, people cannot talk comfortably with one another unless they are very close to the distance that evokes either sexual or hostile feelings in the North American. The result is that when they move close, we withdraw and back away. As a consequence, they think we are distant or cold, withdrawn and unfriendly. We, on the other hand, are constantly accusing them of breathing down our necks, crowding us, and spraying our faces. Americans who have spent some time in Latin America without learning these space considerations make other adaptations, like barricading themselves behind their desks, using chairs and typewriter tables to keep the Latin American at what is to us a comfortable distance. The result is that the Latin American may even climb over the obstacles until he has achieved a distance at which he can comfortably talk. from Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (1959), 209

Many Americans feel that [older] Germans are overly rigid in their behavior, unbending and formal. Some of this impression is created by differences in the handling of chairs while seated. The American doesn’t seem to mind if people hitch their chairs up to adjust the distance to the situation—those that do mind would not think of saying anything, for to comment on the manners of others would be impolite. In , however, it is a violation of the mores to change the position of your chair. An added deterrent for those who don’t know better is the weight of most German furniture. . . . To a German, light furniture is anathema, not only because it seems flimsy but because people move it and thereby destroy the order of things, including intrusions on the “private sphere.” In one instance reported to me, a German newspaper editor who had moved to the United States had his visitor’s chair bolted to the floor “at the proper distance” because he couldn’t tolerate the American habit of adjusting the chair to the situation. from Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (1966), 129

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81

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84


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Sign Languages

85

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86


UISPXOBXBZ5IFSJHIUGJTUIFMEJOGSPOUPGUIFDIFTUXBTTXVOHPVUBOE EPXOUPUIFSJHIUBTUIFIBOEXBTPQFOJOHVQ "MUIPVHIUIFCVMLPGUIFTJHOTNVTUIBWFCFFOTIBSFECZUIFUSJCFTPGUIF OPSUIDFOUSBM1MBJOT UIFSFXFSFOPEPVCUiEJBMFDUBMwEJGGFSFODFTTJNJMBSUP UIPTFGPVOEJOXJEFMZFYUFOEFETQPLFOMBOHVBHFT6OMJLFUIFXIJTUMFiMBO HVBHFT wIPXFWFS TJHOMBOHVBHFTBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGTQFFDIFWFOUIPVHI UIFZIBWFPDDBTJPOBMMZCFFOVTFEJODPNCJOBUJPOXJUIJU0OMZJONBOVBMBM QIBCFUTJTUIFSFBDPOOFDUJPO"NBOVBMBMQIBCFUSFQSFTFOUTUIFFMFNFOUTPG BXSJUJOHTZTUFNUIBUJOUVSOEFSJWFTGSPNTQFFDI Summary and Conclusions "MUIPVHI TQPLFO MBOHVBHF JT VOEPVCUFEMZ UIF PMEFTU BOE NPTU FGGJDJFOU NFBOTPGIVNBODPNNVOJDBUJPO UIFSFBSFNBOZPUIFSXBZTJOXIJDIQFP QMFUSBOTNJUPSFYDIBOHFJOGPSNBUJPO*OGPSNBUJPO FNPUJPOT BOEGFFMJOHT JOBEEJUJPOUPXSJUJOH DBOCFUSBOTNJUUFEOPOWFSCBMMZ/POWFSCBMTZTUFNT PGDPNNVOJDBUJPOBSFCBTFEPOFJUIFSTQPLFOPSXSJUUFOMBOHVBHF PSBSFJO EFQFOEFOUPGJU 5IF.PSTF$PEFBOECSBJMMFEFSJWFGSPNUIFXSJUUFOSFQSFTFOUBUJPOPGB MBOHVBHFXIJTUMFiMBOHVBHFT w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

6 The Development and Evolution of Language

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88

Chapter 6: The Development and Evolution of Language

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Communication Among Nonhuman Primates and Other Vertebrates

95

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96


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Milestones in Human Evolution

97

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98

Years Before the Present

Stages of Hominid Evolution

Prehistoric Periods Neolithic

_10,000

Middle

_500,000 Archaic Homo sapiens

s

ili

ab

oh

Duality of patterning Stone tools from Beginnings of prepared cores articulate speech Belief in afterlife? Organized hunting

Lower Control and use of fire

Early stage of prelanguage

Hunting

Blending

First tools made and used

s cie pe s l s u us ra en ec ve e g ith Se th p of tralo s Au

_5 million

Ritual activities

s

om

H

_4 million

(Proto-IndoEuropean)

tu

rec

oe

om

H

_3 million

Paleolithic

Neanderthals Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Presumed Stages in the Evolution of Language

Upper Spectacular portable Earliest stage of and cave-wall art full-fledged language

Cro-Magnons (H. s. sapiens)

_100,000

_2 million

Farming

ic

lith Meso

_40,000

_1 million

Landmarks in Cultural Evolution

Adaptations for prelanguage Simple multimodal communication

Hominids branch off from other hominoids Monkeys and apes diverge

_50 million Primates emerge _100 million

F I G U R E 6 . 2 Presumed Stages of Human Evolution

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Milestones in Human Evolution

99

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100


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Design Features of Language

101

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102


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Design Features of Language

103

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104


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Language as an Evolutionary Product

105

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106


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Language as an Evolutionary Product

107

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B OX 6 . 1 H O C K E T T O N B L E N D I N G

Suppose a gibbon finds himself in a situation characterized by both the presence of food and the imminence of danger. The factors, we shall say, are closely balanced. The normal consequence among gibbons is that one or the other factor prevails and just one call is given. This time we imagine our gibbon atypical. Instead of emitting either the food call or the danger call, he utters a cry that has some of the characteristics of each: he produces a blend of the two. This is beyond the experience of the other gibbons in his band. Depending on acoustic conditions, some of them may hear the actual cry as the food call, others as the danger call, and others as nonsense. It is unlikely that any hear it as a new signal, conveying two kinds of information at once. The consequences are thus negligible. But now suppose that the early hominids had a somewhat richer call system (though closed) functioning in a somewhat more complex social order. Then we may also assume that this type of event occasionally happened, and that sooner or later the other of a band responded appropriately, thus handling an unusually complex situation more efficiently than otherwise. With this reinforcement, the habit of blending two calls to produce a new one would gain ground. We have to assume that this is what happened, because blending is the only way in which a closed system can move towards openness of the kind characteristic of language. from Charles F. Hockett, Man’s Place in Nature (1973), 381

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115

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116


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117

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7 Acquiring Language(s): Life with First Languages, Second Languages, and More

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Chapter 7: Acquiring Language(s)

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Theories of Language Acquisition

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B OX 7 . 1 C H OM S K Y O N L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N

We can think of every normal human’s internalized grammar as, in effect, a theory of his language. This theory provides a sound-meaning correlation for an infinite number of sentences. . . . In formal . . . we can describe the child’s acquisition of language as a kind of theory construction. The child discovers the theory of his language with only small amounts of data from that language. . . . Normal speech consists, in large part, of fragments, false starts, blends, and other distortions of the underlying idealized forms. Nevertheless, as is evident from a study of the mature use of language, what the child learns is the underlying ideal theory. This is a remarkable fact. We must also bear in mind that the child constructs this ideal theory without explicit instruction, that he acquires this knowledge at a time when he is not capable of complex intellectual achievements in many other domains, and that this achievement is relatively independent of intelligence or the particular course of experience. These are facts that a theory of learning must face. . . . . . . It is unimaginable that a highly specific, abstract, and tightly organized language comes by accident into the mind of every four-year-old child. from Noam Chomsky, “Language and the Mind” (1968), 66

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Language and the Brain

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F I G U R E 7 . 1 The Human Brain

Side view of the left hemisphere of the human brain, with its front on the left. The locations of the areas mentioned in the text are indicated as follows: AC = auditory cortex; AG = angular gyrus; B = Broca’s area; MC = motor cortex; W = Wernicke’s area. The thalamus is not seen from this view.

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B OX 7 . 2 T H E H UM A N B R A I N A N D L A N G UAG E ACQ U I S I T I O N

Why aren’t babies born talking? We know that part of the answer is that babies have to listen to themselves to learn how to work their articulators, and have to listen to their elders to learn communal phonemes, words, and phrase orders. Some of these acquisitions depend on other ones, forcing development to proceed in a sequence: phonemes before words, words before sentences. But any mental mechanism powerful enough to learn these things could probably do so with a few weeks or months of input. Why does the sequence have to take three years? Could it be any faster? Perhaps not. Complicated machines take time to assemble, and human infants may be expelled from the womb before their brains are complete. A human, after all, is an animal with a ludicrously large head, and a woman’s pelvis, through which it must , can be only so big. If human beings stayed in the womb for the proportion of their life cycle that we would expect based on extrapolation from other primates, they would be born at the age of eighteen months. That is the age at which babies in fact begin to put words together. In one sense, then[,] babies are born talking! And we know that babies’ brains do change considerably after birth. Before birth, virtually all the neurons (nerve cells) are formed, and they migrate into their proper locations in the brain. But head size, brain weight, and thickness of the cerebral cortex (gray matter), where the synapses (junctions) subserving mental computation are found, continue to increase rapidly in the year after birth. Long-distance connections (white matter) are not complete until nine months, and they continue to grow their speed-inducing myelin insulation throughout childhood. Synapses continue to develop, peaking in number between nine months and two years (depending on the brain region), at which point the child has fifty percent more synapses than the adult! Metabolic activity in the brain reaches adult levels by nine to ten months, and soon exceeds it, peaking around the age of four. The brain is sculpted not only by adding neural material but by chipping it away. Massive numbers of neurons die in utero, and the dying continues during the first two years before level(continues)


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(continued) ing off at age seven. Synapses wither from the age of two through the rest of childhood and into adolescence, when the brain’s metabolic rate falls back to adult levels. Language development, then, could be on a maturational timetable, like teeth. Perhaps linguistic accomplishments like babbling, first words, and grammar require minimum levels of brain size, long-distance connections, and extra synapses, particularly in the language centers of the brain. . . . So language seems to develop about as quickly as the growing brain can handle it. from Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (1994), 288–289

8 Language Through Time

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Chapter 8: Language Through Time

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148


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B OX 8 . 1 S I E B E RT O N T H E O R I G I N A L H OM E O F T H E P ROTO - A LG O N Q U I A N P E O P L E

The primeval home. . . . lay between the almost strictly coniferous forests to the north and the deciduous woodlands to the south. That the ProtoAlgonquians lived in a mixed-forest zone is evident from the frequent use of the two contrasting noun-finals in many tree names, PA *-a·ntakw‘evergreen tree, conifer’ and *-a·xkw- ‘wood; hardwood or deciduous tree.’ The relatively southern species of deciduous trees, like the white ash, sugar maple, basswood, and beech, extend more or less only slightly farther north than the Algonquian homeland, whereas northern conifers, like the white spruce and tamarack, were found commonly only to the southern borders of the original home or slightly beyond. The original home lay at the southern limit of the woodland caribou. . . . The harbour seal is the only seal that is common on the eastern coast of the United States . . . [but] in aboriginal times its ascent penetrated . . . into the interior along the upper St. Lawrence River and affluent streams. . . . The distributions of [four species of fish] provide additional reasons for pinpointing the earliest Algonquian residence to southern Ontario rather than to a more western portion of the Great Lakes region. . . . In order to allow for possible undetermined changes in the distribution of fauna and flora in the prehistoric period . . . the earliest original home is diagrammatically represented as Stage Number 1 . . . and an expanded area of occupancy of slightly later date, which certainly includes the entire Algonquian homeland, is characterized as Stage Number 2. To these the tentative dates of 1200 B.C. and 900 B.C., respectively, are assigned as suppositions to serve as a basis for further discussion. . . . The earliest residence of the speakers of Proto-Algonquian is ascertained by the multiple intersections of the distributional lines of significant species. The original home of the Algonquian peoples lay in the region between Lake Huron and Georgian Bay and the middle course of the Ottawa River, bounded on the north by Lake Nipissing and the Mattawa River and on the south by the northern shore of Lake Ontario, the headwaters of the Grand River, and the Saugeen River. from Frank T. Siebert, Jr., “The Original Home of the Proto-Algonquian People” (1967), 36–40

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rying to Date the Past: Glottochronology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

162


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Trying to Date the Past: Glottochronology TA B L E 8 . 1

I you we this that who what not all many one two big long small woman man person fish bird

163

The 100-Word Core Vocabulary dog louse tree seed leaf root bark skin flesh blood bone grease egg horn tail feather hair head ear eye

nose mouth tooth tongue claw foot knee hand belly neck breasts heart liver drink eat bite see hear know sleep

die kill swim fly walk come lie sit stand give say sun moon star water rain stone sand earth cloud

smoke fire ash burn path mountain red green yellow white black night hot cold full new good round dry name

It should be noted that the large majority of these words can be traced to Old English—that is, they are very old English words. Because of the universal nature and occurrence of the referents for which these words stand, equivalents in other languages are available and may also be expected to be old.

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164


TIPXFE GPSFYBNQMF UIBUPOFXPVMEIBWFUPDIPPTFGSPNBNPOHGJWF/BWBKP GPSNTGPSUIF&OHMJTIUIJT BOEUIBU GSPNBNPOHGPVSGPSXIP BOEXIBU GSPN BNPOHUXPGPSCMBDL BOETPPO )PJKFS 5PFMJNJOBUFUIFPCKFDUJPOUIBUUIFBDDFQUBODFPGBCTPMVUFUJNFSFGFS FODFTJTVOUFOBCMF UIFTVHHFTUJPOXBTNBEFUPBEPQUBSFMBUJWFVOJUPGUJNF EFQUIUIBUXPVMECFMFTTNJTMFBEJOH5IJTVOJUJTSFGFSSFEUPBTEJQ GPSiEF HSFFPGMFYJDBMSFMBUJPOTIJQw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ime Perspective in Culture )PXMJOHVJTUJDEBUBDBOBJEUIFSFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGDVMUVSBMIJTUPSZXBTEJT DVTTFEBUMFOHUIBOEFYFNQMJGJFEJOPOFPGUIFFBSMZXPSLTPG&EXBSE4BQJS BCSJMMJBOU"NFSJDBOMJOHVJTUBOEBOUISPQPMPHJTU BOEQSPCBCMZUIFHSFBUFTU TQFDJBMJTUPO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOMBOHVBHFTVOUJM8PSME8BS**5JNF1FSTQFD UJWF JO "SJHJOBM "NFSJDBO $VMUVSF " 4UVEZ JO .FUIPE XBT IJT MPOHFTUNPOPHSBQIJOFUIOPMPHZBOEJTUFTUJNPOZUPIJTNFUIPEPMPHJDBM QSPXFTT5IFGFXFYBNQMFTUIBUGPMMPXJMMVTUSBUF4BQJSTEJTDVTTJPOPGJOGFS FOUJBMMJOHVJTUJDFWJEFODFGPSUJNFQFSTQFDUJWF 5IFSFMBUJWFBHFPGBDVMUVSFFMFNFOUDBOCFEFUFSNJOFEXJUITPNFSFMJB CJMJUZGSPNUIFGPSNPGUIFOBUJWF OPUSSPXFE XPSEUIBUSFGFSTUPUIFFM FNFOU4VDITJNQMFBOEOPUGVSUIFSBOBMZ[BCMFXPSETBTX QMPX TQFBS BOEXIFFM BSFBTBSVMFNVDIPMEFSUIBOXPSETUIBUDBOCFCSPLFOEPXOJOUP TNBMMFSDPOTUJUVFOUQBSUT‰GPSFYBNQMF BJSQMBOF CBUUMFTIJQ SBJMSPBE BOE TQBDFTIJQ*SSFHVMBSHSBNNBUJDBMGPSNTBMTPJOEJDBUFUIFHSFBUBHFPGUIPTF XPSETXJUIXIJDIUIFZBSFBTTPDJBUFEBOE CZJNQMJDBUJPO PGUIPTFFOUJUJFTUP XIJDIUIFZSFGFSIFODFUIFQMVSBMTHFFTF LJOF BSDIBJDQMVSBMPGDPX

MJDF PYFO BOETIFFQ POUIFPOFIBOE CVUFMFQIBOUT MJPOT QBSSPUT BOEUJHFST PO UIFPUIFS

Time Perspective in Culture

165

B OX 8 . 2 L I N G U I S T I C I N F E R E N C E S A B O U T E A R LY B A N T U H I S T O R Y

The oldest Bantu subsistence vocabulary so far reconstructible accords with postulation of a high-rainfall, tropical environment for the protoBantu homeland. No grain can be reconstructed, but there is instead a word for yam. Two or three possible root words dealing with the oil palm may also date to proto-Bantu, and the reconstructible protoBantu name for alcoholic drink apparently referred specifically to palm wine. At least one cucurbit, probably the bottle gourd, a pulse (the cowpea?), and probably the Voandzeia groundnut were also known to the proto-Bantu. . . . These three crops would all have been domesticated elsewhere than in the proto-Bantu homeland, but apparently they could be effectively grown in high-rainfall savanna and/or rain forest. . . . A second indication of a high-rainfall environment is provided by the reconstructibility of fishing and boating vocabulary. . . . Apparently the proto-Bantu made considerable use of riverine resources and lived where large perennial streams were commonplace. Knowledge of two domestic animals, cattle and goats, can be reconstructed. . . . Whatever the cause of proto-Bantu knowledge of cattle, it was lost by those who expanded into the equatorial rain forest, for the protoBantu root *nyaka is found no farther south than some of the forest languages in which it was reapplied, in the absence of cattle, to the buffalo. . . . Contrary to a widely held view, knowledge of ironworking cannot be linguistically reconstructed for proto-Bantu. . . . By the beginnings, however, of Bantu expansion into eastern Africa, on linguistic grounds most probably during the last millennium B.C., metallurgical had come into use among at least the ancestral Eastern Bantu communities. from Christopher Ehret, “Linguistic Inferences About Early Bantu History”(1982), 61–62

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166


'SFODI 4JNJMBSMZ TPNFDPNCJOBUJPOTPGTPVOETCFUSBZUIFGPSFJHOPSJHJO PGXPSETJOXIJDIUIFZPDDVS BTQTEPFTJOBQTF BOEMBQTF UIGSPN-BUJO

