Neufert 2nd 6ek1z

Cl)io

c'J

II-'-

T

16' 11" (USA)

Cl)

Li

'

USA wheel location

4 Carinmiddle range; USAstandard

Cl)

II' 6 Man& his

references.

Minicar

buildings --BibIiography entries 086 256 445 557

5

Small(compact)car

Basic Data 25

Lighting Lighting inside a bldg must fulfil 2 functions: (a)to illuminatethe interior and itscontents; (b) where there issometask, egreading,performing a delicate movement, walking up or down stairs, to illuminate the task appropriately and to appropriate extent so that visual mechanism can function athigh levelof efficiency. When visual tasks might needtobecarried out anywhere ininterior bldg lighting and task lighting may be provided bysame installation.Where tasks always carried out at some fixed location, eg work points on benches or at desks, less energy may be used by providing necessary task illuminance through bench or desk lights, or localised overhead lightingcombined with lower illuminance from general lighting (but not less than 200 lux) to providethesurroundingvisualenvironment—*(1)(2). (Forstandard techniques and design rules —Bib383 387).

A

goodcolourrenderinglamps

appearance

lamptype

warm

deluxewarm

of light

sottone27 deluxenatural

intermediate

U

*FH-J1

emphasised: forhomes, restaurants, hotels goodon allcolours, emphasis on red:forshops, particularly food displays including meat reasonably goodon most colours, subduedeepred:

65

100

foroff, dept stores

goodonall colours: for

graphicA47

60

complieswith BS 950 pt 2 for critical workingraphic

natural

70

arts emphasises yellows:for off,dept stores,shops

northlight,

65

filament lamps

0

cool

Arrangementsof lightsourcesfortask lighting inoff

similartoincandescent light and blendwell withit;yellow

65

kolorite,

trucolor37

fluorescent tubes

70

white,

colour84, plus white

E

efficacy relative to 'white' lamp

colour

display, shops, clinical areasinhospitals, museums

similartonorthskydaylight, emphasises blues: for blending with daylightbut give 'cold' effectexcept at

matching .

general illumination

:

artificial daylight

high illuminance complies withBS 950 pt 1: critical colourmatching

5

B high efficacylamps warm white

warm

100

blue distorted, red

subdued,yellow &green emphasised:

........ 2

Artificiallight

intermediate

white

intermediate

daylight

100 90

forfactories

similar toabove but less 'warm'

red subdued,yellow& greenemphasised: blends acceptably withdaylight

Notes 1 othertypes of lamp are madeforspecial purposes, eg decorative colours:forreprography, horticulture, aquaria, ultravioletradiation; 2circuitefficacyof'white' lamp (ieincludingballast) canbe45—65lmIW dependingonwattage; 3propertiesof lamps change inconsequence ofdevelopmentsby manufacturers who should alwaysbeasked for up-to-dateinformation

DEFINITIONS

Luminousflux: lumen Radiant poweremitted fromsource evaluatedin ofitsvisual effect is called luminous flux and measured in lumens. Effectiveness in converting input power (measured in watts) to lumens iscalled the efficacy and expressed in lumen/W. —(3) shows relative efficacy and some differentlamp types.

3

Propertiesoffluorescentlamps givingsubstantially white light

Illuminance:lux

Amount of luminous flux falling on unit area of surface is called illuminance, measured in lux (1 lumen/m2) (symbolE). Illuminancecannotbe directlyappreciated byeye, which seeseffect ofilluminance in making surface ofobject more or less bright according to magnitude of illuminance and reflecting power ofsurface,

ceilings 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

white emulsion paint on plainplastersurface white emulsion paint on acoustic tile white emulsion painton no-finesconcrete white emulsion paint on wood-woolslab

Reflectance

walls

white emulsion painton plain plastersurface; white

Some surfaces reflect lightdiffusely, eg blotting paper, some with very little spread(specularly), eg mirror. Most decorated rm surfaces reflect nearly diffuselywith greater or less degree ofgloss, so that brightness depends to some extent on relationship between angle of light and angleofviewing.

The higher the reflectances of surfaces in an interior the less the absorption oflight and thelowerthe powertoprovide agiven illuminance. Lightcolouredcurtains drawnoverwindows at night reduce lossof light.

0.8

glazed tiles white asbestos cementsheet;concrete,lightgrey; Portlandcement,smooth 0.3 bricks,fletton 0.25 concrete,lightgrey;Portlandcement,rough (asboard marked) timberling: lightoak,mahogany, gaboon 0.2 timberling: teak, afromosia, medium oak 0.15 brick, blue engineering

Reflecting power expressed as reflectance (symbol p), on a scale on which 1 is max value achieved by perfect reflector, 0 value of perfect absorber and 0.2 reflectance of medium grey. Reflectanceof coloured surface related to visual effect of light reflected. For reflectances of sometypical surfaces—(4).

0.4

floors

0.35 0.25 0.2 0. t

timber:birch, beech, maple timber: oak timber: iroko, kerning quarrytiles: red,heather brown

4 Approx reflectances of typicalbldgfinishes

26 Basic Data

Lighting DEFINITIONS(cont)

Colour: Munsell system—*pl 7—18

Munsell system convenient and commonly used way

of describing

colour of surface in of hue (position in colour circle), chroma (paleness or fullness ofcolour) and value. Value correspondsto reflectance, approx given by: reflectance

= value (value — 1) 100

(—Bib1 00)

Luminance:apostilbor candela/rn2

azi

cos46 BZ2 cos3a

BZ3 BZ4 BZ5 BZ6 Bz7 BZ8 BZ9

cos2

cos'5 cos(

1+2cos6

2+cos)

constant

i+sin5

BZ1O sinO

Mathematically physical brightness orluminance (symbol L)ofdiffusing surface isproduct of illuminanceand reflectance,sothat L = EP, and ifE is inlux Lisilluminance inapostilb.Alternative unitis candelapersquare metre(cd/m2) whichisSI unit—p2and equal to,rapostilb. Note: calculation of luminance not needed in routine lighting design asstandardmethods(—48ib383387) prescribeilluminance

andreflectanceseparately.