BOESIBQTPEZ GSPN(SFFLWJB-BUJO #VUUIFGJOBMQTJOMJQT TMFFQT TIJQT BOEPUIFSTVDIXPSETJTOPUDPNQBSBCMFCFDBVTFUIFTSFQSFTFOUTPUIFS NPSQIFNFT‰UIFQMVSBM UIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBS PSUIFQPTTFTTJWF SF TQFDUJWFMZ'PSTPDJFUJFTXJUIBMPOHUSBEJUJPOPGXSJUJOH JOGFSFOUJBMMJOHVJT UJDFWJEFODFNBZBEEMJUUMFJGBOZUIJOHUPXIBUJTBMSFBEZLOPXOBVUUIFJS DVMUVSBMIJTUPSZ5IJTJTOPUUIFDBTF IPXFWFS XJUIOPOMJUFSBUFTPDJFUJFT 5IFBTTJHONFOUPGSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTUPBMBOHVBHFGBNJMZJNQMJFTUIFFBS MJFSFYJTUFODFPGBOBODFTUSBMMBOHVBHFGSPNXIJDIBMMNPEFSOMBOHVBHFTPG UIFGBNJMZIBWFEFTDFOEFE5IFNPSFEJGGFSFOUJBUFEUIFTFEFTDFOEBOUMBO HVBHFTBSF UIFMPOHFSUIFQFSJPEPGUJNFPOFNVTUBMMPXGPSUIFJSEFWFMPQ NFOUUPIBWFUBLFOQMBDFUIFUJNFEFQUIIBTJNQPSUBOUDPOTFRVFODFTGPS DVMUVSFIJTUPSZ -JOHVJTUJDTDIPMBSTIBWFLOPXOGPSTPNFUJNFUIBUQIPOFUJD PSQIPOFNJD

BOENPSQIPMPHJDBMTJNJMBSJUJFTTPNFUJNFTFYJTUBNPOHVOSFMBUFEOFJHISJOH MBOHVBHFTUPBOFYUFOUUIBUDPVMETDBSDFMZCFEVFUPDIBODF4VDITJNJMBSJUJFT BSFJOEJDBUJWFPGBOFYUFOTJWFQFSJPEPGDVMUVSBMDPOUBDUCFUXFFOUIFSFTQFD UJWFTPDJFUJFT BDJSDVNTUBODFUIFFUIOPMPHJTUNVTUUBLFJOUPBDDPVOU *OUIFDPODMVEJOHSFNBSLTPGIJTNPOPHSBQI 4BQJSNBEFUIFQPJOUUIBU BMUIPVHIEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTNVDIUPCFQSFGFSSFEUPJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODFJO UIFTUVEZPGDVMUVSFIJTUPSZBOEUIFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGDVMUVSFTFRVFODFT BO UISPQPMPHJTUTGSFRVFOUMZGBDFTJUVBUJPOTXIFSFEJSFDUFWJEFODFJTFJUIFSJO TVGGJDJFOUPSDPNQMFUFMZMBDLJOH*OTVDIDBTFTJOGFSFOUJBMFWJEFODF MJOHVJTUJD JOQBSUJDVMBS CFDPNFTJOWBMVBCMF Summary and Conclusions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


167

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

9 Languages in Va riation and Languages in

4USJDUMZTQFBLJOH UIFTQFFDIQBUUFSOPGPOFJOEJWJEVBMJTTPNFXIBUEJGGFS FOUGSPNUIFTQFFDIQBUUFSOPGUIFOFYU FWFOUIPVHIUIFUXPTQFBLUIFTBNF MBOHVBHF BOESFHJPOBMWBSJFUJFTPGMBOHVBHFEJGGFSGSPNFBDIPUIFSCZGFB UVSFTPGWPDBCVMBSZ HSBNNBS BOEQSPOVODJBUJPO Idiolects 5IJTJTXIZJUJTQPTTJCMFUPJEFOUJGZPWFSUIFUFMFQIPOFQFPQMFXFLOPXXFMM XJUIPVUUIFJSIBWJOHUPTBZXIPUIFZBSFTJNJMBSMZ XFSFDPHOJ[FGBNJMJBSUFM FWJTJPOOFXTDBTUFSTFWFOXIFOXFDBOOPUTFFUIFTDSFFO5IFSFDPHOJUJPOPG JOEJWJEVBMTCZWPJDFBMPOFJTQPTTJCMFCFDBVTFPGUIFJSJEJPTZODSBUJDDPNCJOB UJPOPGWPJDFRVBMJUZ QSPOVODJBUJPO HSBNNBUJDBMVTBHF BOEDIPJDFPGXPSET 7PJDFRVBMJUZ PSUJNCSF JTEFUFSNJOFECZUIFBOBUPNZPGUIFWPDBMUSBDU UIF UPOHVF UIFOBTBMBOEPSBMDBWJUJFT UIFWPDBMDPSET UIFMBSZOY BOEPUIFSQBSUT

PWFSXIJDIUIFTQFBLFSIBTMJUUMFPSOPDPOUSPM0UIFSWPJDFGFBUVSFT‰GPSFY BNQMF UFNQP MPVEOFTT BOEUPTPNFFYUFOUFWFOQJUDISBOHF‰DBOCFDPO USPMMFEGBJSMZTJNQMZ#VUOPOFPGUIFTFGFBUVSFTPGBOJOEJWJEVBMTTQFFDIQBUUFSO JTDPOTUBOU7PJDFRVBMJUZDIBOHFTXJUIBHFBTNVTDMFTBOEUJTTVFTEFUFSJPSBUF BOEUIFEFOUJUJPOVOEFSHPFTNPEJGJDBUJPO0WFSBMJGFUJNF DIBOHFTUFOEUP PDDVSJOUIFDIPJDFPGXPSET HSBNNBS BOEQSPOVODJBUJPOBTXFMM "OJOEJWJEVBMTTQFFDIWBSJFUZJTSFGFSSFEUPBTBOJEJPMFDU "MNPTUBMMTQFBL FSTNBLFVTFPGTFWFSBMJEJPMFDUT EFQFOEJOHPOUIFDJSDVNTUBODFTPGDPNNV OJDBUJPO'PSFYBNQMF XIFOGBNJMZNFNCFSTUBMLUPFBDIPUIFS UIFJSTQFFDI 169

170

Chapter 9: Languages in Variation and Languages in

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176


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From Pidgins to Creoles

177

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178


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B O X 9 . 1 C R E O L I Z AT I O N O F T O K P I S I N

World War II greatly accelerated the spread of Tok Pisin within New Guinea. New Guinean males who were pressed into service by the various foreign armies had only Tok Pisin as a common language. In addition, there were extensive movements of indigenous populations during the war and Tok Pisin spread with them. Following the war, the traditional state of warfare or hostility between indigenous groups in Papua New Guinea was almost completely eliminated as a result of the continuous efforts of missionaries and the pacification programs of various foreign governments. This has enabled people to leave their native groups without the fear of being killed. Mobility is increasing considerably as transportation improves, and many people are leaving their home villages to seek employment and excitement in urban areas. When groups mix in this way, Tok Pisin is usually the only means of communication, except where Hiri Motu or English is spoken, and thus Tok Pisin is commonly used in public urban life in New Guinea. There are an increasing number of marriages between men and women from different linguistic groups. When such couples live in towns away from the home group of either partner they generally speak only Tok Pisin in the home, and their children acquire Tok Pisin as a native language. Such young native speakers now number in the thousands. from Ellen B. Woolford, Aspects of Tok Pisin Grammar (1979), 3

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Language in the Contemporary World

181

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F I G U R E 9 . 1 The World’s Languages and Their Speakers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‰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Summary and Conclusions "MUIPVHIBVU MBOHVBHFT BTTJHOBCMFUPTFWFSBMIVOESFEMBOHVBHF HSPVQT GBNJMJFT

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10 Ethnography of Communication

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Chapter 10: Ethnography of Communication

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Speech Community and Related Concepts

187

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188


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Components of Communication

189

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190


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191

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192


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198


B OX 1 0 . 1 F E S T I V E D R I N K I N G A N D TA L K I N G A M O N G T H E S U B A N U N

As the size and role-structure of the gathering becomes defined, discourse changes in topic to removed referents, usually beginning with relatively trivial gossip, proceeding to more important subjects of current interest, and, finally, in many cases arriving at litigation. . . . Success in effecting legal decisions depends on achieving a commanding role in the encounter and on debating effectively from that position. Since there are no sanctions of force legally applicable to back up a decision, the payment of a fine in compliance with a decision is final testimony to the prowess in verbal combat of the person who made the decision. . . . If drinking continues long enough, the focus of messages shifts from their topics to play with message forms themselves, following stylized patterns of song and verse composition. Songs and verses are composed on the spot to carry on discussions in an operetta-like setting. Even unsettled litigation may be continued in this manner, the basis for decision being shifted from cogent argument to verbal artistry. The most prestigious kinds of drinking songs require the mastery of an esoteric vocabulary by means of which each line is repeated with a semantically equivalent but formally different line. Game drinking is a frequent accompaniment to these displays of verbal art. Together they help assure that the festivity will end with good feelings among all participants, a goal which is explicitly stated by the Subanun. Participants who had displayed marked hostility toward each other during the course of drinking talk may be singled out for special ritual treatment designed to restore good feelings. from Charles O. Frake, “How to Ask for a Drink in Subanun” (1964), 130–131

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Attitudes Toward the Use of Speech

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11 Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization: Meaning and Language in the Conceptual World

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Chapter 11: Culture as Cognition, Culture as Categorization

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It is still not definitively clear how we as children learn what words mean. For the most part, words are never explicitly defined for us, even though many times specific examples are pointed out (“Look, there’s a ‘puppy’ coming!”). Still, this process is often equally mysterious, even to adults, when things are explained to them and they have the intellectual maturity to know what to look for and the tools to do so. A case in point is when one of the authors (Stanlaw) was studying Japanese. The first week of language class he learned two important survival words: “eat” (taberu) and “drink” (nomu). When Japanese people would consume tea, beer, or water they would nomu; when they would consume sushi, hamburgers, or pizza they would taberu. There were a few oddities, however (as seen below). Japanese people would nomu chicken soup or aspirin, while Americans would “eat” the soup or “take” the aspirin. If something was dropped on the floor, a dog could “eat” it—or taberu it—in both languages (even if it was an aspirin). Stanlaw chalked this up to just some of the inevitable exceptions to the rules in learning a foreign language and never thought much more about these peculiarities, as about 90% of the time he ate and drank in Japanese just fine.

water, beer hamburger, sushi chicken soup aspirin dog’s stuff on the floor

ENGLISH “drink” “eat” “eat” “take” “eat”

JAPANESE nomu taberu nomu nomu taberu (continues)

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(continued) On his first trip to Japan, Stanlaw went to the zoo one day to peoplewatch and noticed a grade school class on one of their ubiquitous field trips getting a guided tour in the reptile house. After being shown a number of snakes, someone asked the zookeeper “What do pythons nomu?” Assuming he was smarter than a Japanese fifth grader, Stanlaw thought the answer would be obvious. Even snakes sometime probably had to “drink” water. He was surprised at the zookeeper’s reply, “Pythons nomu mice and rats.” Pondering how pythons could “drink” mice, it finally dawned on him what nomu really meant: “to ingest something without chewing.” Pythons, of course, swallow their prey whole, so they don’t “ingest by moving the jaws,” which is what taberu refers to. This is why Japanese can nomu soups or aspirins, as these are generally not chewed. A dog, however, will chew something he picks up off the floor, even an aspirin, so the right verb is taberu in this case. Stanlaw went to his Japanese teachers with his new insights: First, in English the world of consumables is divided into liquids (which are “drunk”) and solids (which are “eaten”). Second, the Japanese divide the world into actions—whether or not something is chewed (taberu) or not chewed (nomu). His teachers looked at him as if he had just discovered that the sky is blue or dogs have tails. This fact about the cultural universe was so self-evident to the Japanese teachers that they were at a loss to even know that it had to be pointed out (and in fact, at the time, most Japanese-English dictionaries didn’t). Stanlaw also realized a third thing: In the English world, speakers “take” medicines, regardless of whether they are solids or liquids. So there is another distinction English makes—that between consumables and medicines. It is the intent behind the ingestion that is as significant as either the act itself or the item ingested. Dogs snatching up the dropped aspirin are not really “taking” it, they are just eating it as they would any stray scrap of food they find. But if a dog were sick and went to the vet, he might be given some baby aspirins that the owner would be instructed to have him “take” at certain times. These were aspects about the meaning of the English words “eat,” “drink,” and “take” that Stanlaw had never been explicitly taught. Nor had he really noticed their usage before, even though he had been using these words—presumably correctly—for decades. Jim Stanlaw

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The Rise and (Relative) Fall of Ethnoscience

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221

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Studies of Discourse

223

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12 Language, Culture, and Thought

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226

Chapter 12: Language, Culture, and Thought

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B O X 1 2 . 1 H O W W O R D S A F F E C T B E H AV I O R

It was in the course of my professional work for a fire insurance company, in which I undertook the task of analyzing many hundreds of reports of circumstances surrounding the start of fires, and in some cases, of explosions. My analysis was directed toward purely physical conditions, such as defective wiring, presence or lack of air spaces between metal flues and woodwork, etc., and the results were presented in these . . . . But in due course it became evident that not only a physical situation qua physics, but the meaning of that situation to people, was sometimes a factor, through the behavior of the people, in the start of the fire. And this factor of meaning was clearest when it was a LINGUISTIC MEANING, residing in the name or the linguistic description commonly applied to the situation. Thus, around a storage of what are called “gasoline drums,” behavior will tend to a certain type, that is, great care will be exercised; while around a storage of what are called “empty gasoline drums,” it will tend to be different—careless, with little repression of smoking or of tossing cigarette stubs about. Yet the “empty” drums are perhaps the more dangerous, since they contain explosive vapor. Physically the situation is hazardous, but the linguistic analysis according to regular analogy must employ the word “empty,” which inevitably suggests lack of hazard. from Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (1956), 135

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The Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity and Linguisitc Determinism

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F I G U R E 1 2 . 1 Partial Comparison of the American and Arapaho Kinship Systems

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Color Nomenclature and Other Challenges to Linguistic Relativity

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B O X 1 2 . 2 C A R R O L L O N L I N G U I S T I C R E L AT I V I T Y

The speakers of one language . . . may tend to ignore differences which are regularly noticed by the speakers of another language. This is not to say that they always ignore them, for these differences can indeed be recognized and talked about in any language, but they are differences which are not always salient in their experiences. The effect of any one language category is to lead language s to assume, perhaps mistakenly, that there is uniformity of some sort within the category. . . . For example, historians have pointed out that the use of the term “the Middle Ages” may lead to the false impression that the period between the fall of Rome and the Italian Renaissance was in truth a distinct historical period which had uniform characteristics, throughout its length, which set it apart from other periods. . . . Let us now analyze a simple cross-linguistic example. In English, it is possible to report about someone, “He went to town.” Nothing is said about his mode of travel: he might have walked, run, rode a horse, driven a car, or taken a bus or even a boat or a helicopter. It is well known that in German one would have to specify at least a minimum of information about the mode of travel. Use of the verb gehen (as a cognate of go, apparently the most direct translation) would imply walking or some other form of self-propelled movement; use of fahren would imply going in a vehicle; of reiten, going on horseback; etc. Russian, and, it so happens, Navaho, could use an even longer list of verbs to distinguish modes of transportation. Thus, in English, it is possible to focus attention on the mere fact of someone’s having departed in the direction of town, even though the speaker of English can be more specific if he wants to: walked, ran, drove, rode, flew, bicycled, rowed, helicoptered could be substituted for went in the sentence indicated. . . . As compared with German speakers, English speakers are sometimes benefited, sometimes disadvantaged by the possible lack of specificity in the meaning of the English term go. from John B. Carroll, “Linguistic Relativity, Contrastive Linguistics, and Language Learning” (1963), 12–13

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13 Language and Ideology: Va riations in Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and Nationality

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B O X 1 3 . 1 TA L K I N G L I K E A L A D Y

Aside from specific lexical items like color names, we find differences between the speech of women and that of men in the use of particles that grammarians often describe as “meaningless.” There may be no referent for them, but they are far from meaningless: they define the social context of an utterance, indicate the relationship the speaker feels between himself and his addressee, between himself and what he is talking about. As an experiment, one might present native speakers of standard American English with pairs of sentences, identical syntactically and in of referential lexical items, and differing merely in the choice of “meaningless” particle, and ask them which was spoken by a man, which a woman. Consider: (a) Oh dear, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again. (b) Shit, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again. It is safe to predict that people would classify the first sentence as part of “women’s language,” the second as “men’s language.” It is true that many self-respecting women are becoming able to use sentences like (b) publicly without flinching, but this is a relatively recent development, and while perhaps the majority of Middle America might condone the use of (b) for men, they would still disapprove of its use by women. (It is of interest, by the way, to note that men’s language is increasingly being used by women, but women’s language is not being adopted by men, apart from those who reject the American masculine image [for example, homosexuals]. This is analogous to the fact that men’s jobs are being sought by women, but few men are rushing to become housewives or secretaries. The language of the favored group, the group that holds the power, along with its nonlinguistic behavior, is generally adopted by the other group, not vice versa. In any event, it is a truism to state that the “stronger” expletives are reserved for men, and the “weaker” ones for women. from Robin Lakoff, Language and Woman’s Place (1975), 9–10

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Language and Gender

267

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268


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Language and Gender

269

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270


B O X 1 3 . 2 W H AT D O E S T H E W O R D M A N M E A N ?