Maintenance factor (MF) Maintenance factor is proportion (expressed as decimal) ofinitial illuminance towhichilluminancefalls mid-way between cleaningand relamping periods. In design lighting design lumens are used for the lamp, which is av light output through life. MF therefore refers to dirtying of luminaires, rm surfaces and sources only:for interiors and installations maintained in avstate ofcleanliness maybetaken as0.8. Forthosetobe kept in specially clean condition take 0.9; for those which may be allowed tobecome dirtier than avtake 0.7 —nilluminance below.

Utilisationfactor (UF)

Intensitydistributioncurveswith BritishZonal(BZ)classification

1

roomindex 1.0—1.6

Roomindex(RI) 2.5

4.0

direct &semi-directlighting (BZ1—3,25% upward light) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 floorcavityreflectance 2.8 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.05 2.5 2.2 2.0 E(h)1E8 general diffusedlighting (BZ4—10,

50% upward light)

floorcavity reflectance E(h)/Ee

2

0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 2.3 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.8 0.1

UFis proportion (expressed asdecimal) ofluminousflux oflight sources whichfalls on horizontal working plane in an interior: depends on shape of lightdistribution fromluminaires, rm index —-nbelow and reflectances of rm surfaces. Light distribution characterised by shape of intensity distribution with respecttoangle invertical plane fromdownwardvertical. These shapes commonly classified in UK by British Zonal System (BZ no); the 10 shapes and their mathematical descriptions are shown —*(1). Most manufacturers now tabulate UF in their catalogues.Failing thistheycan beestimated byreference totables (—sBib449).

0.1 0.2 0.3 2.1 1.9 1.7

Conversionof scalar illuminance to illuminance on horizontal planefor interiorwith light ceilings& walls

RI relates to dimensions of rm: length I, width w, with luminaire height above working plane hm. RI —

lxw

hm(l + w)

ILLUMINANCE—.p25 Where specific visual task exists illuminance is that on plane of task, whether horizontal, vertical or inclined. In places such as foyers and circulation areas 'scalar' illuminance is specified. This is a measure which is independent of direction and is related to illuminance on a horizontal plane inwaywhich takes into notonly rm shape and luminaire light distribution but, most important,floor reflectance—n(2). Illuminance received fromgiven lighting installation falls during use because there is gradual drop in light output of lamp during its life and luminaire and rm surfaces getdirtier between cleaningperiods. (Shorter these intervals more efficiently el energy is used but more expensive maintenance costbecomes.) Recommendedilluminance (—nBib383) is service' value ieavover period between cleaning; installed illuminance is higher thanthis by the reciprocal ofthe MF. Lighting furtherdetail—-np398—400 Daylighting —*p27—32; sunlight —sp33—7

BasicData 27

Daylight INTRODUCTION

Daylightfactor

Because of varying intensity of daylight in countries with humid and temperate climates inpractice most useful tobase daylightingdesign on concept ofdaylight factor (DF),defined insimple as ratio ofindoor illuminance —p26 (formerly known as illurninance value) to outdoor illuminance and given as percentage.(More exact definition—Bib124).

CIE standardovercastsky To provide practical basisfor estimation and measurement of DF in Britain and NW Europe has beenfound convenient to adopt standard overcast sky with sun obscured bycloud. This sky generally known as CIE standard overcast sky and assumed to have uniform luminance —p26(ie physical measure ofbrightness), in azimuthwithzenith lumiRelativeluminancedistribution of CIEstandardovercastskywithav luminancetaken asunity:conventional valueatzenith togive 5000lux illuminanceon horizontal plane—2050 cd/m2:illuminance —.p25 26

1

nance about 3times that near horizon—+(1). Zenith luminancedepends on angular elevation ofsun but conventional value of2050 cd/rn2 was assumed originally, giving unobstructed illuminance of 5000 lux on horizontal plane outdoors.

Variation

in outdoorilluminance over year

Conventional value of 5000lux assumed foroutdoor illuminance from overcast sky usefuldatum for initial calculationsfor daylight adequacy being representative of av conditions over much of day in mid-winter and significant periods in autumn and spring and wet days in summer. Asthis value exceeded forabout 85% oftimegenerally taken ascritical value below which resulting daylight indoors would be considered inadequate. There are instances, however, where necessary to relate indoorilluminance to variationinoutdoorilluminancevalues over specified period, especially in situations where it may be desirable to supplement daylight with artificial light. DF concept particularvalue in this context; for although outdoor illuminance will vary indoor illuminance will change with itand forallpracticalpurposesDF will remainconsistent. Seasonal and daily variations in daylight onhorizontal surface outdoors, averaged foreach month —*(2)(3).

For indicationoftotal working hr/yrforwhich indoor illuminanceexceeds specified values in lux for a range of OF and forpercentage of working hourswhen daylight illuminancein lux exceeds specified values, again fora range of DF,—(4)(5).

AverageDF

Recommendations for adequacy ofdaylight have usuallybeenmade in of mm DF. Recent studies have suggested use of av OFas better indication of adequacy of daylight over an interior. For side-lit rm, however, av daylight value on itsown Only general guide and needs to be associated withdiversity index.

3 Illuminanceinluxreceived fromskyonhorizontalsurfaceoutofdoors averagedforeachmonth& plotted against time 2170

1400

1200

0

1000

0

iIIuminafl 100 200

4

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Workinghr/yrforwhich daylightilluminances onworkingplane(wp) exceedspecifiedvaluesat variousDF

luX

5 %ofworkinghrwhendaylightilluminanceonwpexceed specifiedvalues atvariousOF: graphsbasedon 5-dayworkingweek (0900—1700)giving yearlytotal ofapprox2170 hr

Basác Data

28

Daylight INTRODUCTION (cont)

Diversityofdaylight

Diversity of daylight illuminance across rm can be shown as graph on cross section ofrm, slope ofcurve indicatingdegreeofdiversity. Typical gradient of illuminance on centre line of window —s(1). In line with artificial lighting practice diversity ofilluminance can also be expressed numerically asuniformity ratio,egas ratio ofmm toavDF. Thus

2015

a '5

ti

10—

5-

minDF uniformity ratio = av DF

Thegreaterthe diversity, the lower the uniformity ratio. For relatively simplewindow arrangements and for roof light systems index has meritthat itcan showin general sense whether necessary to supplement daylight with artificial light.With complex window arrangements, however, may bepreferabletoexamine distribution ofdaylight in somedetail.