It has been argued that the word man, as in man is a primate, is independent of sex, that it refers to all of the species, and that it is just an etymological coincidence that the form for the species is the same as that for the male of the species. Certainly, using the same form for the entire species and for half the species creates the possibility of confusion, as those colonial women discovered who rashly thought that the word man in the sentence “All men are created equal” included them. More confusion may come about when we use phrases like early man. Although this presumably refers to the species, notice how easy it is to use expressions like early man and his wife and how hard it is to say things like man is the only animal that menstruates or even early woman and her husband. . . . The common theme running through these last examples is that the male is taken as the normal, that masculine forms refer both to the sex and the species, while women are the exception, usually absorbed by the masculine, but needing special when they become noticeable. If the above examples have not convinced you that man as a generic is at best ambiguous, consider the following quote from Alma Graham . . . : If a woman is swept off a ship into the water, the cry is “Man overboard!” If she is killed by a hit-and-run driver, the charge is “manslaughter.” If she is injured on the job, the coverage is “workmen’s compensation.” But if she arrives at a threshold marked “Men Only,” she knows the onition is not intended to bar animals or plants or inanimate objects. It is meant for her. from Francine Frank and Frank Anshen, Language and the Sexes (1983), 71–72

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Language and Gender

271

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272


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Language, “Race,” and Ethnicity

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B OX 1 3 . 3 A F R I C A N - A M E R I C A N E N G L I S H I N AC T I O N : A F I F T E E N -Y E A R - O L D S P E A K S

INTERVIEWER: What happens to you after you die? Do you know? LARRY: Yeah, I know. I: What? LARRY: After they put you in the ground, your body turns into—ah—bones,

an’ shit. I: What happens to your spirit? LARRY: Your spirit—soon as you die, your spirit leaves you. I: And where does the spirit go? LARRY: Well, it all depends . . . I: On what? LARRY: You know, like some people say if you’re good an’ shit, your spirit

goin’ t’heaven . . . ’n’ if you bad, your spirit goin’ to hell. Well, bullshit! Your spirit goin’ to hell anyway, good or bad. I: Why? LARRY: Why? I’ll tell you why. ’Cause, you see, doesn’ nobody really know that it’s a God, y’know, ’cause I mean I have seen black gods, pink gods, white gods, all color gods, and don’t nobody know it’s really a God. An’ when they be sayin’ if you good, you goin’ t’heaven, tha’s bullshit, ’cause you ain’t goin’ to no heaven, ’cause it ain’t no heaven for you to go to. I: Well, if there’s no heaven, how could there be a hell? LARRY: I mean—ye-eah. Well, let me tell you, it ain’t no hell, ’cause this is hell right here, y’know! I: This is hell? LARRY: Yeah, this is hell right here! I: . . . But, just say that there is a God, what color is he? White or black? LARRY: Well, if it is a God . . . I wouldn’ know what color, I couldn’ say,— couldn’ nobody say what color he is or really would be. I: But now, jus’ suppose there was a God— LARRY: Unless’n they say . . . I: No, I was jus’ sayin’ jus’ suppose there is a God, would he be white or black? LARRY: . . . He’d be white, man. I: Why? LARRY: Why? I’ll tell you why. ’Cause the average whitey out here got everything, you dig? And the nigger ain’t got shit, y’know? Y’understan’? So— um—for—in order for that to happen, you know it ain’t no black God that’s doin’ that bullshit. from William Labov, “The Logic of Nonstandard English” (1970), 12–15

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289

Summary and Conclusions "MUIPVHI XF PGUFO UIJOL UIBU MBOHVBHF WBSJBUJPO JT MBSHFMZ EVF UP HFP HSBQIJDBMMZCBTFEEJBMFDUT NVDIPGUIFUJNFUIFEJGGFSFODFTJOMBOHVBHFVTF XFIFBSBSPVOEVTBSFEVFUPPUIFSSFBTPOT.BOZMBOHVBHFTFYIJCJUEJGGFS FODFTBDDPSEJOHUPXIFUIFSUIFZBSFTQPLFOCZXPNFOPSNFO*OTPNF MBOHVBHFT UIFTFEJGGFSFODFTBSFMJNJUFEUPBGFXTPVOETJOPUIFSTUIFZBSF MFYJDBMBT GPSFYBNQMF JO"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI XIFSFDFSUBJOXPSETBSFIFBSE QSJNBSJMZGSPNXPNFOSBUIFSUIBONFO BOEWJDFWFSTB(FOEFSJTOPUUIF POMZTPVSDFPGUIJTLJOEPGWBSJBUJPO‰TPNFEJGGFSFODFTBSFDPSSFMBUFEXJUI DMBTTBOEFUIOJDJUZ 'PSFYBNQMF POFEJTUJODUJWFWBSJFUZPG&OHMJTITQPLFOJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT JT"GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS&OHMJTIVTFEQSJNBSJMZCZ"GSJDBO"NFSJ DBOTJODPODFOUSBUFEVSCBODFOUFST'BSGSPNCFJOHEFGJDJFOUBOEJUTTQFBL FSTWFSCBMMZEFQSJWFE ""7&IBTJUTPXOTUSVDUVSF SFMBUFEUPCVUEJTUJODU GSPNPUIFSWBSJFUJFTPG"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI BTXFMMBTBSBOHFPGFYQSFTTJWF TUZMFT5IFTUJHNBPGUFOBUUBDIFEUPJUJTVOEFTFSWFECFDBVTFJUDPOGVTFTUIF MPXFSTPDJPFDPOPNJDTUBUVTPGUIFNBOZ"GSJDBO"NFSJDBOTXIPVTFJUXJUI UIFJSTQFFDI‰BHPPEFYBNQMFPGJHOPSBODFCSFFEJOHQSFKVEJDF -BOHVBHFSFGMFDUTQFSTPOBMJEFOUJUZ CVUTPNFUJNFTUIJTDPOGMJDUTXJUITP DJBMFYQFDUBUJPO'PSFYBNQMF BUBGPSNBMCVTJOFTTNFFUJOH UIFVTFPG""7& XPVMECFUIPVHIUJOBQQSPQSJBUF-JLFXJTF JGBXPNBOJTVTJOHiNFOTMBO HVBHFw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

14 Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World

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CVUJUBMTPDBOBOEEPFT 291

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Chapter 14: Linguistic Anthropology in a Globalized World

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Language Planning

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B O X 1 4 . 1 P L A N S F O R T H E R E V I TA L I Z AT I O N O F K E R E S , THE DIALECT OF RIO GRANDE KERESAN, SPOKEN IN T H E P U E B LO O F CO C H I T I , N E W M E X I CO

As of this writing, the plans for the fall [2000] include (1) an all-Keres room where Head Start and preschool children can spend from half an hour to two hours daily, depending on their parents’ preferences; (2) Keres language classes for tribal employees, to be given three times a week; (3) after-school arts and crafts and recreational activities for school-age children; and (4) arts and crafts and Keres classes for adults in the evenings. In addition, CIEC [Cochiti Indian Education Committee] and CETF [Cochiti Education Task Force] committee have committed themselves to providing mentoring to less fluent speakers and to revitalizing the practice of visiting each other and maintaining Keres during these visits. Several community projects such as ditch cleaning, weeding, and painting are planned in which fluent adults are matched with learning adolescents. All of these efforts will be undertaken either with volunteers or with tribal funds. This allows the tribe to maintain control and to remain faithful to its own values. Moreover, drawing in the different segments of the community—for example, the elders, the tribal council, tribal employees, parents, and children— underscores the fact that the language revitalization project belongs to everyone and therefore all have a responsibility to its continuation. Future plans include a language nest, where babies and very young children can be cared for by fluent Keres-speaking “grandmothers”; an all-Keres preschool program; a healthy after-school recreational program; more community projects; adolescent-elder pairings; and consistent Keres class offerings after school and in the evenings for adults. These plans for the future will necessarily mean that more fluent speakers will be needed to teach and to lead in the various initiatives that are to come. The CIEC, the task force, and the leaders of the community understand the commitment required to make all of this a reality. However, they also understand the power of these initiatives for the language learning of their future leaders. Much of the success that the Pueblo de Cochiti has enjoyed is owed to the fact that the leaders have moved slowly and planned carefully. Above all, they have made certain that every step taken has been consonant with Cochiti traditional culture and values. from Regis Pecos and Rebecca Blum-Martinez, “The Key to Cultural Survival” (2001), 81–82

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B O X 1 4 . 2 C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O B L E M S B E T W E E N E N G L I S H S P E A K E R S A N D AT H A B A S K A N S

What’s Confusing to English Speakers About Athabaskans

What’s Confusing to Athabaskan Speakers About English Speakers

They do not speak. They keep silent. They avoid situations of talking.

They talk too much. They always talk first. They talk to strangers or people they don’t know. They think they can predict the future. They brag about themselves. They don’t help people even when they can. They always talk about what’s going to happen later. They ask too many questions. They always interrupt. They only talk about what they are interested in. They don’t give others a chance to talk. They are always getting excited when they talk. They aren’t careful when they talk about things or people.

They only want to talk to close acquaintances. They play down their own abilities. They act as if they expect things to be given to them. They deny planning. They avoid direct questions. They never start a conversation. They talk off the topic. They never say anything about themselves. They are slow to take a turn in talking. They ask questions in unusual places. They talk with a flat tone of voice. They are too indirect, inexplicit. They don’t make sense. They just leave without saying anything.

from Ronald Scollon and Suzanne Wong-Scollon, “Athabaskan-English Interethnic Communication” (1990), 284

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Language and the Law

309

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I337 5P34K: 4N 31337 I3350N F0R 4N O1D F4RT

In a class on Japanese linguistics I was teaching, I was describing some of the new orthographic games Japanese teenage girls play on their cell phones when they text-message using symbols, emoticons, and scripts from various foreign languages. “Oh, that’s just like leet!” said a student. Seeing the puzzled look on my face, he went to the board and wrote 31337 sp34k, as if this explained everything. It didn’t. After a pregnant pause, with me unsuccessfully finding a way to appear both knowledgeable and cool, he said, “You really are a newb—a newbie—aren’t you?” while writing n00b in big letters. It dawned on me that this was some kind of code. 0 replaced the letter o, 7 replaced t, 1 replaced l, 4 replaced A, 5 replaced S, and so on. So, 31337 was supposed to be “elite”—spelled eleet, and shortened to leet, in this strange argot. But this was not what cryptologists call a transposition cipher, where numbers simply encoded letters. Instead, what was going on was a kind orthographic running joke. For example, ph was often used for any f-sounds, and words could be transcribed in several ways: “fear” might be rendered ph34r, ph33r, or phear. Phonetic and orthographic puns saturate leet-speek, and sometimes the uninitiated might miss the joke. I never would have guessed that b7 is “banned,” and the logic, such as it is, is something like this: The ampersand (&) is pronounced “and,” and the number 7 and the character & share the same key on the keyboard. Thus, b and 7 (i.e., and) make “banned.” “Surely, even you . . . you who are . . . ”—he wrote 4n o1d F4rt on the board, as the class broke out into giggles—“can see this, right?” “But of course,” I lied, trying to keep my composure. Later on, after class, I figured it out. I could console myself, however, that at least I was not an über g33k like my student. Jim Stanlaw

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B O X 1 4 . 4 . W H AT L I N G U I S T I C A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S HELPED ACCOMPLISH

It is the policy of the United States to—

1) preserve, protect, and promote the rights and freedom of Native Americans to use, practice, and develop Native American languages; . . . (3) encourage and the use of Native American languages as a medium of instruction in order to encourage and — (A) Native American language survival, (B) educational opportunity, (C) increased student success and performance, (D) increased student awareness and knowledge of their culture and history, and (E) increased student and community pride; (4) encourage State and local education programs to work with Native American parents, educators, Indian tribes, and other Native American governing bodies in the implementation of programs to put this policy into effect; (5) recognize the right of Indian tribes and other Native American governing bodies to use the Native American languages as a medium of instruction in all schools funded by the Secretary of the Interior; . . . (7) the granting of comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a Native American language the same academic credit as comparable proficiency achieved through course work in a foreign language . . . Public Law 101-477 Title I—Native American Languages Act [1990]

RESOURCE MANUAL AND S T U DY G U I D E

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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 'PSUIFNPTUQBSU UIFUFSNTiMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZwBOEiBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJO HVJTUJDTwNFBOFYBDUMZUIFTBNFUIJOH BOEOFJUIFSJTUPCFQSFGFSSFEPWFSUIF PUIFS 5 ' /BUVSBMMBOHVBHFJUTFMGJTOPUBNCJHVPVTJUJTQFPQMFXIPNJTJOUFSQSFUUIJOHTUIBU DBVTFQSPCMFNT 5 ' "DDPSEJOHUP#PBT UIFSFJTOPJOUSJOTJDDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFOSBDF MBOHVBHF BOE DVMUVSF 5 ' "MNPTUFWFSZXIFSFJOUIFXPSMEFWFSZPOFJTNPOPMJOHVBMPSNPOPEJBMFDUBM KVTU BTJO"NFSJDB


5 ' 5 '

329

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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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i*OUSPEVDUJPOwUPUIF )BOEPLPG "NFSJDBO*OEJBO-BOHVBHFT

330


Chapter 2 Key DPOTVMUBOU DPSQVT FMJDJUBUJPO GJFMEXPSL JOGPSNBOU MJOHVJTUJDT QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO

Questions for Discussion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

Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 '

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


331

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$PNQMFUJPOT "DPMMFDUJPOPGMBOHVBHFEBUBVTFEBTBCBTJTGPSBOBOBMZTJTPSEFTDSJQUJPOJTSFGFSSFE UPBTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE JTUIFESBXJOHPVUPGJOGPSNBUJPOPSSFTQPOTF GSPNJOGPSNBOUT 5PFNQIBTJ[FUIFJOUFSDPOOFDUJPOCFUXFFODVMUVSFBOETPDJFUZ BOUISPQPMPHJTUTVTF UIFDPNQPVOEBEKFDUJWF@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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iMBOHVBHFNBU UFSTJOBOUISPQPMPHZw5IFUPQJDTSBOHFGSPNBDRVJTJUJPOPGMBOHVBHFUPXSJUJOH"OZSFBEFS XJMMGJOETPNFUIJOHPGJOUFSFTUBTXFMMBTTIPSUCJCMJPHSBQIJFTPGUIFNPTUTBMJFOUXPSLTPO FBDIUPQJD'PSBSFBEFSJOMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ TFF%VSBOUJUIFUXFOUZPOFDPOUSJ CVUJPOTUPUIJTXPSLJODMVEFBSUJDMFTPOTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZBOEDPNNVOJDBUJWFDPNQFUFODF VUUFSBODFTBTBDUT MBOHVBHFTPDJBMJ[BUJPOBOEMJUFSBDZQSBDUJDFT BOEUIFQPXFSPGMBOHVBHF

332


Chapter 3 Key BDDFOU BMMPNPUJG BMMPQIPOF DPOTPOBOU FNJD T

FUJD T

NPUJG NPUJGFNF QIPOF QIPOFNF QIPOFNJD USBOTDSJQUJPO

QIPOFUJD USBOTDSJQUJPO

QIPOPMPHZ QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFT TQFFDIBQQBSBUVT TZMMBCMF WPJDFETPVOE WPJDFMFTTTPVOE WPXFM

Questions for Discussion &NJD BOEFUJD BQQSPBDIFTIBWFUIFJSPSJHJOJOMJOHVJTUJDTCVUFWFOUVBMMZIBWFCFFOBQ QMJFEJOTFWFSBMCSBODIFTPGBOUISPQPMPHZ JODMVEJOHPSBMGPMLMPSF*ODVMUVSBM TPDJBM

BOUISPQPMPHZUIFWBMVFPGUIFTFUXPBQQSPBDIFTIBTOPXCFFOHFOFSBMMZSFDPHOJ[FE %JTDVTTGJSTUUIFEJGGFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFUXPBQQSPBDIFT QIPOFUJDWFSTVTQIPOFNJD

JOMJOHVJTUJDBOBMZTJTBOEEFTDSJQUJPO BOEUIFOIPXUIFZDPNQMFNFOUFBDIPUIFSJO FUIOPHSBQIZ EFTDSJQUJPOPGBDVMUVSF 5IF&OHMJTIXPSETCZ IJHI UIJHI XIZ SZF BOEMJF BOEPOFDPVMEMJTUPUIFSTUIBU SIZNF CFMPOHUPUIFTBNFNJOJNBMTFU&YQMBJOXIBUJTNFBOUCZUIJTTUBUFNFOUBOE DPNNFOU PO UIF SFMBUJPO CFUXFFO UIF QSPOVODJBUJPO PG &OHMJTI XPSET BOE UIFJS TQFMMJOH .PSSJT)BMMFXSPUFUIBUiUIFTPunds   XFFNJUXIFOTQFBLJOHBSFQSPEVDFECZDPN QMFYHZNOBTUJDTw$POTJEFSJOHUIBUQFPQMFTQFBLFGGPSUMFTTMZBOETPNFUJNFTUPPGBTU XIZEJE)BMMFNBLFUIBUTUBUFNFOU $POTJEFSUFOPSTPTPVOETPG&OHMJTIBOEBUUFNQUUPEFTDSJCF BUMFBTUSPVHIMZ XIFSF JOUIFWPDBMUSBDU UIBUJT CFUXFFOUIFMJQTBOEUIFMBSZOY NBSLFEJOUIFOFDLCZUIF TPDBMMFE"EBNTBQQMF

FBDITPVOEJTQSPEVDFEBOECZXIBUNFBOT


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5 '

5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

333

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.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ 8IFOUIFWPDBMDPSETBSFESBXOUPHFUIFSBOENBEFUPWJCSBUF UIFZQSPEVDF "

WPJDFETPVOET # WPJDFMFTTTPVOET $ UIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<ʔ> @@@@ 5IFQTPVOETJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSETQFBL BOETQFBL BSF " UXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOF QIPOFNF # UXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT $ JODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO % 0G UIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWFPOMZUXPBSFBDDFQUBCMF & 0GUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWF POMZPOFJTBDDFQUBCMF @@@@ 5IFDPOUSBTUCFUXFFOUIFFNJDBOEFUJDQFSTQFDUJWFTJOMJOHVJTUJDTBOEMJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEBMTPUP " GPMLMPSF # BSDIBFPMPHZ $ DVMUVSBM BOUISPQPMPHZ % 5IJTBQQSPBDIIBTCFFOFYUFOEFEUPBMMUISFFTVCGJFMETMJTUFE IFSF @@@@ 5IFTPVOEXSJUUFOBT JT " VWVMBS # EFOUBM $ CJMBCJBM % /POFPGUIFTF UISFFDIPJDFTBQQMJFT @@@@ 8IJDIBNPOHUIFGPMMPXJOHTUBUFNFOUTJT JOEFGFOTJCMF " &BDIMBOHVBHFIBTB DIBSBDUFSJTUJDQIPOFNJDTZTUFN # 5IFHSBNNBSTPGVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTPGTNBMM USJCBMTPDJFUJFTBSFJOWBSJBCMZTJNQMFSUIBOHSBNNBSTPGMBOHVBHFTPGMBSHFFTUBC MJTIFETPDJFUJFT $ 5IFQSPEVDUJPOPGTQFFDITPVOETJTBOFYDFFEJOHMZDPNQMFY QSPDFTTJOWPMWJOHTPNFPOFIVOESFENVTDMFTBTXFMMBTPUIFSUJTTVFT % /BUJWF TQFBLFSTPGBMBOHVBHFVTFJUFGGJDJFOUMZFWFOUIPVHIUIFZNBZLOPXOPUIJOHBVU JUTTUSVDUVSF

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BSFSFGFSSFEUPBT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@MBOHVBHFT POFXPSE 5IFTNBMMFTUQFSDFQUJCMFEJTDSFUFTFHNFOUPGTQFFDIJTB@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE UIFDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEVOJUTPGBMBOHVBHFBSF@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE BOEUIFWBSJFUJFTPGBDPOUSBTUJWFTPVOEBSFJUT@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ QMVSBMPGPOFXPSE

334


Problems 1SPCMFN #BTFEPO8POEFSMZBBOEC UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN;PRVF BMBOHVBHFTQPLFO JOTPVUIFSO.FYJDPUIBUCFMPOHTUPUIF.JYF;PRVFHSPVQPGMBOHVBHFT"NPOHUIFTPVOET PG;PRVFBSF BWPJDFMFTTBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF TJNJMBSUPUIFDPOTPOBOUTJOUIFXPSEUTFUTF

BOE<> BWPJDFEBMWFPMBSBGGSJDBUF'SPNUIFEBUBHJWFOIFSF‰UPCFUBLFOBTSFQSF TFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHF‰BSF BOE<>BMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF UIBUJT BSFUIFZJO DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO

PSBSFUIFZBTTJHOBCMFUPUXPEJGGFSFOUQIPOFNFT UIBUJT EP UIFZDPOUSBTU 4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. ʔakaʔŋhk2. ʔaŋoŋu 3. camamnayu 4. cap 5. caʔ 6. cima

7. nhku 8. nima 9. nin 10. pac 11. puci 12. wanʔyu

‘to be round’ ‘he answered’ ‘he chatted’ ‘sky’ ‘stone’ ‘calabash’

‘I did it’ ‘my calabash’ ‘my pine’ ‘skunk’ ‘trash’ ‘he quit singing’

1SPCMFN $[FDIJTB8FTU4MBWJDMBOHVBHFPGUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ TQPLFOJOUIF$[FDI 3FQVCMJD*O$[FDI BNPOHUIFWBSJPVTTUPQT QMPTJWFT BSFUXPBMWFPEFOUBMTUPQT BOE <E> BSUJDVMBUFECZUIFUPOHVFUJQBHBJOTUUIFVOEBSZCFUXFFOUIFVQQFSJODJTPSTBOEUIF BMWFPMBSSJEHFCFIJOEUIFN BOEUXPQBMBUBMTUPQT BOE<EZ>5PIPXNBOZQIPOFNFTBSF UIFTFGPVSTPVOETBTTJHOBCMF $POTJEFSUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBOETVQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. dej 2. dyedyit 3. dyej 4. dyelo 5. kotel 6. kotye 7. tedi 8. tele

‘give!’ ‘to inherit’ ‘action’ ‘cannon’ ‘kettle’ ‘kitten’ ‘hence’ ‘calf (animal)’

9. tyelo 10. teta 11. tikat 12. titul 13. tyikat 14. vada 15. vana 16. vata

‘body’ ‘aunt’ ‘to be on a first-name basis’ ‘title’ ‘to tick (clock)’ ‘flaw’ ‘bathtub’ ‘absorbent cotton’

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO&DIFWFSSÓBBOE$POUSFSBT UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN"SBVDBOJBO BMBO HVBHFTQPLFOCZ/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPG"SHFOUJOBBOE$IJMF*TUIFNBJOTUSFTT NBSLFECZ <}> EJTUJODUJWF PSJTJUQSFEJDUBCMFCZSVMF 4VQQPSUZPVSDPODMVTJPO 1. elúmuyu 2. kimúfaluwulay 3. kurám

‘give us!’ ‘he pretended not to know’ ‘egg’

4. nawél 5. putún 6. θuŋúlan 7. wuyá

‘tiger’ ‘to drink’ ‘I do not speak’ ‘yesterday’

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO1PTUBM UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN.PIBXL UIF*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFPGB/BUJWF "NFSJDBOQFPQMFXIPMJWFNBJOMZJOTPVUIFSO0OUBSJPBOEFYUSFNFOPSUIFSO/FX:PSL0O UIFCBTJTPGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFTUBUVTPGWPXFMMFOHUI‰JTJUQSFEJDUBCMFPSJTJU EJTUJODUJWF -FOHUIJTJOEJDBUFECZEPVCMJOHBTZNM‰UIBUJT ÏÏ JTBMPOHF<ʔ>JTUIFHMPU

335


UBMTUPQ<}>NBSLTTUSFTT<>JTBOVOSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM BTJOUIF&OHMJTIXPSE CVEBOE<ɔ>JTBSPVOEFECBDLMPXFSNJEWPXFM 1. ranahéézs 2. ragéédas 3. ray}thos 4. waháágedeʔ 5. wísk 6. rehyááraʔs

7. wahrehyááraʔneʔ 8. ɔwadunizaʔáshegeʔ

‘he trusts her’ ‘he scrapes’ ‘he plants’ ‘he scraped’ ‘five’ ‘he re’

9. yékreks 10. royóʔdeʔ

‘he ed’ ‘it will be ripening repeatedly’ ‘I push it’ ‘he works’

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN,PSFBO BMBOHVBHFXIPTFBG GJMJBUJPOJTEJTQVUFE5IFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>BSFJODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPO0OUIFCBTJT PGUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB XIBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFTVGGJYNFBOJOHAPG UIF 8IBUDIBOHFEP OPVOTUFNTVOEFSHPXIFOUIFTVGGJYJTBUUBDIFE BOEVOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFTEPFTUIF DIBOHFPDDVS 8IBUBSFUIFUXPNVUVBMMZFYDMVTJWFFOWJSPONFOUT DPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJ CVUJPO JOXIJDIUIFTPVOET<M>BOE<S>PDDVS 1. pal 2. paruy 3. kul 4. il

‘foot’ ‘of the foot’ ‘oyster’ ‘day’

5. rupi 6. ratio 7. mul 8. muruy

‘ruby’ ‘radio’ ‘water’ ‘of the water’

9. saram 10. saramuy 11. multok 12. ipalsa

‘person’ ‘of the person’ ‘water jug’ ‘barber’

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPNB#BOUVMBOHVBHFTQP LFOJO"OHPMB "GSJDB5IJTMBOHVBHFJTBNFNCFSPGUIF/JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 5IFBMWFPMBSTFHNFOUT JODPNQMFNFOUBSZEJTUSJCVUJPOXJUIUIFJSQBMBUBMDPVOUFS QBSUT BSFBTTJHOBCMFUPUISFFQIPOFNFT8IBUJTUIFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGFBDIPGUIFDPS SFTQPOEJOHQBJSTPGBMMPQIPOFT UIBUJT BOE BOE<Ý> BOE<[>BOE<ä> 8IJDIPG UIF QIPOFUJD TZNMT GSPN UIF GJSTU QBJS XPVME ZPV DIPPTF UP SFQSFTFOU UIF QIPOFNF BOEXIZ 1. tobola 2. tanu 3. kesoka 4. kasu 5. kunezulu 6. zevo 7. zenga

‘to bore a hole’ ‘five’ ‘to be cut’ ‘emaciation’ ‘heaven’ ‘then’ ‘to cut’

8. nselele 9. Oina 10. Oiba 11. nkoi 12. aimola 13. loloni 14. ima

‘termite’ ‘to cut’ ‘banana’ ‘lion’ ‘alms’ ‘to wash the house’ ‘to stretch’

1SPCMFN %FTQFSBOUPJTTQPLFOJOBOBTZFUVOFYQMPSFEUSPQJDBMGPSFTU"NPOHUIF%FTQFSBOUPXPSET BSFUIFGPMMPXJOHOPVOTBOEOPVOQISBTFT MPOHWPXFMTBSFSFQSFTFOUFECZEPVCMFMFUUFST TIPSUWPXFMTCZTJOHMFMFUUFST 1. muumu 2. kaka 3. wowo

‘home fried potatoes’ ‘scrambled eggs’ ‘bikini swimsuit’

Is vowel length phonemic?

yes

4. kakaa 5. mumu 6. woowoo no.

‘used bicycle’ ‘garlic ice cream’ ‘banana split’

336


In your answer (one sentence should suffice), justify your choice: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

1SPCMFN "NPOHUIFTPVOETPG$[FDIBSF BOE JTUIFTPVOEXSJUUFODI JOUIFOBNFPGUIF DPNQPTFS+4#BDI 0OUIFCBTJTPGUIF$[FDIXPSETMJTUFECFMPX BSFUIFTFUXPTPVOETUXP TFQBSBUFQIPOFNFTPSUXPBMMPQIPOFTPGPOFQIPOFNF 1. [prak] 2. [puk] 3. [xrxel] 4. [krkoun]

‘slingshot’ ‘puck’ ‘spittle’ ‘cheapskate’

5. [prax] 6. [xroust] 7. [kras] 8. [pux]

‘dust’ ‘June bug’ ‘limestone region with caverns’ ‘stench’

2 separate phonemes 2 allophones of one phoneme. Justify your decision: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 5FYUPLTPGMJOHVJTUJDTBSFOVNFSPVT BOENPTUDBSSZTPNFFYQMBOBUJPOTPGQIPOPMPHZ BOEQIPOFNJDT PGUFOBMPOHXJUIFYFSDJTFT5IFUXPDMBTTJDTBSF4BQJSBOE#MPPN GJFME5XPFYDFMMFOUQPTUXBSCVUQSF$IPNTLZBOJOUSPEVDUJPOTUPMJOHVJTUJDTBSF )PDLFUUBOE(MFBTPO4PNFSFQSFTFOUBUJWFDPOUFNQPSBSZTUBOEBSEUFYUTBSF "LNBKJBO %FNFST 'BSNFS BOE)BSOJTI BOE0(SBEZ "SDIJCBME "SPOPGG BOE 3FFT.JMMFS"OFDMFDUJDTFUPGQSPCMFNTDBOCFGPVOEJO#FSHNBOO )BMM BOE3PTT 'PSHFOFSBMSFGFSFODF POFNBZXJTIUPDPOTVMU$SZTUBMBOEFTQFDJBMMZUIFFY DFMMFOU$SZTUBM'PSNPSFTQFDJBMJ[FEUPQJDT TFF-BEFGPHFEBOE+PIOTPOPOQIP OFUJDT )BZFTPOQIPOPMPHZ BOE$IPNTLZBOE)BMMFPO UIFQIPOPMPHZPG &OHMJTI#SJHIUTGPVSWPMVNFFODZDMPQFEJB JTBOFYDFMMFOUBOESFMJBCMFTPVSDFPOBMM BTQFDUTPGMJOHVJTUJDT 4PNFMJOHVJTUTEJTUJOHVJTICFUXFFOWPDPJETBOEWPXFMTPOUIFPOFIBOEBOEDPOUPJET BOEDPOTPOBOUTPOUIFPUIFS8IFOUIJTEJTUJODUJPOJTNBEF WPDPJETBOEDPOUPJETSFGFSUP TQFFDITPVOETEFGJOFEJOQIPOFUJDUFSNTBOEDPOTJEFSFEBTQIPOFUJDFOUJUJFT XIFSFBTWPX FMTBOEDPOTPOBOUTSFGFSUPTFHNFOUTEFGJOFEJOUFSNTPGUIFTPVOETUSVDUVSFPGBQBSUJDV MBSMBOHVBHF UIBUJT DPOTJEFSFEBTQIPOPMPHJDBMFOUJUJFT #ZOPNFBOTJTUIFSFBHSFFNFOUBTUPIPXCFTUUPBOBMZ[FUIFTZTUFNPG&OHMJTIWPXFM QIPOFNFT*OPOFXJEFMZBDDFQUFEBOBMZTJT GPSFYBNQMF UIFWPXFMTPGQJU BOEQFBU BSF QIPOFNJDBMMZSFQSFTFOUFEBTJBOEJZ SFTQFDUJWFMZJOBOPUIFS UIFZBSFJOUFSQSFUFEBT* BOEJBOEJOTUJMMBOPUIFSBTJBOEBMPOHJ'PSPVSQVSQPTFT IPXFWFS JUJTFOPVHIUP OPUFUIBUBMUFSOBUJWFJOUFSQSFUBUJPOTFYJTU

Chapter 4 Key BGGJY BMMPNPSQI BTQFDU VOENPSQIFNF


337

DBTF EFSJWBUJPO EJTDPVSTF GSFFNPSQIFNF HFOEFS HFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS JOGJY JOGMFDUJPO NPSQIFNF NPSQIPMPHZ NPSQIPQIPOFNJDT QSFGJY QSPDFTTNPSQIFNF SFEVQMJDBUJPO TUFN TVGGJY TVQQMFUJPO TZOUBY USBOTGPSNBUJPO USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBS USBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF WPXFMIBSNPOZ XPSEPSEFS

Questions for Discussion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


5 ' 5 '

/BUJWFTQFBLFSTXIPEPOPUPCTFSWFUIFQSPQFSHSBNNBUJDBMSVMFT UIFZNBZTBZ GPSFYBNQMF i*BJOUwPSiIFEPOULOPXOPUIJOHw BSFOPUVTFEBTJOGPSNBOUTCZ MJOHVJTUTBOEMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHJTUT 5IFTUVEZPGQIPOFNJDEJGGFSFODFTCFUXFFOWBSJPVTGPSNTPGBNPSQIFNFJT UFSNFENPSQIPQIPOFNJDT .PSQIPMPHZJTUIFTUVEZPGUIFPSJHJOPGXPSET

338

5 ' 5 '


-JOHVJTUJDVOJUTUIBUIBWFBNFBOJOHCVUDPOUBJOOPTNBMMFSNFBOJOHGVMQBSUTBSF DBMMFENPSQIFNFT 5IFSFRVJSFNFOUUIBUWPXFMTXJUIJOBXPSEIBWFBDFSUBJOTJNJMBSJUZSFTVMUTJO XIBUJTUFSNFEWPXFMIBSNPOZ

.VMUJQMF$IPJDF2VFTUJPOT @@@@ )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOUNPSQIFNFT OPUIPXNBOZ NPSQIFNFT BSFUIFSFJOUIFGPM MPXJOHTFOUFODFi4IFDPPLTUBTUZTPVQTBOETUFXTw " # $ % @@@@ 8IBUJTUIFUPUBM OVNCFSPGNPSQIFNFTJOUIFQSFDFEJOHTFOUFODF " # $

% @@@@ 5IF&OHMJTIXPSEVOEFTJSBCMF DPOUBJOT " POFQSFGJY # POFTVGGJY $ UXPBG GJYFT % UISFFBGGJYFT & 5XPPGUIFBWFDIPJDFTBQQMZ ' 5ISFFPGUIFBWF DIPJDFT "o% BQQMZ @@@@ 8IJDIPGUIF&OHMJTIXPSETMJTUFECFMPXIBTB[FSPBMMPNPSQIPGUIFQMVSBMNPS QIFNF " TZMMBCVT # NPVTF $ PY % TIFFQ & [FSP @@@@ 5IF TFOUFODF i%PHT CJUF UIJFWFTw DPOUBJOT " UISFF GSFF NPSQIFNFT # POF VOENPSQIFNF $ UXPVOENPSQIFNFT % 0OMZPOFPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFT BWFBQQMJFT & 5XPPGUIFUISFFDIPJDFTBWF "o$ BQQMZ

$PNQMFUJPOT 8IBULJOEPGNPSQIFNF BMMPNPSQI JTFYFNQMJGJFECZBDIBOHFSBUIFSUIBOBO BEEJUJPO BTJOUIFQMVSBMJ[BUJPOPGNPVTF UPNJDF *UJTB@@@@@@@@@@NPSQIFNF POFXPSE *O-BUJO UIFBSSBOHFNFOUPGXPSETJOBTFOUFODFEPFTOPUJOEJDBUFXIJDIOPVO JTUIFTVCKFDUBOEXIJDIJTUIFPCKFDU CVUSBUIFSJTVTFEUPTIPX@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

Problems 1SPCMFN #BTFEPO-BOHBDLFS UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN-VJTF×P B6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHF TQPLFOJOTPVUIXFTUFSO$BMJGPSOJB<ʔ>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQ JTBQPTUWFMBSWPJDFMFTTTUPQ TJNJMBSUP CVUBSUJDVMBUFEGBSUIFSCBDLJOUIFNPVUI MPOHWPXFMTBSFXSJUUFOBTBTF RVFODFPGUXPWPXFMTZNMTUIFTUSFTT <}> JTNBSLFEPOMZPOUIFGJSTUPGUXPBEKBDFOU WPXFMT'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB‰UPCFUBLFOBTSFQSFTFOUBUJWFPGUIFMBOHVBHF‰JTPMBUF -VJTF×PNPSQIFNFTBOEQSPWJEFFBDIXJUIBO&OHMJTIHMPTT BCSJFGUSBOTMBUJPOUPJOEJDBUF NFBOJOH 1. nóo wukálaq 2. nóo páaʔiq 3. nóo páaʔin 4. temét Oáami páaʔiviOunin 5. nóo póy wukálaviOuniq 6. nóo páaʔiviOuq 7. temét póy wukálaviOuniq

‘I am walking’ ‘I am drinking’ ‘I will drink’ ‘The sun will make us want to drink’ ‘I am making him want to walk’ ‘I want to drink’ ‘The sun is making him want to walk’

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO;FQFEB UIJTQSPCMFNJTGSPN5PIPOP0PEIBN GPSNFSMZSFGFSSFEUPBT1B QBHP

B6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJOTPVUIFSO"SJ[POBBOEOPSUIXFTUFSO.FYJDP<ʔ>


339

JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQBOE<ñ>JTQSPOPVODFEMJLFUIF×JOUIF&OHMJTIXPSEQJ×PO BMTPTQFMMFE QJOZPO0OUIFCBTJTPGUIFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBSWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO"BOEUIFQMVSBM GPSNTJO$PMVNO# IPXXPVMEZPVEFTDSJCFJOHFOFSBMUFSNTUIFQSPDFTTPGQMVSBMJ[BUJPO PGUIFWFSCGPSNTJO$PMVNO" A 1. ñeok 2. ʔul 3. helwuin 4. him 5. dagkon

‘speaks’ ‘sticks out’ ‘is sliding’ ‘walks’ ‘wipes’

B ñeñeok ʔuʔul hehelwuin hihim dadagkon

1SPCMFN 5IFSFHVMBS&OHMJTIQBTUUFOTFNPSQIFNFIBTUISFFBMMPNPSQITEBTJOCFHHFE UBTJO DIJSQFE BOE-ədBTJOHVJEFE 5IFUIJSEQFSTPOTJOHVMBSNPSQIFNFBMTPIBTUISFFBMMP NPSQIT[BTJOHPFT PSCFHT TBTJODIJSQT BOE-əzBTJOIPVTFT %FTDSJCFUIFFOWJ SPONFOUTJOXIJDIUIFBMMPNPSQITPGFBDIPGUIFUXPNPSQIFNFTPDDVS