0.5

03

1

Gradientofilluminance oncentreline of window

036

.

.

1278

Distributionof daylight

1

16

1.01

062

7.. 447

1.52

0 72

avOF

.

T

047

48/20 2.4% appox

1278

47

1.52

0.36

16

I 01

-.

045

0.72

047

FT1 0.62

045

-42mfJ

2 Distributionofdaylight over horizontalplane: forclearness

intermediate

valueshave beenomitted

Further refinement in assessingadequacyof daylightin rmis to calculate illuminance for number of points on regular grid. Contours of equal DF can then be drawn: distribution of daylight over working plane can be checked andareas where daylight is deficient be identified. If required av DF can be estimated by simply averaging values on reference grid. Where reference grid is taken right up to boundaries of rm values on boundary lines should be weighted, ie divide corner values by 4 and remaining boundary line values by2before averagingall values—.(2)(3). Comprehensive set of daylighting aids has beenproduced tor UK by BRE; these give simple check between window size and proportional area of working plane within which specific values of DF equalled or exceeded. Aids thus give broad indication of horizontal distribution of daylight in rm—.(4).

CALCULATIONOF DF: GENERAL Methods for predicting daylight Iluminance at design stage range from simpleformulas to sophisticated computer techniques (—Bib076 107 251 368381 397457). Amount of design information required for predicting daylight factors in rm depends on complexity of method of calculation. For initial calculations, where window sizes not yet determined, useful if method of calculation cangive areaofglassrequired to provide particularstandard of daylight.

1.0 0.9

Ii

08 —

-

07

-

0.6

a

0.5

—

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

00

3 DistributionofdaylightonhorizontalplaneshownbycontoursofequalDF

4

j

11

/ I,

/

,/

/ / --,,

—4

/ 2ETI ---

— -.

n

Typicaldaylightingaid

1.0% -

-

i- e —

-

--f-— —4 0%

smalrmsei B .

obstruction wail ra8ect OF %

4

BasicData 29

Daylight CALCULATIONOF OF(cont)

Initial estimates: side-litrm

Netarea of glazing rough measureofamount ofdaylight itted to rm. As first approximation, assuming side-litrm of normal proportions with no external obstructions and with surfaceshaving avreflectance 0.4, av DF can be taken as equal about 1/2 of percentage ratio ofglass to floor area. Thus windows on 1 side ofrm with total glass areaapprox 20% of floor area will give av DF about 4%. Under same conditions mm DF will be approx 1/2 av value, le2%. Conversely, to obtain av DE of6% in rm with floorarea 12 rn2will require glazing areaof approx 6 x 12 x 5/100 m2or 3.6 m2. For closer estimate of mm DF in typical side-lit rm —n(1)(2). These graphs give mm DF related to rm depths forvarious rm lengths (parallel towindow wall) and window widths,with correctionsfor angle ofexternal obstruction to mid-height ofwindow. Reflectancesof rm surfacestaken as:ceiling 0.7, walls0.5, floor0.15. Mm DF assumed beon centre line of window wall atpoint600fromrear wall. Window widths (strictly window lengths) actual glassarea widths given as% rm length. Formore than 1

a

rmd—'

in mullipiesofwindowhaboveciiiievei)

(eepressed

window widths aggregatedand assumedwindows regularlyspaced along windowwall.(Further details, including bilateral lighting—oBib397.)

Av DFcalculations

CIE methodofdaylightcalculation: typicalgraphapplicableto side-litr1 unilaterallightingwith noexternalobstructions 1

Av DF over horizontal working plane can be calculatedusing formula put forward —eBlb452

085W

CR1+5ft

C

A(1—R)

where w isglassar A is total arof rm surfaces (includingglass) A1 is ar of floor & ofthosepartsofwatls below mid-height of window (excluding window wall)

C is function ofdaylight incident onwindow &varies with sky luminance & angleof external obstructions —.(3) R is av reflectance ofall rm surfaces including windows, expressed as decimal

0

R is av reflectance offloor & lower wallsbelow mid-height of window (excluding window wall) is av reflectance of ceiling & upper walls above mid-height of window (excluding window wall) Where window sizenot known glass area required givestipulated avDF canbeworked out frombasic formula restatedas:

0 0

DFav

085 —--+° A1

rmd—. (in muitipiesofwindow, aboveciii)

2

CIE method ofdaylightcalculation: correctionstoDF forangles of obstruction(tobereadwith—.1) coefficientC angle ofobstruction measuredfromcentre ofwindow (degrees abovehorizontal) No obstruction 100 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°

31

25 20 14 10 7

5

3 Variationof coefficientc with angle ofobstruction toberead withformula forav OF—.above & IRCformula —.p30

(A(1 —R)

rml

mid

rmh

(m)

(m)

(m)

3.3 3.3 3.3

3.3

6.6 6.6 6.6

4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6 3.3 4.5 6.6

9.9 9.9 9.9

4.5 6.6 9.9

4.5 4.5 4.5

39 35

+ 5R

window h (m)

avDF

2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4

1.3 1.3 1.3

1.6

2.7 2.7 2.7

window I/mi Iaspercentages 30% 60% 90% 2.8 2.2

4.0

1.2

0.9

1.6

2.2

1.5 1.5 1.5

1.8 1.4 1.0

3.3

5.2 4.0 2.9

1.5 1.5 1.5

2.0 1.5 1.1

3.6 2.8 2.0

5.5 4.3

1.8 1.8 1.8

2.2

4.3

6.1

1.5

3.1

4.5

1.0

2.2

3.1

2.6 1.9

3.1

3.1

Basic assumptions: floor reflectance=0.15,wallreflectance= 0.4, ceiling reflectance=0.7, externalobstruction=20% atmid-hofwindow; no allowancefor dirt on glass but25% correctionfor window frame for3300—

4

6600rm1&15%for9900rml

BasicData

30

Daylight CALCULATIONOF DF (cont)

Pointby point methods: verticalwindowsinside-lit rm

Basic assumption formost point bypoint methods ofdaylight calculatlon adopted in UK is toconsider daylight reaching point in rm as consisting of 3 components: sky component (SC) externally-reflected component (ERC) internally-reflected component (IRC) Howthese3 components operate isshown —v(1). Togive complete DF the 3components are simply addedtogether. Correctionstorother than clearglass, area otwindow obscured by framing and window bars and effectofdirt on glass and rm surfacescanbemadeby applyingcorrection factorsto final figure—vp31(4)(5).

SC & EAC

3componentsofDF: SC + ERC+ IRC= DF

1

ratio HID = hotwindowaboveworkingplane.distance Iron, wkldow 0.1

02040.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8

0 01 0204060708091.0 02 01 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.1 14 1.6 18 1.9 0.301 0307 12 1721 242729 0401 04 10 16 22 ai 32 as 38 0.5 01 05 12 19 26 3.3 38 4.2 46 06 01 06 13 22 30 38 4.4 4.9 53 0.70207 152433424854 58 01

2.0

22

2.4

6 as

10

1.1

1.1

11

a.o

1.1 1.2

as 42

5.0°

12

1.2 1.3

1.2

20 2.1 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 31 3.2 3.3 3.4 34 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.7 37 40 4.1 43 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 4.9 4.8 50 52 53 54 5.5 57 58 5.9 59 5.6 58 6.0 62 63 64 6.6 67 6.8 6.9 62 64 6.6 6.8 70 7.1 73 74 7.6 77 0.60207 16263645525.863 67 7.0 7.3 75 7.6 7.8 80 8.2 83 64 1.0 0.2 0.8 17273848566.267 7.1 7.4 77 79 81 82 6.5 87 8.8 5.0 12020818294050596571 75 7.9 8.1 64 86 8.7 90 92 94 9.6 1.402 09 1931 43 54 6.4 72 78 6.3 87 91 9.3 96 9810.1 10310510.7 68 1.6 a2 09 1.9 32 45 5.7 6.7 758.2 6.7 91 9.5 9.810010210.610911111.6 1.6 0.2 0920334659 70 7885 9.1 9610010.210510.711.1 114 11.7122

P 0 3

1.9 0.2 102433476.07281 88 2.002 1.02.033476.1 7.38290 2.5021.0 2.1 3.34.662 748492

9.5 9.7 9.9

100 104 10.8 11.1 11311.812.0123126 102 10.711.111.4117122124127130 10.511.011.411.712012612.9133137

3.0 0.21.02.13.44.86.275 85 9.3 10.010.711211712.012.412913.313.7142 4.0 0.2 1.0 2.1 3.4 4.9 63 75 86 9.4 10110.611311812.212.513213.514.014.6 6.002 1.0 34 506376869.5 10210.911411912.312613213614.1 149 0.2 1.0 2.1 34 5.0 6.3 76 86 9.5 103 10.911.511912.312.713313.714.215.0

0 a

at

0

1? 22 3V 394550 5458 6V 6$ 66 6$ 69'

7 72' 74' 76' 79'

80'

For preliminary calculations —v(2) (Bib076). In use table gives data for effective widthofwindow torightor leh ofline (normaltowindow plane) drawn to reference —.(3). SC atany other referencepoint, also effect of external obstruction, can be found by adding or subtracting SC of hypotheticalwindows so that actual window remains.To allowtor reduced luminance of obstructions values of equivalent SC for obscured sections ofwindow aremulitplied by0.8

Other methods of predicting SC and ERCinclude BRE DF protractors, Pilkington dot method, grid methods such asWaldramdiagram.With all theseaids ERCestimated byassuming that proportion of skyobscured by obstruction (as seen trom reference point) has luminance which is somefraction of sky obscured. Unless luminance ot obstruction known usual practice to assume obstruction luminance 'Is av sky luminance. IRC For preliminary estimates mm IRC can beobtained from —.(4)itcertain limitations on size ot rmand reflectancesof rmsurfaces accepted. More comprehensive coverage —vBibO76. Where relatively high accuracy required IRC for side-lit rm can be calculatedusing BRE inter-retlection formula: IRC =

aegis oiobsiruckon

2

Sky componentstable (overcastsky) forverticalglazed windows: shortenedversionderived—oBibO76

0.85W

—

A 1—A (CRi

5Rn,) /o

where W isarofglassinwindow A istotal ar ofceiling walls& floorincluding arofglass R isav reflectance of ceiling, walls including glass & floor, expressedas fraction is av reflectance of floor & those parts ot walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) Rcw is av reflectance of ceiling & thoseparts of walls above mid-h of window(excluding window wall) C is coefficient with value dependent on angle of obstruction outside

Ri

window—vp29(3).