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO.FSSJGJFMEBOEPUIFST UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4JFSSB1PQPMVDB B.JYF ;PRVFMBOHVBHFTQPLFOJOBVUUXPEP[FOWJMMBHFTBOETFUUMFNFOUTJOUIFTUBUFPG7FS BDSV[ .FYJDP 5IF SBJTFE EPU <·> BGUFS B WPXFM NBSLT WPXFM MFOHUI <> JT B DFOUSBM VOSPVOEFEWPXFM<ʔ>JTUIFHMPUUBMTUPQ<ŋ>JTBWFMBSOBTBM TJNJMBSUPOH JOTJOH PSLJOH BOE <Ý> <×> BOE BSFQBMBUPBMWFPMBST‰BWPJDFMFTTTUPQ BOBGGSJDBUF BGSJDBUJWF BOBTBM BOEBTFNJWPXFM SFTQFDUJWFMZ'SPNUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB MJTUUIFBMMPNPSQITPGUIF NPSQIFNFNBSLJOHXIBUDPSSFTQPOETUPUIF&OHMJTIHMPTTiNZwBOEUIFOTUBUFUIFSVMFT UIBUHPWFSOUIFNPSQIPQIPOFNJDTPGUIJTQSFGJY 1. co·goy 2. Oiki 3. ha·ya 4. he·pe 5. kawah 6. k ·pi 7. me·me 8. me·sah 9. nc 10. n·yi 11. petkuy 12. piyu 13. suskuy 14. suuŋ 15. apun 16. iʔmpa 17. tk 18. tyaka 19. wOo·mo 20. yemkuy

‘liver’ ‘itch’ ‘husband’ ‘cup’ ‘horse’ ‘firewood’ ‘butterfly’ ‘table’ ‘armadillo’ ‘name’ ‘broom’ ‘hen’ ‘whistle’ ‘cooking pot’ ‘soap’ ‘bamboo’ ‘house’ ‘chick’ ‘wife’ ‘fan’

21. anco·goy 22. añOiki 23. anha·ya 24. anhe·pe 25. aŋkawah 26. aŋk ·pi 27. amme·me 28. amme·sah 29. annc 30. ann·yi 31. ampetkuy 32. ampiyu 33. ansuskuy 34. ansuuŋ 35. añapun 36. añiʔmpa 37. antk 38. añtyaka 39. aŋwOo·mo 40. añyemkuy

‘my liver’ ‘my itch’ ‘my husband’ ‘my cup’ ‘my horse’ ‘my firewood’ ‘my butterfly’ ‘my table’ ‘my armadillo’ ‘my name’ ‘my broom’ ‘my hen’ ‘my whistle’ ‘my cooking pot’ ‘my soap’ ‘my bamboo’ ‘my house’ ‘my chick’ ‘my wife’ ‘my fan’

340


1SPCMFN #BTFEPO'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO UIJTQSPCMFNJTUBLFOGSPN4BNPBO4BNPBOJTB NFNCFSPGUIF"VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 1. manao 2. matua 3. malosi 4. punou 5. atamaki 6. savali 7. laga

‘he wishes’ ‘he is old’ ‘he is strong’ ‘he bends’ ‘he is wise’ ‘he travels’ ‘he weaves’

8. mananao 9. matutua 10. malolosi 11. punonou 12. atamamaki 13. pepese

‘they wish’ ‘they are old’ ‘they are strong’ ‘they bend’ ‘they are wise’ ‘they sing’

Given the preceding data, what Samoan words would you expect for the following: he sings __________ , they weave ________________ , they travel ________________?

1SPCMFN 5IFGPMMPXJOHEBUBBSFGSPNUIF"[UFDEJBMFDUIFBSEJO7FSBDSV[ .FYJDP 1. niOoka 2. niOokaʔ 3. nimayana 4. nimayanaʔ

‘I cry’ ‘I cried’ ‘I am hungry’ ‘I was hungry’

5. timayana 6. nimayanas 7. tiOoka 8. niOokas

‘you (sing.) are hungry’ ‘I will be hungry’ ‘you (sing.) cry’ ‘I will cry’

$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFGJSTUQFSTPOTJOHVMBS*TJUBQSFGJY @@@@@@PSBTVG GJY @@@@@@8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSNPGUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFQSFT FOUUFOTF @@@@@@@UIFQBTUUFOTF @@@@@@@@@UIFGVUVSFUFOTF @@@@@@@@@8IBUJTUIFGPSN PGUIFTUFNNFBOJOHADSZ @@@@@@@@@$POTJEFSUIFNPSQIFNFNBSLJOHUIFTFDPOEQFSTPO TJOHVMBS8IBUJTJUTGPSN @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

1SPCMFN )FSFBSFUFO&OHMJTIXPSETXSJUUFOJOUSBEJUJPOBMPSUIPHSBQIZ 1. rewriting 2. fearfully

3. tasteless 4. carelessly

5. illegally 6. hopelessly

7. carefully 8. irretrievable

9. immobile 10. immorally

)PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU OPUIPXNBOZ QSFGJYFTEPUIFTFUFOXPSETEJTQMBZ @@@ HJWFUIF OVNCFS )PXNBOZBMMPNPSQITPGPOFQBSUJDVMBSQSFGJYBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVN CFS )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU TVGGJYFTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS )PXNBOZEJGGFSFOU TUFNTBSFTIPXO @@@ HJWFUIFOVNCFS

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 3FGFSFODFTUPUFYUPLTPGMJOHVJTUJDTNBZCFGPVOEJOUIF/PUFTUP$IBQUFS"OFYDFMMFOU TBNQMFPGQSPCMFNTBOEFYFSDJTFTJTGPVOEJO.FSSJGJFME /BJTI 3FOTDI BOE4UPSZ 5IF$IPOUBMFYBNQMFTBSFGSPN8BUFSIPVTF UIF*TUINVT/BIVBUFYBNQMFTGSPN -BX UIF4BNPBOFYBNQMFTGSPN'SPNLJOBOE3PENBO BOEUIFTVNNBSZPG UIFSVMFTPG5VSLJTIWPXFMIBSNPOZGSPN(MFBTPO 5IFQVCMJDBUJPOCZ$IPNTLZUIBUQSPWFEUPCFBUVSOJOHQPJOUJONPEFSOMJOHVJTUJDTJT 4ZOUBDUJD4USVDUVSFT 0UIFSXSJUJOHTCZ$IPNTLZJODMVEF"TQFDUTPGUIF5IFPSZPG 4ZOUBY

-BOHVBHFBOE.JOE

BOE-FDUVSFTPO(PWFSONFOUBOE#JOEJOH "HPPEJOUSPEVDUJPOUP$IPNTLZTDPOUSJCVUJPOTUPMJOHVJTUJDTBOEUSBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBN NBSJT-ZPOT BTBSF3BEGPSE BOE$BSOJF "EHFS $PPLBOE


341

/FXTPOEJTDVTTTPNFPGUIFOFXFSEJSFDUJPOT$IPNTLZIBTUBLFOJOIJTTZOUBDUJDBM BOBMZTJT

Chapter 5 Key BMUFSOBUFTJHOMBOHVBHF "NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF PS"NFTMBO

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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 'PSBEJTDVTTJPOPGQBSBMBOHVBHFBOEQBSBMJOHVJTUJDT TFF5SBHFSBOE$SZTUBM UIFMBUUFSTPVSDFIBTBOFYUFOTJWFCJCMJPHSBQIZBQQFOEFE'PSBTFMFDUJPOPGFTTBZTDPO DFSOJOHLJOFTJDT TFF#JSEXIJTUFMM"WFSZSFBEBCMFJOUSPEVDUJPOUPQSPYFNJDTJT)BMM BNVDITIPSUFSBDDPVOU XJUIDPNNFOUTCZBOVNCFSPGTDIPMBSTBOE)BMMTSFQMZ UPUIFN JTJO)BMM'PSBEJTDVTTJPOPGHFTUVSFTBOEDVMUVSBMEJGGFSFODFTJOHFTUVSFT TFF,FOEPO 'PSUIPTFJOUFSFTUFE UIFUBMLJOHESVNTPG"GSJDBBSFUIFTVCKFDUPGBOPOUFDIOJDBMBSUJ DMFCZ$BSSJOHUPO "OFYDFMMFOUJOUSPEVDUJPOUP"NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHFDBOCF GPVOEJO,MJNBBOE#FMMVHJ"OPOUFDIOJDBMCVUSFMJBCMFTPVSDFGPS1MBJOT*OEJBOTJHO MBOHVBHFJT5PNLJOT "PLPGSFBEJOHTDPODFSOJOHOPOWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPO XJUIDPNNFOUBSZ IBTCFFO FEJUFECZ8FJU[ UIFUPQJDTJOUIFBOUIPMPHZJODMVEFGBDJBMFYQSFTTJPO QBSBMBOHVBHF


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Questions for Discussion 8IBULJOETPGFWJEFODFTVQQPSUUIFWJFXUIBUUIFHJGUPGTQFFDIJTCVJMUJOUPBMM IVNBOCFJOHT "OEIPXDBOUIJTXJEFMZBDDFQUFEQSFNJTF‰UIBUDIJMESFOBSFHF OFUJDBMMZQSPHSBNNFEUPMFBSOFBTJMZGSPNUIFJSQBSFOUTBOEPUIFSDBSFHJWFSTBOZ

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Questions for Discussion 8IBULJOETPGFWJEFODFTVQQPSUUIFWJFXUIBUUIFHJGUPGTQFFDIJTCVJMUJOUPBMMIVNBO CFJOHT "OEIPXDBOUIJTXJEFMZBDDFQUFEQSFNJTF‰UIBUDIJMESFOBSFHFOFUJDBMMZQSP HSBNNFEUPMFBSOFBTJMZGSPNUIFJSQBSFOUTBOEPUIFSDBSFHJWFSTBOZPOFPGUIFUIPV TBOETPGUIFXPSMETMBOHVBHFT‰CFVTFEUPIFMQSFGVUFSBDJBMPSFUIOJDQSFKVEJDF $IJMESFOBSFUBVHIUOPUPOMZIPXUPCFIBWFCVUBMTPXIBUQSPQFSTQFFDICFIBWJPSJT UIBUJT XIBUUPTBZBOEXIBUOPUUPTBZJOWBSJPVTTJUVBUJPOT)FSFBSFTPNFFYBNQMFT i%POUUBMLXJUIZPVSNPVUIGVMM wi,FFQZPVSWPJDFEPXO wi%POUNVNCMF wi4BZ A5IBOLZPVw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

Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 '

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$PNQMFUJPOT "TFOUFODFTVDIBTi4PNFUJNFT*MMTUBSUBTFOUFODFJO&OHMJTIZUFSNJOPFOFTQB×PM wJTBOFYBNQMFPG&OHMJTI4QBOJTI @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ UXPXPSET @@@@@@@@@@UIFPSZBSHVFTUIBUUIFSFJTBDBQBDJUZGPSSBQJEMBOHVBHFEFWFMPQNFOU QSFTFOUJOUIFDIJMEBUCJSUI POFXPSE 5IF@@@@@@@@@@@UIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBSHVFTUIBUIVNBOTBDRVJSFMBO HVBHFUISPVHITVDDFTTJWFTUJNVMJBOESFJOGPSDFNFOUT POFXPSE *UJT@@@@@@@@@UIBUNPSFUIBOBOZUIJOHFMTFTFSWFTBTUIFQFPQMFTCBEHFPGFUIOJD JEFOUJUZBOEVOJRVFOFTT POFXPSE 8IJDIMBOHVBHFJTUIFEFGBDUPTFDPOEMBOHVBHFPGUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT @@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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ÏQSF[ BOE:B NBLJEP'PSEJTDVTTJPOPGUIFMJOHVJTUJDGFBUVSFTPG#SPDBTBSFBTFF(SPE[JOTLZBOE "NVOUT5IFQSPDFEVSFTVTFEUPNFBTVSFNVUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZBNPOH*SPRVPJBOMBO HVBHFTBSFEFTDSJCFEJOBOBSUJDMFCZ)JDLFSTPO 5VSOFS BOE)JDLFSTPO5IFUFSN EJHMPTTJB XBTDPJOFECZ'FSHVTPO8FJ-JTFEJUFE5IF#JMJOHVBMJTN3FBEFS HJWFT NBOZPGUIFDMBTTJDBSUJDMFTJOUIFEJTDJQMJOF'PSDPEFTXJUDIJOHBOEDPEFNJYJOHTFF)FMMFS PS(BSEOFS$IMPSPT4BWJMMF5SPJLFJTHPPEHFOFSBMJOUSPEVDUJPOUPTFDPOE MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO

Chapter 8 Key BHHMVUJOBUJWFMBOHVBHFT "OHMP4BYPO BTTJNJMBUJPO #FPXVMG DPHOBUFT EJBDISPOJD BQQSPBDI

EJTTJNJMBUJPO


349

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Questions for Discussion 7PDBCVMBSJFTPGMJWJOHMBOHVBHFTDIBOHFDPOTUBOUMZUPLFFQVQXJUIUIFDIBOHFTJOUIF DVMUVSFTPGUIFJSTQFBLFST*TUIFSBUFPGMFYJDBMDIBOHFUIFTBNFJOBMMTPDJFUJFT PSDBO JUCFFYQFDUFEUPCFNVDIGBTUFSJOTPNFUIBOJOPUIFST 8IZ $BOZPVDJUFTPNF&OHMJTIXPSETUIBUIBWFDPNFJOUPVTFEVSJOHZPVSMJGFUJNF 0OF TVDIXPSE UPHJWFBOFYBNQMF JTTUBZDBUJPO‰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‰ HFOFUJDBOEUZQPMPHJDBM

Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

(MPUUPDISPOPMPHZJTBSFMJBCMFNFUIPEPGEBUJOHBCTPMVUFMZUIFUJNFBUXIJDIUXP PSNPSFSFMBUFEMBOHVBHFTCFHBOUPVOEFSHPJOEFQFOEFOUEFWFMPQNFOU 5IFUFSN MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ SFGFSTUPBMMUIPTFMBOHVBHFTXIPTFTQFBLFSTCFMPOHUP UIFTBNFDVMUVSFBSFB UIBUJT IBWFTJNJMBSDVMUVSFT -BOHVBHFTDIBOHF CVUDIBOHFTMPXMZ‰UIF0ME&OHMJTIQPFN#FPXVMG JTTUJMMJO UFMMJHJCMFUPTQFBLFSTPG.PEFSO&OHMJTI "MBOHVBHFJTPMBUFJTBMBOHVBHFUIBU BMUIPVHISFMBUFEUPPUIFSMBOHVBHFT JTTQP LFOTPNFEJTUBODFGSPNUIFN %FBMJOHXJUIMJOHVJTUJDQIFOPNFOBBTUIFZFYJTUBUBTQFDJGJDQPJOUPGUJNF XJUI PVUSFHBSEUPIJTUPSJDBMBOUFDFEFOUT JTSFGFSSFEUPBTUIFTZODISPOJDBQQSPBDI

350

5 '

5 ' 5 '


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JOUISFF*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFT English father foot for flat fathom

Latin pater p[s per plGnus pat[re

Ancient Greek pat[r pous peri platos patan[

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351

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Cahuilla haal kiyul laʔlaʔ qasily puul mukily silyi

Cupeño hal qəyul ləʔəl qəéily puul mukʔily silyi

Luiseño hal kiyuul laʔla qaaéil puula muukil éiili

‘look for’ ‘fish’ ‘goose’ ‘sagebrush’ ‘doctor’ ‘sore’ ‘pour’

1SPUP$VQBO<M>DPSSFTQPOETUP@@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ @@@JO@@@@@@@@@@ BOE@@@JO @@@@@@@VOEFSXIBUDJSDVNTUBODFT

1SPCMFN #BTFEPO$PXBOBOE3BLVÝBO

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Old Javanese manis taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjuŋ qupah

Modern Javanese manès taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjóŋ upah

Malay manes taman kuraŋ damar bantal tanjoŋ opah

Madurese manes taman kòraŋ dhámar bhántal tanjhuŋ òpa

‘lovely’ ‘garden’ ‘reduction’ ‘lamp’ ‘pillow’ ‘flower’ ‘reward’

Example: Proto-Austronesian word for ‘lovely’ is reconstructible as *manis.

1SPCMFN According to Watkins 1992, among the reconstructible Proto-Indo-European words are the following: *grə-no- ‘grain,’ *bhar(e)s- ‘barley,’ *yewo- ‘grain,’ *mel(ə)- ‘to grind,’ *s[- ‘to sow,’ *yeug- ‘to , to yoke,’ *gwou- ‘cow, ox,’ *weik- ‘village,’ *owi- ‘ewe, sheep,’ *ekwo- ‘horse,’ *dem- ‘house(hold),’ and *dhwer- ‘door(way).’ What conclusions can one draw from these Proto-Indo-European words about the livelihood of of old Indo-European society?

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading $SPXMFZBOE#PXFSO )BMF .JMMFS BOE4DIFOEMBSFTUBOEBSESFDFOU UFYUTJOIJTUPSJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT'PSDMBTTJDUFDIOJDBMJOUSPEVDUJPOTUP BOETVSWFZPG IJTUPSJ DBMMJOHVJTUJDTTFF"OUUJMBPS)PDL4FWFSBMUIFNBUJDTFDUJPOTPOUIFTVCKFDUPGUIJT DIBQUFSBSFJODMVEFEJO$SZTUBM.PTUPGUIF+BQBOFTFFYBNQMFTDPNFGSPN*OPVF BOEIVOESFETPGPUIFSTDBOCFGPVOEJO4UBOMBXB

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Chapter 9 Key BDSPMFDU BSUJGJDJBM BVYJMJBSZ MBOHVBHF CBTJMFDU DSFPMF DSFPMJ[BUJPO EFDSFPMJ[BUJPO EJBMFDU JEJPMFDU MBOHVBHFDPOUBDU MJOHVBGSBODB MPBOXPSE QJEHJO QJEHJOJ[BUJPO TUBOEBSE TUZMF 5PL1JTJO WPDBMUSBDU

Questions for Discussion %PZPVVTFBEJGGFSFOUUFSNGPSTPNFPGUIFGPMMPXJOHJUFNTXIFOZPVSFGFSUPUIFN JOGPSNBMMZBUIPNF baby carriage dry streambed cottage cheese earthworm (fishermen’s term) doughnut pancake dragonfly trough along the eaves to catch and carry off rainwater


353

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aunt half soot bird house third caught laugh which cot marry witch envelope Mary with greasy merry *UIBTCFFOTBJEUIBUBMBOHVBHFJTEJBMFDUXJUIBOBSNZ8IBUEPZPVUIJOLUIJTNFBOT *TUIFSFBOZXJTEPNUPTVDIBDMBJN 0OFPGUIFBVUIPSTXBTJO/FX(VJOFBBOEIFBSEUXPMPDBMQJEHJOTQFBLFSTMPPLJOH BUB-BOE3PWFSXJUIBCSPLFOIFBEMJHIU0OFTBJEUPUIFPUIFS i&ZFCFMPOHFNCVHHFSVQ QJOJTw8IBUEPZPVUIJOLIFXBTUSZJOHUPTBZ )*/5QJOJT JTUIFQJEHJOGPSNPG&OHMJTI iGJOJTIw

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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

"DDFOUBOEEJBMFDUBSFUFSNTUIBUHFOFSBMMZSFGFSUPUIFTBNFMJOHVJTUJDQIFOPN FOPO "OJEJPMFDUJTUIFTQFFDIWBSJFUZPGBOJOEJWJEVBM "DSFPMFUIBUIBTCFDPNFUIFGJSTUMBOHVBHFPGBTQFFDIDPNNVOJUZ UIBUJT UIF NPUIFSUPOHVFPGUIFNFNCFSTPGBDPNNVOJUZ JTSFGFSSFEUPBTBQJEHJO 5PEBZNPSFQFPQMFJOUIFXPSMETQFBL*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFTUIBOTQFBLMBO HVBHFTPGBOZPUIFSMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 5IFSFBSFBVU LOPXOMBOHVBHFTJOUIFXPSMEUPEBZ BOEPOMZBIBOEGVMBSF QJEHJOTPSDSFPMFT 5IFSFBSFBOVNCFSPGJOTUBODFTXIFOUXPMBOHVBHFTBSFNVUVBMMZJOUFMMJHJCMFCVU OPUDPOTJEFSFEUPCFEJBMFDUTPGPOFMBOHVBHF

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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 5IFMJUFSBUVSFPOEJBMFDUPMPHZJTWBTU$IBNCFSTBOE5SVEHJMMJTBTUBOEBSEJOUSPEVD UPSZUFYU4FF8PMGSBNBOE4DIJMMJOH&TUFTPS-BWGPSEJTDVTTJPOTPG&OHMJTIEJ BMFDUTBOETPVOEDIBOHF-BWB C BOEDXJMMMJLFMZCFUIFOFXTUBOEBSETPO MBOHVBHFWBSJBUJPOBOEDIBOHFGPSTPNFUJNF 5IFPSJHJOPGUIFXPSEQJEHJO JTOPULOPXOGPSDFSUBJO BMUIPVHIJUJTVTVBMMZDPOTJEFSFE UPCFB$IJOFTFNJTQSPOVODJBUJPOPGUIF&OHMJTIXPSECVTJOFTT"SFDFOUTVSWFZ $SZTUBM o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àIMIÊVTMFSBOE3PNBJOF 5IF5PL1JTJOFYBNQMFTBSFGSPN8PPMGPSEBOE.VSQIZUIFTIPSUUFYUJT UBLFOGSPN5PEE 5IFQSPDFEVSFTVTFEUPNFBTVSFNVUVBMJOUFMMJHJCJMJUZBNPOH*SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFTBSF EFTDSJCFEJOBOBSUJDMFCZ)JDLFSTPO 5VSOFS BOE)JDLFSTPO

Chapter 10 Key DPNNVOJDBUJWFDPNQFUFODF DPNNVOJDBUJWFQFSGPSNBODF DPOUFYU DPOUFYUVBMJ[BUJPO FUIOPHSBQIZPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO GSBNF GSBNJOH

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TQFFDIBSFB TQFFDIDPNNVOJUZ TQFFDIFWFOU TQFFDITJUVBUJPO

Questions for Discussion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

Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

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Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading 5IFJOGPSNBUJPODPODFSOJOHUIF"TIBOUJIBTCFFOESBXOGSPNBTUVEZCZ)FMFO.BSJF )PHBO OE

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

Chapter 11 Key BOUPOZN CFIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZPGNFBOJOH CJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOT DPNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT DPODFQU DPOOPUBUJPO EFOPUBUJPO EJTDPVSTF FUIOPTDJFODF IPNPOZN MFYFNF QPMZTFNZ SFGFSFOU TFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM TFNBOUJDT TFNJPUJDUSJBOHMF TPVOETZNMJTN

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TZNM TZOFTUIFTJB TZOPOZN UBYPOPNZ

Questions for Discussion *OUIJTDIBQUFSXFTBXNBOZTFUTPG&OHMJTIUFSNTVTJOHTJNJMBSTPVOETUIBUTFFNUP TIBSFDFSUBJOGFFMJOHTPSNFBOJOHT8IZNJHIUUIJTCFUIFDBTF $PVMEUIJTQIFOPN FOPOCFVOJWFSTBM *GPOPNBUPQPFJDUFSNTBSFTVQQPTFEUPJNJUBUFTPVOET XIZBSFUIFWBSJPVTPOP NBUPQPFJDFYQSFTTJPOTEJGGFSFOUBDSPTTMBOHVBHFT FH XXPX JO&OHMJTI XBOXBO JO+BQBOFTF PSBXBX JO5BHBMPH

Projects 1SPKFDU :PVBSFEPJOHBOFUIOPTDJFOUJGJDBOBMZTJTPGTPGUESJOLTJOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT8IFOQSF TFOUFEXJUIUIFFMJDJUBUJPOGSBNF i5FMMNFUIFLJOETPG1FQTJ$PMBTUIFSFBSF wZPVSJO GPSNBOUTHJWFZPVUIFGPMMPXJOHEBUB 1FQTJUIFSFHVMBSDPMBGMBWPSFECSBOEOBNFTPGUESJOL %JFU1FQTJBMPXDBMPSJFWFSTJPOPG1FQTJ VTJOHUIFBSUJGJDJBMTXFFUFOFSBTQBSUBNF

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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

&EXBSE4BQJSXBTPOFPGUIFGJSTUBOUISPQPMPHJTUTUPCFFYQMJDJUMZDPODFSOFEXJUI TFNBOUJDT 5IFTFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBMJTPOFEFWJDFVTFEUPUSZUPNFBTVSFDPOOPUBUJPO -ÏWJ4USBVTTCFMJFWFEUIBUBMMMBOHVBHFTIBWFCJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOT BOEUIBUGPSUIF NPTUQBSU UIFTFCJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOTBSFWFSZNVDIBMJLF 4ZOFTUIFTJBSFGFSTUPXPSETUIBUUSZUPJNJUBUFTPVOETJOUIFSFBMXPSME

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8PSETUIBUIBWFUIFPQQPTJUFNFBOJOHBSFDBMMFE@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ POFXPSE 1FSDFQUJPOJTKVTUBTNVDIBVU@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@TUJNVMJBTJUJTBVUSF TQPOEJOHUPTUJNVMJ POFPSUXPXPSET 5IFUFSN@@@@@@@@@@@@@SFGFSTUPUIFUIJOHTJOUIFSFBMXPSME XIJMF@@@@@@@@@@@ JTDPODFSOFEXJUIIPXBXPSEDPOUSBTUTXJUI PSJTSFMBUFEUP PUIFSXPSET POFXPSE FBDI

Notes and Suggestions for Further Reading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XIJMFQSJNBSJMZJOUFOEFEGPS&OHMJTI MBOHVBHFBOEMJOHVJTUJDTTUVEFOUT PGGFSTNVDIEBUB‰BOENBOZFYBNQMFT‰GPSBOUISPQPM PHJTUTUPFYBNJOF

Chapter 12 Key DPMMBUFSBMSFMBUJWF DVMUVSBMEFUFSNJOJTN FHP FUIOPTDJFODF LJOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ MJOHVJTUJDEFUFSNJOJTN MJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ 4BQJS8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT VOJWFSTBMJTN

Questions for Discussion &OHMJTILJOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ BTVTFECZ"NFSJDBOT WBSJFTTPNFXIBUGSPNQFSTPOUP QFSTPO4PNFLJOUFSNTBSFVTFECZFWFSZPOF‰GBUIFS NPUIFS TPO EBVHIUFS‰XIJMF PUIFSLJOUFSNTBSFOPUTPXFMMVOEFSTUPPEBOEUIFSFGPSFOPUTPDPNNPOMZVTFE‰ TFDPOEDPVTJO UIJSEDPVTJO GJSTUDPVTJOPODFSFNPWFE BOEUIFMJLF&YBNJOFUIPTFLJO


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Objective Study Questions 5SVF'BMTF5FTU 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 ' 5 '

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A N S W E R S T O T H E O B J E C T I V E S T U DY QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

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GLOSSARY

385

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386

GLOSSARY

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GLOSSARY

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416

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1JEHJOTBOEDSFPMFT-POEPO3PVUMFEHF 5PNLJOT 8JMMJBN *OEJBOTJHOMBOHVBHF/FX:PSL%PWFS 0SJHJOBMMZQVCMJTIFECZUIFBVUIPSJO VOEFSUIFUJUMF6OJWFSTBM<"NFSJDBO>*OEJBOTJHOMBOHVBHF

5SBHFS (FPSHF- 1BSBMBOHVBHFBGJSTUBQQSPYJNBUJPO4UVEJFTJO-JOHVJTUJDTo -BOHVBHFBOEMBOHVBHFT4BO'SBODJTDP $"$IBOEMFS 5SVEHJMM 1FUFS FE "QQMJFETPDJPMJOHVJTUJDT0SMBOEP '-"DBEFNJD1SFTT 5TVEB :VLJP 5IFEJGGVTJPOPG&OHMJTIJUTJNQBDUPODVMUVSFBOEDPNNVOJDBUJPO,FJP$PN NVOJDBUJPO3FWJFXo 4IJOSZBLVTVSV&JHP IBOHFLJTVSV/JIPOHP *OWBEJOH&OHMJTI DPVOUFSBUUBDLJOH +BQBOFTF 5PLZP1)1 )FHFNPOZPG&OHMJTIWTFDPMPHZPGMBOHVBHFCVJMEJOHFRVBMJUZJOJOUFSOBUJPOBMDPN NVOJDBUJPO*O 8PSME&OHMJTIFTTFMFDUFEFTTBZT-BSSZ4NJUIBOE.JDIBFM'PS NBO FET QQo)POPMVMV )*6OJWFSTJUZPG)BXBJJ1SFTT&BTU8FTU$FOUFS 5ZMFS 4UFQIFO" FE $PHOJUJWFBOUISPQPMPHZ/FX:PSL)PMU 3JOFIBSUBOE8JOTUPO 6SDJVPMJ #POOJF &YQPTJOHQSFKVEJDF1VFSUP3JDBOFYQFSJFODFTPGMBOHVBHF SBDF BOEDMBTT#PVMEFS $08FTUWJFX1SFTT 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' BOE;4)BSSJT 5SBJOJOHJOBOUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT"NFSJDBO"OUISPQPMPHJTUo 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' BOE'MPSFODF.7PFHFMJO 0CUBJOJOHBMJOHVJTUJDTBNQMF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDTo )PQJEPNBJOTBMFYJDBMBQQSPBDIUPUIFQSPCMFNPGTFMFDUJPO*OEJBOB6OJWFSTJUZ 1VCMJDBUJPOTJO"OUISPQPMPHZBOE-JOHVJTUJDT NFNPJSPGUIF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVS OBMPG"NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDT#BMUJNPSF8BWFSMZ1SFTT (VJEFGPSUSBOTDSJCJOHVOXSJUUFOMBOHVBHFTJOGJFMEXPSL"OUISPQPMPHJDBM-JO HVJTUJDTo DPNQT .BQPG/PSUI"NFSJDBO*OEJBOMBOHVBHFT"NFSJDBO&UIOPMPHJDBM4PDJFUZ 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' 'MPSFODF.7PFHFMJO BOE-B7FSOF.BTBZFTWB+FBOOF )PQJTFNBOUJDT*O )BOEPLPG/PSUI"NFSJDBO*OEJBOT WPM4PVUIXFTU QQ o8BTIJOHUPO %$4NJUITPOJBO*OTUJUVUJPO 7PZMFT +PTFQI BOE$IBSMFT#BSSBDL "OJOUSPEVDUJPOUP1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBOBOEUIFFBSMZ*OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFT #MPPNJOHUPO*/4MBWJDB1VCMJTIFST 8BMUFS )FOSJFUUF -FGSBOÎBJTEBOTUPVTMFTTFOT1BSJT3-BGGPOU 8BSEIBVHI 3POBME BOE)%PVHMBT#SPXO FET "TVSWFZPGBQQMJFEMJOHVJTUJDT"OO"SS6OJWFSTJUZPG.JDIJHBO1SFTT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

417

8BUBOBCF 4VXBLP $VMUVSBM EJGGFSFODFT JO GSBNJOH "NFSJDBOBOE +BQBOFTF HSPVQ EJTDVTTJPOT*O 'SBNJOHJOEJTDPVSTF%FSBI5BOOFO FE QQo/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJ WFSTJUZ1SFTT 8BUFSIPVTF 7JPMB 5IFHSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSFPG0BYBDB$IPOUBM*OEJBOB6OJWFSTJUZ3FTFBSDI$FO UFSJO"OUISPQPMPHZ 'PMLMPSF BOE-JOHVJTUJDT1VCMJDBUJPOT OP#MPPNJOHUPO 8BULJOT $BMWFSU *OEP&VSPQFBOBOEUIF*OEP&VSPQFBOT*O 5IF"NFSJDBO)FSJUBHF%JDUJPOBSZPG UIF&OHMJTI-BOHVBHFEFE QQo#PTUPO)PVHIUPO.JGGMJO 8BUTPO 0.JDIBFM BOE5IFPEPSF%(SBWFT 2VBOUJUBUJWFSFTFBSDIJOQSPYFNJDCFIBWJPS"NFSJDBO"OUISPQPMPHJTUo 8FJOSJDI 6SJFM 0OTFNBOUJDT1IJMBEFMQIJB6OJWFSTJUZPG1FOOTZMWBOJB1SFTT 8FJU[ 4IJSMFZ FE /POWFSCBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOSFBEJOHTXJUIDPNNFOUBSZ/FX:PSL0YGPSE6OJ WFSTJUZ1SFTT 8FTDPUU 3PHFS8 5IFPSJHJOPGTQFFDI*O -BOHVBHFPSJHJOT3PHFS88FTDPUU FE QQo4JM WFS4QSJOH .%-JOTUPL1SFTT 8IPSG #FOKBNJO-FF 5IFQVODUVBMBOETFHNFOUBUJWFBTQFDUTPGWFSCTJO)PQJ-BOHVBHFo B 4DJFODFBOEMJOHVJTUJDT5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo o "QSJM C -JOHVJTUJDTBTBOFYBDUTDJFODF5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo o %FDFNCFS B -BOHVBHFTBOEMPHJD5FDIOPMPHZ3FWJFXo "QSJM C 5IFSFMBUJPOPGIBCJUVBMUIPVHIUBOECFIBWJPSUPMBOHVBHF*O -BOHVBHF DVMUVSF BOEQFSTPOBMJUZFTTBZTJONFNPSZPG&EXBSE4BQJS-FTMJF4QJFSBOEPUIFST FET QQo.FOBTIB 8*4BQJS.FNPSJBM1VCMJDBUJPO'VOE 5IF)PQJMBOHVBHF 5PSFWBEJBMFDU*O -JOHVJTUJDTUSVDUVSFTPG/BUJWF"NFSJDB$PS OFMJVT0THPPE FE7JLJOH'VOE1VCMJDBUJPOTJO"OUISPQPMPHZ OP QQo /FX:PSL7JLJOH'VOE "O"NFSJDBO*OEJBONPEFMPGUIFVOJWFSTF*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO-JO HVJTUJDTo -BOHVBHF UIPVHIU BOESFBMJUZTFMFDUFEXSJUJOHTPG#FOKBNJO-FF8IPSG+PIO# $BSSPMM FE$BNCSJEHFBOE/FX:PSL5FDIOPMPHZ1SFTTPG.*5BOE+PIO8JMFZ BOE4POT 8JMTPO "MMBO$ BOE3FCFDDB-$BOO 5IFSFDFOU"GSJDBOHFOFTJTPGIVNBOT4DJFOUJGJD"NFSJDBOo "QSJM 8JUIFSTQPPO (BSZ -BOHVBHFBOEBSUJOUIF/BWBKPVOJWFSTF"OO"SS6OJWFSTJUZPG.JDIJHBO1SFTT 8PMGG )BOT -BOHVBHF FUIOJDJEFOUJUZBOETPDJBMDIBOHFJOTPVUIFSO/JHFSJB"OUISPQPMPHJDBM -JOHVJTUJDTo 8PMGSBN 8BMU BOE/BUBMJF4DIJMMJOH&TUFT "NFSJDBO&OHMJTIEJBMFDUTBOEWBSJBUJPOEFE.BMEFO ."#MBDLXFMM

418

BIBLIOGRAPHY

8POEFSMZ 8JMMJBN- B ;PRVF**QIPOFNFTBOENPSQIPQIPOFNFT*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG"NFSJDBO -JOHVJTUJDTo C ;PRVF***NPSQIPMPHJDBMDMBTTFT BGGJYMJTU BOEWFSCT*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVSOBMPG "NFSJDBO-JOHVJTUJDTo 8PPMBSE ,BUISZO" %PVCMFUBMLCJMJOHVBMJTNBOEUIFQPMJUJDTPGFUIOJDJUZJO$BUBMPOJB4UBOGPSE $" 4UBOGPSE6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT 8PPMBSE ,BUISZO" BOE#BNCJ#4DIJFGGFMJO -BOHVBHF JEFPMPHZ *O "OOVBM 3FWJFX PG "OUISPQPMPHZ WPM 8JMMJBN ) %VSIBNBOEPUIFST FET QQo1BMP"MUP $""OOVBM3FWJFXT 8PPMGPSE &MMFO# "TQFDUTPG5PL1JTJOHSBNNBS1BDJGJD-JOHVJTUJDT 4FSJFT#‰.POPHSBQIT OP $BOCFSSB"VTUSBMJBO/BUJPOBM6OJWFSTJUZ 8SJHIU 4VF FE -BOHVBHF EFNPDSBDZBOEEFWPMVUJPOJO$BUBMPOJB$MFWFEPO 6,.VMUJMJOHVBM .BUUFST :FHFSMFIOFS +PIO " OPUF PO FMJDJUJOH UFDIOJRVFT *OUFSOBUJPOBM +PVSOBM PG "NFSJDBO -JOHVJTUJDT o ;FQFEB 0GFMJB "1BQBHPHSBNNBS5VDTPO6OJWFSTJUZPG"SJ[POB1SFTT ;IBOH )BOH $VMUVSFBTBQPMPHZUIF)BJOBO*TMBOEJODJEFOU8PSME&OHMJTIFTo