AC can be obtained by applying conversion factors related to av reflectance of rm surface: av reflectance conversion factor 0.3 0.75 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.85 Mm

floor reflectance windowar

as%ot

3

Exampleofsimplecase:

=j

=0.7; 0.6 = SCread againstthese ratios 1.5; repeatsection (W2) &add SC,toSC2 to give SCforwholewindow 1.5+ 1.5=3.0; forobstructions treatobscured sectionwindow & x 0.2tocorrectforlowerluminance;angleofobstruction on

&WID; fromdrawingff

=-=

table gives appropriateHIDforobscuredsection

reflectance

toconvertto floor arof 10m2

to convertto to convertto floor arof90m2 avIRC

20 40 60 80

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1.4 1.2 1.0

1.8 1.4

0.9

1.2

wall

Conversionfactorstoapplyto —v(4)

13

20%

40%

avwafireflectance leociudingwindowl

SCforsectionofwindow(W,) is read —o(2) againstratiosHID

5

10%

offlooror

2 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

20% 40% 60% 80%

20% 40% 60% 80% 20% 40% 60% 80%

—

—

—

0.1 0.1 0.1

01

02 02

0.2 04 0.2 05 0.3 06

07 08 0.509 0.5 10 0.3 0.4

0.6

1.1

0.1 02 0.2 04 0.3 0.5 0.4 07 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.4 1.0 1.7

01 01 02 02 03 04 05 05

01 01 02 03 02 04 03 06 05 08

06

02 05 06 09 13

1.1 1.7

08 13 20 12 2.0 00 15 24 14 2.3 10 18 28 162.6 06122031 18 2.9 07 13 22 34 19 3.1 08 14 2.3 37

—

01 0.2 02

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.6 05 0.5 0.8 12 0.7 1.1 17 0.0 1.5 23 1.1 1.8 28 05 1.3 21 33 09 1.5 24 38 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

10172742 12

1.9

1.3

at 32

30 46 4.9

4 Mm IRC(Bib076)basedon rmof40m2floorarwith htoceiling 3000& windowon1 side;ceilingreflectanceof0.7assumed and20°angle ofexternal obstruction;correctionscan bemadeforother rmsizes& to convertmm IAC toavIRCbyfactorsin-.o(5)

Basic Data

31

Daylight CALCULATIONOFOF (cont)

M is correction factor fordirt or aging of glazing—*(3) B iscorrection factor forwindow framing, glazing & internalobstructions, eg overhead s for machinery: where details of framing not known typical value forBis0.75butfigurecould beless infactories with overhead pipework, ducting & structural 1 G is correction factor fortype ofglass other than clear glass g/f isratioof glazing artofloorar

Roof lightsystems

Spacing, as well as size, of roof lights is important consideration for adequate daylighting: in general DF easier topredict thanforside-litrm but samevariables apply, eg area and position of glazing, shape and size of space to be daylighted, reflectance of interior surfaces. Illuminance on horizontal working plane from correctly spaced roof lights nearerto distribution from overhead artificial lighting installations and usuallysufficient to determine av DF.

Coefficient depends on roof light design, shape and size space and reflectances ofceiling, walls and floor.

CIE recommendations (—oBib397) include method forestimating av DF forvarious rooflightsystems atearly stage in design, with graphs forflat

(l-w)h where I = length of rm, w = widthof rmand h = height above working plane to centre of glazing. To ensure fairlyeven spread of daylight spacing/height ratios should be kept withinlimits shown —*(6).

Pointby point methods:roof lightsystems

Where necessary to calculate DF at selected reference points with some precision, eg to test daylight distribution, SC and ERC can be obtained byusing BRE protractors. IRCcanbeestimated by using BRE nomogram Ill—+Bib076.

Useful formula below with associated tables developed by Pilkington Brothers (Bib543) for prediction ofav DF for rooflightsin range of roof types,including shed, sawtooth and monitors. AvDFon horizontal plane: D= 100.c.M.B.G.(g/f)% where c iscoefficient ofutilisation —*(7)(8)

Note: correction factor 8' for largecontinuousinternalobstructions,such asducting, can beworked outon cross section(byproiection)forselectedreferencepoints.

vertical windows

roof lights

reflectance

honzontal

sloping clean eg 0.9 countryar, outer suburbs dirtyeg 0.7 built-upar, lightindustry 0.6—0.5 verydirty eg heavy industry

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.5—0.4 0.4—0.3

3

Maintenancefactortobe applied tocalculated DF toallow fordirton glass glazingmaterials

CIE methodof daylightcalculation: typical graph applicableto skylightsinfiat roofs

vertical windows, steeply sloping roof fights

slopEng& flatroof fights

double single glazing glazing

single glazing

1

skhtsin alied roots(20pitthl

glass: 4—6clearor6 polished wired 6roughcast

1.0

0.95 wiredcastorpatlemed 0.9 6selectively 0.85 heat-absorbing (palegreen) 6 body-tinted 0.55 heat-absorbing (bronze)

0.9

1.1

0.85 0.8

1.05 1.0

0.7

0.95

0.5

0.6

corrugated resin-bonded glass fibre reinforcedroofingsheets: — 0.9 moderately diffusing 0.75—0.9 — heavily diffusing

2

4

I

e

10

12

14

4

roomindex

coefficient of utitisation

0.6

.19 .16 .15 .19 .16 .14 .16 .14 .14

0.8

.25 .21 .2 .25 .21 .2 .21 .2 .18

1.0

.3 .26 .25 .29 .26 .24

1.25

.31 .3

0

.25 .24 .21

.27 .31 .29 .26 .27 .26 .24

1.5

.34 .31 .3 .32 .31 .29 .3 .27 .26

2.0

.36 .35 .32 .36 .34 .32 .34 .32 .29

2.5

.39 .38 .35 .38 .36 .34 .35 .32

3.0

.4 .39 .38 .4 .35 .36 .36 .35 .32

4.0

.42 .41 .4 .41 .4 .39 .39 .38 .35

5.0

.44 .42 .41 .42 .41 .4 .4 .39 .36

mt

.49 .42 .49 .48 .48 48 .45 .45 .42

.31

reflectance 0.7

walls

0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0 index

0.5

0.3

0

ceiling

room

0.9

coefficient ofutilisation

.19 .16 .13 .19 .16 .13 .16 .13 .13

Correctionfactorstobeappliedto calculate for typicalglazing materials: forprecisedetailsof proprietarymaterialsconsultmanufacturers; for doubleglazinginnerpaneof clear glassis

1.0

.23 .2 .18 .22 .19 .18 .19 .18 .16

1.25

.26 .23 .2 .24 .23 .2 .22 .2 .19

1.5

.27 .24 .22 .26 .24 .22 23 .22 .2

assumed

2.0

.3 .27 .24 .28 .26 .24 .26 .24 .24

2.5

.32 .3 .27 .31 .28 .27 .28 .27 .26

3.0

.34 31 .3 .32 .31 .28 .3 .28 27

4.0

.35 .34 .32 .34 .32 .31 .32 .31 .3

50

.35 .34 .34 .35 .34 .32 .34 .32

inf

.4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .4

0.75—0.9

i

S

=1.5max Hensweeven

dalight

8 ClErecommendsthat monitorwahouldnotbe lessthan S nor more than¾S

6

5

H

Maxspacing of sawtoothrooflights& monitors

asrecommendedfor—n(7)(8)

.31

.39 .39 .38

Coefficientsof utilisation for monitorswith verticalplus slopingglazing

1.0

Correctionfactortobeappliedto DF calculated from—n(1)(2) toallowforavreflectances otherthan 0.2assumedfortables

0.3

.15 .12 .09 .13 .12 .09 .11 .09 .09

correction factor

1.2

0.5

Coefficientsofutilisationforsawtooth roofwith slopingglazing

16 1e%

1.1

0.5 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.1 03 0.1 0

0.8

CIE methodofdaylightcalculation:typical graph applicableto skylightsinpitchedroofs

0.2 0.3 0.4

0.7

walls

0.6

2

reflectance

ceiling

7

avDF

av

1W

Rm indexas tabulated =

and low-pitchedroofs, sawtooth and monitor roofs, from which av DF can beascertained. Typical curves forskylights inflat and 200pitchroofs reproduced —(1)(2). By means ofassociatedtables corrections can be made for various glass transmittances, for dirt on glass and for av surfacereflectances differing from20% (0.2) reflectance assumed for (3)(4)(5). For —+(1 )(2) av DF can be read directgiven glass ar/floor ar ratios, length of bldg and height ofwallsaboveworking plane.

locality

of interior

32 BasicData

Daylight QUALITYOF DAYLIGHT: GLARE

location

DF is measure of daylight Illumination: subjective aspects also help to

determine essential appearanceand character ofinterior, Ofsubjective lightingphenomena glare isone ofmostimportant. 2 distinctiveaspects of glare recognised: disability glare, which impairs ability of people to see objects against glare source without necessarily causing visual discomfort and discomfort glare, which causes visual discomfortwithout necessarily impairing ability of people to see—.p398. Typical example of disability glare: window at end of corridor or top of staircase makes it difficult to see person or object silhouetted against window. Such cases usually resolved by common sense; little to be gained fromcalculation techniques. Degree ofdiscomfort glarecan beassessednumerically and expressed as limiting glare index. (—oBib367 382). Main controlling parameter luminance of skyasseen through window; above lowvalue of window/ floor area ratio (l—2%)size of window not important. Recent studies indicate, forexample, thatifoneassumessky luminanceof 8900cd/rn2 (exceeded foronlyabout 15% ofworking year) predicted glare indexfor rm not exceeding 4000 in height with av surface relectances of 0.4 would be 26. Forsimilar rm with av reflectancesof0.6glareindex would be24. These figures apply toworst conditions, egsingle window facing observer. Forprogressive reductions in sky luminance predictedglare indices would be reduced; egwith sky luminance of 6400cd/m2 glare index would be reduced by 0.5 units and for sky luminance of 1 600 cd/rn2 by as much as 4 units, bearing in mind that incidence of glare would be increased because of higher proportion ofworking hours for assumed lower sky uminace. Conversely,forrm with higher ceilings (le above 4000)glareindex maywell beincreased by 1—2 units.

As controlling factor is sky luminance, if values assumed for glare indices are greater than recommended values—.(2)someamelioration likely to be required. Practical ameliorative measures include use of translucent curtains or blinds, louvred or slatted blinds, vertical or hori-

zontal fins and high infernalsurfacereflectances—vp406. Othermeasures include placing windows so that immediate surroundings have high luminance, use of windows on more than 1 wall and detailed design of windows and their immediate surrounds so as to reduce contrast with viewofbrightsky.

airport bldg &coach stations receptionar Customs& immigrationha Circulationar, lounges assembly &concert ha foyers, auditoria corr stairs banks counters,typing, ing,book ar public ar churches body of church

pulpit &lectern ar, chancel&choir altar, communion table

drawing off general general bldg ar entrance ha & reception ar hospitals reception &wr wards

pharmacies libraries reading & referencerm

av DF

mm

%

%

0.6

desks

24

2

counters& desks workingplane

24

2

06 06

2 2

06 06 06

workingplane floor

24

2

desks workingplane

5 2

liv (over V2 depthofrm butwith mm arof distribution7m2) 1 bedr (over¾depthof rm butwith mm arof distribution5.5m2) 0.5 k(over 1/2 depthof rm butwith mm ar of distribution4.5m2) 2 dualpurposerm, eg k/livtobe litto more exacting

0.6

5

1

Recommendedmn DF fordwellingsextracted—.Bib107

Daylightreferences.' —'Bibliography entries 047 059 074 076 107 202 251 252 291 367368 375 380381 382 383 397 452 457 527 528 529 567

23

24

workingplane Idaylightglare index to be calculated tor directionof viewof congregation)

21

on desks on table (level dependson emphasisrequiredl

23 23

5

1.5

5

2

5

25

on boards

21

2

06

working plane

24

2 5

06

workingplane Innermostbedhead 1mm value refersto Innermostbedheadl

24 21 21

5

3

workingplane

21-

5

1.5

on tables ladditionalel lighting will be required) verticalplane

23

workingplane

21

1.5

5

23

5

2

desks

23

5

2.5

desks

23

03

working plane desks

21 21 21 21

1.5

benches working plane

5

3.5

workingplane

21

0.6 2.5

workingplane workingplane benches

24 21

lab

2 5 5

swimming pools pool

5

2

pooi surface (careshould be taken to minimiseglare & reflectionsfrom watersurfacel workingplane