LANGUAGES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT A N D T H E I R L O CAT I O N S

&VSPQF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Albanian Basque Catalan Croatian Czech Dutch Estonian Finnish

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

French German Greek Icelandic Italian (and Latin) Lapp (Sami) Magyar (Hungarian) Polish Portuguese

419

18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Romanian Romansh Russian Schwyzertütsch Serbian Slovak Spanish

4PVUIXFTUFSO"TJBBOE /PSUI"GSJDB 25 26 27 28

Arabic Armenian Persian Turkish

"GSJDB4PVUIPG UIF4BIBSB 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Abua Afrikaans Ashanti a Bantu language Ewe Kalabari Kamba

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

Kikuyu Kugbo Luhya Luo Nembe Odual Ogbia Swahili Twi Vai Yoruba

-BUJO"NFSJDBBOE UIF$BSJCCFBO 47 Aguaruna 48 Araucanian

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

Aztec Caraya Chontal Guarani Island Carib Isthmus Nahuat Jamaican Creole Kuna Mazateco Nahuatl Otomi Pirahã Sierra Popoluca (Tenejapa) Tzeltal Yucatec Zoque

&BTUBOE4PVUI"TJB 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121

Agta Aklanon Assamese Badaga Bengali Bontok Cantonese Gujarati Hindi Japanese Javanese Kannada Kashmiri Korean Madurese

122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136

Malay Malayalam Mandarin (Chinese) Marathi Mongolian Oriya Panjabi (Punjabi) Subanun Sundanese Tagalog Tamil Telugu Urdu Vietnamese Yakan

"VTUSBMJBBOE0DFBOJB 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146

Hawaiian Creole Hiri Motu Kaluli Kiriwinian Maori Neo-Melanesian (Tok Pisin) Ngandi Pintupi Samoan Tolai (Kuanua)

(key continues)

/PSUI"NFSJDB/PSUI PG.FYJDP 65 Acoma 66 Apache (and Western Apache) 67 Arapaho 68 Atsina (Gros Ventre) 69 Blackfoot 70 Cahuilla 71 Cheyenne 72 Cree-Montagnais

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

Crow Cupeño Dakota Eskimo Fox Gullah Hopi Hupa Keres Kiowa Kiowa Apache Koasati

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

Kwakiutl Laguna Luiseño Menomini Mohawk Navajo Nootka Ojibwa Pawnee Penobscot-Abnaki Sarcee Shawnee

97 ShoshoneComanche 98 Takelma 99 Tewa 100 Tiwa 101 Tohono O’odham (Papago) 102 Tunica 103 Upper Chinook 104 Wichita 105 Yana 106 Zuni

Note: The locations are based on the map accompanying Comparative Studies of North American Indians by Harold E. Driver and William C. Massey (1957).

INDEX

"DDFOU "DPVTUJDDIBOOFM o "DPVTUJDQIPOFUJDT "DSPMFDU "GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS&OHMJTI i#MBDL&OHMJTIUSJBM wo EFTDSJQUJPOPG o FYBNQMFPG Y HSBNNBUJDBMEJGGFSFODFT o PSJHJOTPG o GJH QSPOVODJBUJPOPG o TUJHNBUJ[BUJPOPG o "GSJDBO"NFSJDBOT TUVEZPG DPNNVOJDBUJWFTUZMFPG o "GSP"TJBUJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "HBS .JDIBFM "HHMVUJOBUJWFMBOHVBHFT "HUBMBOHVBHF "HVBSVOBMBOHVBHF "MHPORVJBO MBOHVBHFGBNJMZ SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPGBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE o Y GJH "MMPGBDU GJH "MMPGPSN "MMPNPSQI "MMPNPUJG o "MMPQIPOF "MUBJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "MUNBOO 4UVBSU" "NB[POCBTJO MBOHVBHFTPG "NCSPOB 4QBJO BSDIBFPMPHJDBM FYDBWBUJPOTBU

"NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF "4-PS "NFTMBO

"NFSJOEMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ "ODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o "OHMP"NFSJDBOT MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH o TUVEZPGDPNNVOJDBUJWFTUZMFPG "OHVMBSHZSVT GJH "OPNJDBQIBTJB "OTIFO 'SBOL "OUISPQPMPHJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT4FF MJOHVJTUJD BOUISPQPMPHZ "OUISPQPMPHZ CSJFGIJTUPSZPG o EFGJOFE o TVCGJFMETPG "OUPOZN o "OUT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG o "QBDIF MBOHVBHFPG TJMFODFCFIBWJPSPG o "QIBTJB o "SBCJD FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH "SBQBIP EJDUJPOBSZ o LJOTIJQUFSNT o GJH MBOHVBHF o o MBOHVBHFNBJOUFOBODFQSPHSBN o NZUIT "SBVDBOJBOT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSETQFBLJOH 423

424

"SUJDVMBUJPO o "TIBOUJMBOHVBHF "4- "NFSJDBO4JHO-BOHVBHF

"TQFDU "TTJNJMBUJPO "UIBCBTLBOUSJCFT DPNNVOJDBUJPO CFUXFFO"NFSJDBOT$BOBEJBOTBOE o Y "UIBCBTLBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ "ULJOT #PXNBO, "UTJOB (SPT7FOUSF MBOHVBHF o "VEJUPSZDPSUFY GJH "VTUSBMPQJUIFDVTBGBSFOTJT "VTUSBMPQJUIFDVTBGSJDBOVT "VTUSPBTJBUJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH "VTUSPOFTJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH #BCCMJOH #BEBHBMBOHVBHF #BLIUJO .JLIBJM #BOUVIJTUPSZ MJOHVJTUJDJOGFSFODFTBVU Y #BSPO /BPNJ #BTJMFDU #BTRVFMBOHVBHF #BTTP ,FJUI) o #FFSUFSNJOPMPHZ o #FIBWJPSJTN #FIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO BOE o #FOHBMJ FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH #FSMJO #SFOU o #FSMJO,BZ DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZTUVEZCZ #FTOJFS /JLP #JDLFSUPO %FSFL o #JMJOHVBMJTN EFGJOFE NJTDPODFQUJPOTBVU TUBHFTPG o JO4XJU[FSMBOE 4FFBMTP NVMUJMJOHVBMJTN #JOBSZPQQPTJUJPOT o #JPQSPHSBNIZQPUIFTJT

INDEX

#JSET DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG #JSEXIJTUFMM 3BZ- i#MBDL&OHMJTIUSJBM w"OO"SS .JDIJHBO o #MFOEJOH GJH Y #MPPNGJFME -FPOBSE #MVN.BSUJOF[ 3FCFDDB #PBT 'SBO[ o #PLBNCB &ZBNCB #PMJOHFS %XJHIU #POUPLMBOHVBHF #SBJO IVNBO EFWFMPQNFOUPG o MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBOE oY PSHBOJ[BUJPOPG o GJH TQFFDIQSPEVDUJPOBSFBTPG o #SB[JM MBOHVBHFTPG #SJHIU 8JMMJBN #SJUJTI4JHO-BOHVBHF #4-

#SPDBTBQIBTJB #SPDBTBSFB o GJH #4- #SJUJTI4JHO-BOHVBHF

#VSFBVPG "NFSJDBO &UIOPMPHZ #VSMJOH 3PCCJOT $BEEPBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ $BNQCFMM -ZMF $BOBEB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o $BSBZBMBOHVBHF $BSJCEJBMFDU $BSSPMM +PIO# Y $BSSPMM -FXJT $BTBHSBOEF +PTFQI# $BTFGPSNT $BTUF×FEBEF/ÈKFSB 1FESPEF $BUBMBOMBOHVBHF $BUFHPSJ[BUJPO o $FSFCSVN $FUBDFBOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG $IBNCFSMBJO "MFYBOEFS' $IBNCFST +, $IBOOFMTPGDPNNVOJDBUJPO UBCMF o

INDEX

$IFSFNF $IJNQBO[FFT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG o $IJOB MFUUFSPGBQPMPHZUPBVUTQZ QMBOFGJHIUFSDPMMJTJPO o $IJOFTF .BOEBSJO UBCMF $IJOFTFMBOHVBHFT GJH $IJQFXZBOMBOHVBHF $IPNTLZ /PBN o o o $IPOUBMMBOHVBHF $MBTTF "OESÏ $PEF HFOFSBMMBOHVBHF $PEFNJYJOH o $PEFTXJUDIJOH o $PFYUFOTJPO $PHOBUF o $PHOJUJPO DBUFHPSJ[BUJPOBOE o EJHJUBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE o MBOHVBHFBOE o $PHOJUJWFBOUISPQPMPHZ $PJOFEXPSET $PMPS 5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS 7JSUVBM"OUISPQPMPHZ$PMPS-BC XFCTJUF $PMPSUFSNJOPMPHZ #FSMJO,BZTUVEZPG o -FOOFCFSH3PCFSUTTUVEZPG o $PNNVOJDBUJPODPNNVOJDBUJWF BNPOHOPOIVNBOQSJNBUFT o BNPOHOPOIVNBOWFSUFCSBUFT BNPOHTPDJBMJOTFDUT o CFUXFFO"UIBCBTLBOUSJCFTBOE "NFSJDBOT$BOBEJBOT o Y DIBOOFMTPG UBCMF o DPNQPOFOUTPG o EJHJUBM o FUIOPHSBQIZPG o o FWPMVUJPOPGJOUPMBOHVBHF o GSBNFGSBNJOH o HFOSF o LFZ o

425

NFTTBHFGPSNBOEDPOUFOU OPSNTPGJOUFSQSFUBUJPO o QIBUJD QIBUJDDPNNVOJPO SVMFTPGJOUFSBDUJPO TUZMFTPG o 4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOETQFFDI $PNNVOJDBUJPO OPOWFSCBM DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o LJOFTJDT EZMBOHVBHF

o QBSBMBOHVBHF o TJHOMBOHVBHF o XIJTUMFTQFFDI o $PNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o $PODFQU EFGJOFE o $POOPUBUJPO $POTPOBOUQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO &OHMJTI UBCMF $POTPOBOUT BSUJDVMBUJPOPG UBCMF UBCMF $POUFYUVBMJ[BUJPO $POUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHFFWPMVUJPO $PSQVT TJ[FPG o $PXBO (FPSHF. $SFPMF EFGJOFE $SFPMJ[BUJPO o Y $SJUJDBMQFSJPEDSJUJDBMBHFIZQPUIFTJT $SP.BHOPOT o $SVUUFOEFO "MBO $SZTUBM %BWJE $VMUVSBMEFUFSNJOJTN o $VMUVSBMIJTUPSZ SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o $[FDIT BUUJUVEFUPXBSE$[FDIMBOHVBHF o MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI4MPWBLT o %FDSFPMJ[BUJPO %FFU[ +BNFT' %FOF$BVDBTJBONBDSPGBNJMZ %FOPUBUJPO %FQBSUNFOUTUPSFFNQMPZFFT TUVEZPGJO /FX:PSL$JUZ o

426

%FSJWBUJPO %FTJHOGFBUVSFT o %JBDISPOJDIJTUPSJDMJOHVJTUJDT %JBMFDUT o %JHMPTTJB o %JMMBSE +- %JTDPOUJOVJUZUIFPSZPGMBOHVBHF FWPMVUJPO o %JTDPVSTF %JTQMBZT o %JTTJNJMBUJPO %PMQIJOT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG %SBWJEJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH %VBMJUZPGQBUUFSOJOH %VOEFT "MBO %VUDIMBOHVBHF &OJDT &ISFU $ISJTUPQIFS &MBSBUFEDPEF &MJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT &MJDJUJOHEBUB o &MMJOHUPO %VLF &NFSHFODZSPPNDBTF BQQMJFEMJOHVJTUJDT BOE o &NJDT o &OHMJTI BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o Y DPSSFTQPOEFODFCFUXFFODPHOJUJPOBOE HSBNNBUJDBMOVNCFSJO o FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTJOUFSOBUJPOBMMBOHVBHF o o o MPBOXPSETJO o QIPOFNFTPG o QPFNPOEJGGJDVMUZPG Y TFOUFODFTUSVDUVSFPG o &TLJNPMBOHVBHF &TQFSBOUP &UIOPQPFUJDT o &UIOPTDJFODF DPNQPOFOUJBMBOBMZTJT o EFGJOFE o

INDEX

EPVCUTBVU o FMJDJUBUJPOGSBNFT GPMLUBYPOPNJFT &UJDT o &WFSFUU %BOJFM o &WPMVUJPO IVNBO GJH o &YPHBNZ 'BDUFNF GJH 'FSHVTPO $IBSMFT 'JFMEXPSL DIBMMFOHFTPG DIFDLMJTUGPS o DPSQVT TJ[FPG o JOGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o QBSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o Y UFDIOJRVFTGPS o 'JOOP6HSJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 'JTDIFS +PIO- 'PMLUBYPOPNJFT 'PSN JOBSDIBFPMPHZ

'PSNFNF 'PVUT 3PHFS 'SBLF $IBSMFT0 'SBNFGSBNJOH o 'SBOL 'SBODJOF 'SFODIMBOHVBHF JO$BOBEB o JOGMVFODFPO&OHMJTI JO/PSUI"GSJDB BTPGGJDJBMTFNJPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHF GJH BTiVOJWFSTBMwMBOHVBHF o JO7JFUOBN 'SJFOET 4PDJFUZPG 2VBLFST

MBOHVBHFPG 'SJTDI ,BSMWPO (BM 4VTBO (ÐQFPQMF CJOBSZPQQPTJUJPOBOE o (FOEFS EFGJOFE JOMBOHVBHFT o

INDEX

(FOEFS TQFFDIBOE JO"NFSJDBOTPDJFUZ o Y DPNNVOJDBUJPOTUSBUFHJFTBOE JO/BUJWF"NFSJDBOTPDJFUJFT o UIFPSJFTPG o (FOEFSMFDU (FOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS Y (FOSF PGTQFFDI

o (FSNBOMBOHVBHF JO"VTUSJB FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH HFOEFSJO o JOGMVFODFPGPO&OHMJTI JO4XJU[FSMBOE (JHMJPMJ 1JFS1BPMP (JWØO 5BMNZ (MPUUPDISPOPMPHZ o UBCMF (PGGNBO &SWJOH (PPEFOPVHI 8BSE (PVME 4UFQIFO+BZ (SBNNBS DIBOHFTJO VOJWFSTBM o WBSJBUJPOTJO o (SBWFT 5IFPEPSF (SFFLT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSEUBMLJOH (SFFOCFSH +PTFQI) o (SFZNPSOJOH 4UFQIFO o (VMMBIMBOHVBHF (VNQFS[ +PIO+ )BBT .BSZ3 )BHF 1FS )BMF $POTUBODF )BMF ,FOOFUI- )BMM &EXBSE5 )BMMF .PSSJT )BOEFEOFTT )BQUJDCFIBWJPS )BSSJT .BSWJO )BVHFO &JOBS )BZFT $BUIFSJOF )BZFT ,FJUI+

427

)FBSJOHJNQBJSFEJOEJWJEVBMT VTFPGTJHO MBOHVBHFCZ )FBUI +FGGSFZ )FEHFXPSET o )FMMFS .POJDB )FSPEPUVT )JMHFS *OF[ )JMM +BOF) )JOEJ FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTPGGJDJBMMBOHVBHFPG*OEJB o )PDLFUU $IBSMFT' )PJKFS )BSSZ )PNJOJET )PNJOJEBF

o )PNJOJ[BUJPO )PNJOPJET )PNJOPJEFB

)PNPFSFDUVT o )PNPIBCJMJT )PNPTBQJFOT )PNPTBQJFOTOFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT )PNPOZNZ )POFZCFF "QJTNFMMJGFSB

DPNNVOJDBUJWF CFIBWJPSPG o GJH )POPSJGJDT o )PQJMBOHVBHF o )VNBOT FWPMVUJPOPG GJH o )VNMEU 8JMIFMNWPO )VQBUSJCF )ZNFT %FMM o o )ZQFSDPSSFDUJPO *DFMBOEJDMBOHVBHF MBDLPGMPBOXPSETJO *EJPMFDU o *ODMVTJPO *OEJB MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO o *OEP&VSPQFBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH *OEP1BDJGJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ *OEPOFTJB MBOHVBHFTPG

428

INDEX

*OGJY *OGMFDUJOHMBOHVBHFT *OGMFDUJPO o *OGPSNBOUTDPOTVMUBOUT o *OOBUJTUUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOPG o *OTUJUVUFGPS1SJNBUF4UVEJFTBU6OJWFSTJUZ PG0LMBIPNB *OUFSBDUJPO SVMFTPG *OUFSMJOHVB *OUFSOBUJPOBM1IPOFUJD"MQIBCFU *1"

*OUFSOFU MBOHVBHFPG o *OUFSQSFUBUJPO OPSNTPG o *OUPOBUJPO o *SJBO+BZB MBOHVBHFTPG *SPRVPJBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ *TIJHBLJ :PLP *TUINVT/BIVBUMBOHVBHF +BLPCTPO 3PNBO +BNBJDB DSFPMFPG +BQBO VTFPG&OHMJTICZXPNFOJO o +BQBOFTFMBOHVBHF FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH BTQFDUTPGXPSENFBOJOHJO o Y MPBOXPSETJO o +BWBOFTFMBOHVBHF +FBOOF -B7FSOF.BTBZFTWB +FGGFSTPO 5IPNBT +FTQFSTPO 0UUP +POFT 8JMMJBN +PPT .BSUJO +VODUVSFT JOTQFFDI ,BMVMJQFPQMF MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOBNPOH o ,BO[J DIJNQBO[FF

,BSUWFMJBO 4PVUI$BVDBTJBO MBOHVBHF GBNJMZ ,BZ 1BVM o ,FMMFS $IBSMFT

,FMMFS +BOFU%JYPO ,FMTLZ ,BSFO ,FOZB OBUJPOBMJ[BUJPOPG4XBIJMJJO o ,FOZBUUB +PNP ,FSFTMBOHVBHF SFWJUBMJ[BUJPOPG Y ,FZ o ,IPJTBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ ,JOFNF ,JOFTJDT o ,JOTIJQTZTUFNT DPNQBSJTPOPG"NFSJDBO BOE"SBQBIP GJH ,JOTIJQUFSNJOPMPHZ o ,JPXB*OEJBOT TJHOMBOHVBHFPG ,JPXB5BOPBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ ,JQBSTLZ 1BVM ,JSJXJOJBOMBOHVBHF ,PBTBUJMBOHVBHF ,PLP HPSJMMB