23

workingplane (avoidspecular reflections:limit daylightoninternallylit controlsl

20

surroundingar telephone exchanges (manual) general

2

0.5

requirements

followingreflectancesare assumed, walls0.4, floor 0 15, ceiling0.7

treads

2 2 2

surgeries

DI%

limiting

daylight glare index

5 5 5 5

wr location

positionof measurement

2

shelves (stacksl museums &art galleries general off general typing, business machines,manually operated computers schools &colleges assembly ha classr artrm lab staff rm, commonrm sports ha general surgeries (med & dental)

OF

(furtherdetail—.Bib202 380382 3831

2

Scheduleof DF &glareindices

easels

23

22

23

BasicData 33

Sunlight CRITERIA FORISSIONOF SUNLIGHT Standards forUK —BRE (Bib074)

—*(Bibl4l) —*DoE Welsh Office (Bib251 252)

Standards for USA —Ramsey & Sleeper (Bib549) ForUSA latitudes—*p34—6

1

Altitudeofsunin relationtobldg orobserver (lat51.5°)

BlockwithmainaxisrunningN-Shas longshadowscasttosidesofbldg in earlymorning&lateafternooninMar&Sep:smallpermanently shadowed ar toNofblock in midwinter

2

3 Blockwith mainaxisrunning NW-SEshadowpattemvaries between am& pm: relativelysmall permanently shadowedarinmidwinter

soaraftftudeat12OO

inkjn cmsssection

8hr

so'ar altitudeat1200 ________________inMar& Sep 38.5° 151° l2hr 14hr lOhr l6hr

H—

L[__X1 LlOhr

-l2hr

14 hr

•N

4 Tallblock withmain axisrunningE-W (favoured wheremainrmfacingS are required)cangive seriousovershadowing ofgroundto NofbldginMar& Sep:comparativelylargearof site closetobldg receivesnosunlightin

5

Where possibleavoidsiting high bldg withdeeprecesses facing Nas comparativelylargearof groundreceivesnosunlightatallinmidwinter

midwinter S&N

SITING,ORIENTATION&SPACING Nwindow

OF BUILDING Check orientation of facades and spacing of bldg inrelation torequired standardof insolation —4p34—6. Some compromise on ideal orientation of facades will be unavoidable on congested sitesorin areas ofmixed development. —*Energyconservation houses—÷p79—81

INSOLATIONOFOUTDOORSPACES

6 E&Wwindowsreceive horizontalsunraysat

equinox;theirangleofincidence becomessteeper towardssummersolstice; W = shortestdayofyr, T = equinox,S = longestdayofyr SE& SW

7

N windowsreceiveonly littledirectsunlight round summersolstice; Swindowsreceive sunrayswith lowanglesofincidenceinwinter & steep insummer NE& NW

Where possible site largebldg sothat extensive and continuous shadowing of ground round them avoided; otherwise growth ofvegetation will be inhibited. Problemdynamicand seasonal pattern of sunlight and shadow should be examined. For indication of extent ofpossible shadowing from tall bldg during summer and autumn (lat London) —*(2)—(5).

ORIENTATIONOF WINDOWS

8

SE & SWwindowsreceivefairamountof sunshineboth summer&winterby lowdeeplypenetratingsunrays

9 NE& NWwindowsreceivenodirectsunlightin winter buteffectivesunlightinspring&autumn

Orientation, size and shape of individual windows may require checking ondrawings by reference to sun path diagrams to determine sunlight penetration and effectiveness of required sun controls. Forgeneral indicationof effect of various orientations on sunlight penetration at different times of year (UK) —*(6)—(9).

34 BasicData

Sunlight METHODSOF FINDINGSUN EXPOSURES OF BUILDINGS 3ways ofcalculatingposition ofsun relativeto particularplaces,seasons, times ofday: useof models in conjunction with sundial allows visual observation but

usefulness limited byobvious practicallimitations; calculations and tabular projections toafford high degree ofexactness; summer solstice

but graphic projection preferred by most architects since it allows measurement of bothsun and shade.

SUN PATH DIAGRAM

1

() & angle of bearing

Diagramshowsaltitude

(J3)

Sun's position at any date or hour may be determined from sun path diagramwhichcorresponds to latitudeofobservationpoint—*(1 ) showing altitude (a) and angle of bearing ($). Diagramsfor series of N latitudes —(2)—(4) p35(1)—(5). On each diagram altitude angles shown at 100 intervals by concentric circles. Bearing angles shown at 100 intervals by equally spaced radii graduated along outer periphery of diagram. Elliptical curved lines in diagram represent horizontal projections of sun's path, appropriate for 21st day of each month: months labelled in Roman numerals; crossed grid of vertically curved lines, labelled in arabic numerals, indicate hours.

Use ofsun path diagram Example: Columbus Ohio at latitude 40°N on 21 Feb at 1400—*p35(2). Find elliptical curvedlines for Feb (ii) and markwhere itcrosses vertical line of 1400 (2): thesetwo lines intersect as sun's position; read altitude fromconcentric circle: 32°; read bearingangle fromouter circumference: 3503Q

w

Example ofuse ofdiagram forapprox latitude London England—p36.

2

24°Nlatitude

3 28°Nlatitude

4

32°Nlatitude

Basic Data 35

Sunlight SUN PATH DIAGRAM(cont) Further examples of sun path diagrams—.(1 )—(5). For method of using diagrams —*p34.