,PSFBOMBOHVBHF GJH ,SVT %BWJE ,VOBQFPQMF FUIOPQPFUJDEJTDPVSTF BNPOH o ,XBLJVUMMBOHVBHF -B(VBSEJB 'JPSFMMP -BW 8JMMJBN -BJUNBO +FGGSFZ5 o -BLPGG 3PCJO o -BOHVBHF DIBOHFTJOIVNBODVMUVSFBOE DPNQFUFODF DVMUVSBMEFWFMPQNFOUBOE o EFTJHOGFBUVSFTPG o GBNJMJFT o GJH HSBNNBUJDBMTUSVDUVSF o JEFPMPHZ EFGJOFE *OUFSOFUBOE o NPEFSONZUITBVU OBUJPOBMJUZBOE o QFSGPSNBODF QIPOFNJDBOBMZTJTPG o QIPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO

INDEX

QIPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o BTQSPEVDUPGFWPMVUJPO o QSPTPEJDGFBUVSFTPG o BTSFGMFDUJPOPGDVMUVSF o BTSFGMFDUJPOPGJEFOUJUZ SFHJTUFS TUVEZPG o o Y VOJWFSTBMT XSJUJOHTZTUFN EFWFMPQJOH o -BOHVBHF BDRVJTJUJPOPG CFIBWJPSJTUUIFPSZPG o JODIJMEIPPE o JOOBUJTUUIFPSZPG o /PBN$IPNTLZPO Y TPDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZPG o -BOHVBHF FTUJNBUJOHBHFPG BOBUPNJDBMFWJEFODF o MJOHVJTUJDDPOTJEFSBUJPOT o QSFIJTUPSJDDMVFT o -BOHVBHFGJFME -BOHVBHFJTPMBUFT -BOHVBHFQIZMVN -BOHVBHFQMBOOJOH o -BOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF -BOHVBHF3FTFBSDI$FOUFSPGUIF:FSLFT 3FHJPOBM1SJNBUF3FTFBSDI$FOUFS -BOHVBHFT DIBOHFTJO o DMBTTJGJDBUJPOPG o JODPOUBDU o o EFBUIPG FOEBOHFSFE o HFOEFSJO o NBJOUFOBODFPG o SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o XPSME OVNCFSTPG GJH -BUJOMBOHVBHF o o -BUJOPT TUVEZPGDPNNVOJDBUJPOTUZMFPG -FOHUI PGTPVOE -FOOFCFSH &SJD) -FV %POBME

429

-ÏWJ4USBVTT $MBVEF -FWJOTPO 4UFQIFO -FYJDBMEJGGVTJPO -FYJDPTUBUJTUJDT -JFCFSNBO 1IJMJQ -JOHVBGSBODB o -JOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ BDDPNQMJTINFOUTPG Y DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDT Y o EFGJOFE FOEBOHFSFEMBOHVBHFTBOE o FUIJDBMRVFTUJPOTBOE o JOUFSDVMUVSBMDPNNVOJDBUJPOBOE o MBOHVBHFQMBOOJOHBOE o MFHBMMBOHVBHFBOE o o MJUFSBDZBOE o OFXDPNNVOJDBUJPOUFDIOPMPHJFTBOE o TUBOEBSETPGDPOEVDU o USBOTMBUJPOTBOE o XSJUJOHBOE o -JOHVJTUJDEFUFSNJOJTN DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o EFGJOFE FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBVU o -JOHVJTUJDQSPGJMJOH -JOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZ BMUFSOBUJWFTUP o DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZBOE o DPVOUFSBSHVNFOUTUP o EFGJOFE o FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTBVU o HFOEFSBOE o +PIO$BSSPMMPO Y -JOHVJTUJDTFOTJUJ[BUJPO -JOHVJTUJDT DPOUSBTUFEXJUIMJOHVJTUJDBOUISPQPMPHZ Y o EFGJOFE o -PBOXPSET o o o -PVMJT DIJNQBO[FF

-VDZ +PIO o

430

-VDZ DIJNQBO[FF

-VDZ IPNJOJETQFDJNFO

.BMBZMBOHVBHF GJH .BMJODIF7PMDBOPDPNNVOJUJFT JOGMVFODF PG4QBOJTIPOUSBEJUJPOBMMBOHVBHF o .BMJOPXTLJ #SPOJTMBX .BO NFBOJOHPG Y .BSUIBT7JOFZBSE .BTTBDIVTFUUT MJOHVJTUJDDIBOHFJO o .BUTVCBSB +VOLP .B[BUFDPMBOHVBHF .D&MIJOOZ #POOJF .FBE .BSHBSFU .FBOJOH DBUFHPSJ[BUJPO o DPODFQU EFGJOFE o FUIOPQPFUJDT TUVEZPG o +BQBOFTFBOE&OHMJTI BTQFDUTPGXPSE NFBOJOHJO oY PTUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO TFNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o TFNBOUJDSFMBUJPOTBNPOHXPSET o TFNJPUJDUSJBOHMF TFOTF TPVOETZNMJTN o TZOFTUIFTJB .FTPMJUIJDQFSJPE .FTTBHF GPSNBOEDPOUFOUPG .FUBUIFTJT o .FYJDP JOEJHFOPVTMBOHVBHFTPG o .POHPMJBOT BUUJUVEFTUPXBSETQFBLJOH .POPHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG o GJH .POUBHV "TIMFZ .PSQIFNF o .PSQIPMPHJDBMMBOHVBHFDIBSBDUFSJTUJDT o .PSQIPMPHJDBMQSPDFTTFT o .PSQIPMPHZ .PSQIPQIPOFNFT HFOEFSEJGGFSFODFTJO .PSQIPQIPOFNJDT o

INDEX

.PUJG .PUJGFNF o .PUPSDPSUFY GJH .VMUJMJOHVBMJTN DPEFTXJUDIJOHDPEFNJYJOH o EJHMPTTJB o HMPCBM o TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG o TPDJPQPMJUJDBMVOJUTBOE o JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFT o 4FFBMTP CJMJOHVBMJTN 5IF .VOTFMM#PPLPG$PMPS .ZFST4DPUUPO $BSPM .ZUIPMPHZ /BUJPOBMJUZ MBOHVBHFBOE o /BUJWF"NFSJDBOT MBOHVBHFGBNJMJFTPG TUVEZPG o /BWBKP BUUJUVEFUPXBSETQFBLJOH MBOHVBHF JOTIBQF DPMPS BOETQBDFTUVEZ o iXBSUBML w /FBOEFSUIBMT )PNPTBQJFOT OFBOEFSUIBMFOTJT

/FP.FMBOFTJBO 5PL1JTJO

DSFPMJ[BUJPO PG o Y /FPHSBNNBSJBOIZQPUIFTJT /FPMJUIJDQFSJPE /FVSPMJOHVJTUJDT o /FX:PSL$JUZ TUVEZPGEFQBSUNFOUTUPSF FNQMPZFFT o /HBOEJMBOHVBHF /JHFS$POHPMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH /JHFS%FMUB TPDJBMBTQFDUTPG NVMUJMJOHVBMJTNJO o /JN DIJNQBO[FF

/PPULBMBOHVBHF /PSUI"GSJDB 'SFODIEJBMFDUTJO /PTUSBUJDNBDSPGBNJMZ /VLVMBFMBF HFOEFSJOFRVBMJUZJOSFBEJOH BOEXSJUJOHPG o

INDEX

0BLMBOE $BMJGPSOJB 4DIPPM#PBSE SFTPMVUJPOPO&OJDT 0#BSS 8JMMJBN. 0CFSXBSU "VTUSJB DIBOHJOHDIPJDFPG MBOHVBHFJO 0DIT &MJOPS 0HEFO $, 0IBMB +PIO 0ME&OHMJTI o o 0ME4UPOF"HF 0MEVWBJ(PSHF 0MGBDUPSZDIBOOFM 0OFIVOESFEXPSEDPSFWPDBCVMBSZ 4XBEFTI

UBCMF 0QUJDBMDIBOOFM 0SUIPHSBQIZ DIBOHFTJO Y 0THPPE $IBSMFT o 0TUFOTJWFEFGJOJUJPO 0UPNJMBOHVBHF 1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE 1ʆyJOJ 1BQVB/FX(VJOFB MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO MBOHVBHFTPG TQSFBEPG5PL1JTJOJO 1BSBHVBZ TQFFDIDPNNVOJUZJO 1BSBMBOHVBHF o 1BSBMJOHVJTUJDT 1BSUJDJQBOUPCTFSWBUJPO o Y 1BSUJDJQBOUT DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU

o 1FDPT 3FHJT 1IBUJDDPNNVOJDBUJPO 1IBUJDDPNNVOJPO 1IPOF EFGJOFE 1IPOFNFT 1IPOFNJDBOBMZTJT o 1IPOFNJDDPOUSBTUT 1IPOFNJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO 1IPOFUJDUSBOTDSJQUJPO o o 1IPOFUJDT BSUJDVMBUPSZ 1IPOPMPHZ o

431

1J4VOZFS 0SJPM 1JEHJOJ[BUJPO 1JEHJOT o 1JLF ,FOOFUI- 1JOLFS 4UFQIFO 1JSBIÍMBOHVBHF o 1JUDI 1JUUTCVSHI1PMJDF%FQBSUNFOU MBOHVBHF TUVEZPG 1MBJOT*OEJBOT MBOHVBHFT GBNJMJFTPG TJHOMBOHVBHFPG o 1MBUP POUBMLJOH 1MVSBMGPSNT JO"GSJDBO"NFSJDBO7FSOBDVMBS &OHMJTI JO$IPOUBM JO&OHMJTI o Y JO0ME&OHMJTI o JO-BUJO JO5PL1JTJO JO:VDBUFD 1PMZHFOFTJT UIFPSZPG 1PMZHMPUT 1PMZTFNZ 1PMZTZOUIFUJDMBOHVBHFT 1PSUVHVFTF FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFST PG GJH 1PXFMM +PIO8FTMFZ 1SFGJY 1SFMBOHVBHF 1SJNBUFT DPNNVOJDBUJPOBNPOHOPOIVNBO o FNFSHFODFPG GJH JOBCJMJUZUPTQFBL o 1SPGJMJOH MJOHVJTUJD 1SPOPVOT VTFPGJOWBSJPVTMBOHVBHFT o 1SPTPEJDGFBUVSFT o 1SPUP"MHPORVJBOQFPQMF o Y GJH 1SPUP*OEP&VSPQFBO 1SPUPMBOHVBHFT SFDPOTUSVDUJPOPG o

432

INDEX

1SPYFNJDT o UBCMF Y 1VFCMPQFPQMFT MBOHVBHFTPG 1VFSUP3JDBOT BOEMBOHVBHFQSFKVEJDF 2VBLFST 4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET

MBOHVBHFPG 2VBOUJUBUJWFNFUIPE TPDJPMJOHVJTUJDT

3BDF GBVMUZBTTPDJBUJPOPGXJUIMBOHVBHF BOEDVMUVSF o o 3FDPOTUSVDUJPO PGBODFTUSBMIPNFMBOE o PGDVMUVSBMIJTUPSZ o PGQSPUPDVMUVSF o PGQSPUPMBOHVBHFT PGQSPUPXPSET 3FEVQMJDBUJPO o 3FGFSFODF 3FGMFYJWFOPJTFT 3FGMFYJWFOFTT 3FHJTUFS 3FTUSJDUFEDPEF 3JDIBSET *" 3PCFSUT +PIO 3PNBOTIMBOHVBHF 3VTTJBOMBOHVBHF GJH 4BCJS NFEJFWBMQJEHJO

4BM[NBOO ;EFOFL 4BNPB 8FTUFSO MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPOJO 4BOTLSJUMBOHVBHF o 4BQJS &EXBSE Y o 4BQJS8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT o4FFBMTP 8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT 4BSBI DIJNQBO[FF

4BWBHF3VNCBVHI &4 4BWJMMF5SPJLF .VSJFM 4DBOMPO +FTTF 4DIJFGGFMJO #BNCJ# 4DIMFJDIFS "VHVTU 4DPMMPO 3POBME 4DPMMPO 4V[BOOF

4DPUU )VHI-FOPY 4FNBOUJDEJGGFSFOUJBM o 4FNBOUJDT TUVEZPG o 4FFBMTP NFBOJOH 4FNJPUJDUSJBOHMF 4FNJPUJDT 4FOUFODF BTVOJUPGBOBMZTJT o GJH 4FS$SPBUJBOMBOHVBHF 4FUUJOH DPNNVOJDBUJPODPNQPOFOU

o 4IBQFDPMPSTQBDF JOGMVFODFPOCFIBWJPS CZ o 4IFS[FS +PFM 4JFCFSU 'SBOL5 +S o 4JHOMBOHVBHF o 4JM 4JOP5JCFUBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ GJH 4JPVBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 4LJOOFS #' 4MPWBLT SFMBUJPOTIJQXJUI$[FDIT o 4NJUI 8JMMJBN 4PDJBMDMBTT MBOHVBHFBOE o 4PDJBMOFUXPSL 4PDJBMQPXFS HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ PG o 4PDJFUZPG'SJFOET 2VBLFST

4PDJPDVMUVSBM EFGJOJUJPOPG o 4PDJPDVMUVSBMUIFPSZ MBOHVBHFBDRVJTJUJPO BOE o 4PDJPMJOHVJTUJDDIBOHF TUVEZPG 4PVOEDIBOHFT o o i4PVOEMBXT w 4PVOETQFDUSPHSBQI 4PVOETZNMJTN o 4QBJO MJOHVJTUJDEJGGFSFODFTJO 4QBOESFM 4QBOJTI FTUJNBUFEOVNCFSPGTQFBLFSTPG GJH JO.FYJDP o o JOUIF64 41&",*/( BTNOFNPOJDEFWJDF o 4QFDUSPHSBN

INDEX

4QFFDI BDU BQQBSBUVT GJH BSFB BUUJUVEFTBVU o CFIBWJPS VOJUTPG o DPNNVOJUZ o FUIOPHSBQIZPG o FWFOU GJFME IVNBO Y OFUXPSL o TJUVBUJPO TUBOEBSE TUZMFT o 4FFBMTP HFOEFS TQFFDIBOE 4QFFDITPVOET BOBMZTJTPG BSUJDVMBUJPOPG o QSPEVDUJPOPG o 4UBOMBX +BNFT. o 4UJNVMVTSFTQPOTFSFXBSEGPSNVMB o 4UPLPF 8JMMJBN$ +S 4USFTT JOTQFFDI 4USPTT #SJBO 4UVSUFWBOU &EHBS) 4VCBOVOQFPQMF EJTFBTFEJBHOPTJTCZ o ESJOLJOHUBMLPG o Y 4VCDVMUVSF HFOEFSBOEMBOHVBHFUIFPSZ PG 4VGGJY 4VNFSJBOMBOHVBHF 4VQFSPSEJOBUFUFSN 4VQQMFUJPO o 4VQQMFUJWFGPSN 4XBEFTI .PSSJT 4XBIJMJMBOHVBHF o 4ZODISPOJDMJOHVJTUJDT 4ZOFTUIFTJB 4ZOPOZN o 4ZOUBY 5BDUJMFDIBOOFM 5BHRVFTUJPO

433

5BLFMNBMBOHVBHF o 5BOOFO %FSBI 5BZMPS %PVHMBT 5BZMPS +PIO 5FFUFS ,BSM7 5FOFKBQB5[FMUBM MBOHVBHFPG TQFFDI UFSNJOPMPHZPG 5PL1JTJO /FP.FMBOFTJBO

DSFPMJ[BUJPO PG o Y 5POFMBOHVBHFT o 5PSSBMCB 4QBJO BSDIBFPMPHJDBMFYDBWBUJPOT BU 5SBOTGPSNBUJPO 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHFOFSBUJWFHSBNNBS o 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMHSBNNBSNPWFNFOU 5SBOTGPSNBUJPOBMSVMF 5TVEB :VLJP 5VOJDBMBOHVBHF o 5VSLJTIMBOHVBHF NPEFSOJ[BUJPOPG o WPXFMIBSNPOZJO 5XJMBOHVBHF 6OJWFSTBMJTN o 6QQFS$IJOPPLMBOHVBHF 6QQFS1BMFPMJUIJDQFSJPE 6SBMJDMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 6UP"[UFDBOMBOHVBHFGBNJMZ 7BJQFPQMF MJUFSBDZBNPOH 7FSUFCSBUFT OPOIVNBO DPNNVOJDBUJPO BNPOH 7JLJ DIJNQBO[FF

7PDBMBQQBSBUVT FWPMVUJPOPG o 7PDBMBVEJUPSZDIBOOFM 7PDBMQMBZ 7PDBMTFHSFHBUFT 7PFHFMJO $IBSMFT' 7PFHFMJO 'MPSFODF. 7PJDFDIBSBDUFSJ[FST 7PJDFGFBUVSFT 7PJDFRVBMJGJFST 7PXFMIBSNPOZ

434

7PXFMQIPOFNFTJO"NFSJDBO&OHMJTI UBCMF 7PXFMT BSUJDVMBUJPOPG UBCMF 8BMUFS )FOSJFUUF i8BSUBML w 8BTIPF DIJNQBO[FF

8BUBOBCF 4VXBLP 8BUTPO .JDIBFM 8FSOJDLFTBQIBTJB 8FSOJDLFTBSFB o GJH 8FTDPUU 3PHFS8 8IBMFT DPNNVOJDBUJWFCFIBWJPSPG 8IJTUMFTQFFDI o 8IPSG #FOKBNJO-FF o 8IPSGIZQPUIFTJT BMUFSOBUJWFTUP o FYQFSJNFOUBMGJOEJOHTDPODFSOJOH o o FYUFOEFEWFSTJPOPG o

INDEX

MJOHVJTUJDSFMBUJWJUZBOEEFUFSNJOJTN o Y SFDPOTJEFSBUJPOPG o GJH 8JUIFSTQPPO (BSZ 8PMGG )BOT 8PPMGPSE &MMFO# 8PSET BGGFDUPGPOCFIBWJPS Y 8PSET DPJOFE 8SJUJOH FUIOPHSBQIZPG o 8SJUJOHTZTUFN EFWFMPQNFOUPG o :BLBOQFPQMF MFHBMTZTUFNPG :BOBUSJCF :VDBUFDMBOHVBHF DPSSFTQPOEFODF CFUXFFODPHOJUJPOBOEOVNCFS HSBNNBSJO o ;IBOH )BOH o ;VOJ DPMPSUFSNJOPMPHZTUVEZBOE TQFFDIBUUJUVEFTPG

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