C/)

C)

ci

1

36°Nlatitude

2 40°Nlatitude

3 44Nlatitude

4 48°Nlatitude

5 52N latitude

36 BasicData

Sunlight USE OF SUN PATH DIAGRAMWITH BUILDING PLAN

C

)

Diagram —(1) shows path of sun on shortest day of year at approx latitude London England (51° 50'N); —(2) shows sun position atdetermining daysofyear;—*(3)—(7) showmethod of finding amounts of sun and shadow on bldg.

insun from0345—1030 = 6/4 hr

5

Shortlyafter 1100atsummersolstice NEelevation in shade; shortly after 1300SE elevationalso inshade;otherelevationsatcorresponding timesin sun

insun from 0954—1800

= 8¼ hr

1

Path ofsunshortestdayofyear (approx 21 Dec)lat510 SON

2

Sun positionatnoonat determiningdaysofyr:distanceof sunfromobserverequalsradius ofsunpath diagramwith dotted path ofsun in plan,which represents planprojectionof correspondinghofsun

insun from1435—1800

=3'/4 hr

6 At equinoxNE elevation in shadeshortlyafter1000,SEelevation shortly after 1500

insunfrom 0900—1545

= 6/4hr

N

elevation

pn

ofsun insun from0815—0900

= 3/4 hr

3 4 To find amounts ofsun&shadowonbldgatcertaintimeofyear &day (eg equInox1100) azimuthangle(19°)isplottedinplan fromcornerofbldgin question;this shows limitofshadowcast inplan;angleofaltitudeofsun

(37.1°)then plottedwherethis line intersects verticalplaneof bldgfurther back; lengthx,found byintersecting line drawn at rightanglestolimit of shadow in planwith plottedangle of altitude, determineshofshadowcast in elevation;plottedtoelevationat distanceafrom internal corner&linkedwith eaves of line ofbldg gives limitofshadowinelevation

7

Atwintersolstice NEelevationreceivessun forbarely1 hr,SEelevationin

shadeafter1500

BasicData 37

Sunlight CALCULATIONOF RADIATION Design implications of sun's altitude and

bearing affected by actual amount of solar energyfalling on exposed surface of bldg. choice of orientation and selection of appropriatetechnical orive devices for shading bldg will require thisthird range ofdata. Graphic calculator —(1) (—Bib549) originates in USA therefore uses Btu/ft2/hrunits. Upper halfof diagramcharts energies falling horizontal plane under clear skyconditions. Radiationlines at 25Btu/ft2/hr intervals. Lowerhalfshows amount ofradiation falling on vertical surface. For use calculator would be drawn to same scale and size as sun path diagram —*p34—6. Superimposed on diagram with correct orientation radiation values can be read directly.

PREDICTINGACTUALDURATION OF SUNLIGHT Data on sunlightavailability for any geographical location or climate

should, in general, be sought from nearest meteorological station. Probability of sunlight unobscured by cloud or mist can be read off modified stereographic sunpath diagramknown as'sunlightavailability protractor'—(2) (—Bib074). Total number available hours sunlight obtained by adding small figures between hour lines and multiplying total, inthis instance (latitude 51 .5°N) by 30.4 In example—*(3)bysuperimposing house planon protractortotal hours sunlightlikelyin February seem tobe 1.5 x 30.4 = 45.

1 Radiationcalculator: can be usedat anylatitude & anyorientation; is in same scale &projectionassunpath diagrams—p34—6;transfercalculator diagramtotransparentoverlay&superimposeon sunpathdiagramin desiredorientation:radiationvaluescan bereaddirectly solaraltitudeindegrees

510

IS

2025

303 40455060708090

67 123 166 197 218 235 248 258 266 273 283 289 292 294 Btu/1t2/hr

magnitudeofsolar radiationdependsfirstof allon sun'saltitude:tabulated valuesindicatedirect radiationenergiesreceived under clear atmosphericconditionsatnormalincidence

o Forcomputationof total yearly sunny hours,multiply summatedaveragefigures fromtheprotractor by30.4 (averagedayspermonth)

2

Sunlightavailabilityprotractor

3

Applicationof sunlightavailibilityprotractor (—BibO74)

Sunlightreferences: —Bibliography entries074 141 251 252

38 Habitat

Design ofhouses OF PERIOD & CONVENTION

EXPRESSION

-

Access

Around1500houseor townwas walled in& had heavy gates 1

2 By 1700wall &gate wereonly

3

During 19th centurysecluded housewas built inopensurroundings with low fences

4

6 By 1500therewere heavy doorswith door knocker&barred windowswith bullseyepanes

7

8 In 20th centurycoveredway leadsfromcartoentrancedoor

symbolsthroughwhich glimpsesof gardencouldbeobtained

In 20th centurythere is no enclosure (especially in USA)& housestands unobtrusively in large communalpark

Entrance

5 Around1000log houseshad no windows,lowdoors& highthreshold (lightwas ittedthroughopening inroof)

Ataboutl700doorshad attractivebars,clear glass &a bell pull

(Georgianwiredtemperedplate glass) whichelectroniceyeslides sidewaysat same timeannouncing visitor

Interior

slidingpartition verticallysliding window wall

9 Atabout 1500therewere low heavydoors,cellswith sparse daylighting&floors ofshort,wide boards

10 Around1700widefoldingdoors led intosuitesofrrnwith inlaid flooring

By 1900sliding doorswere fitted betweenrm, with linoleum, sliding windows &draw curtain 11

Plans privy

side entrance

unbarredwindowsofplateglass (temperedinUSA):Venetianblinds or rollershuttersprovideprotection againstsun

wc &

moUntain

cellar

12 In 20th centureymm are flexible, with elworkedslidingwalls& low

street

j__sto ha

F!

bedr ground nT__.ey

wc & washr

first floor

13 Timber(Walser)houseofabout 1500was influencedbyenvironment,methodofconstruction &way

ofliving (eg smallwindows)

maid

ogg

serv dr

garden

ci

In stone houseof 500 walls occupysamearasmisoas to give protectionagainstenemies& cold 14

Between 1500's and present time science, technology and industry have transformed outlooks, forms and, not least, appearance of our society. House nolongerfortress orcrude shelteragainstclimate; it is, orshould be, abeautiful unobstructive framework forourlives—open to nature but protected fromit.

15 Houseof2000will havelight steels&independent non-load bearingcurtainwalling &partitionswhosecomposition providesprotection againstbad weather&affordssound& heatinsulation: openplanning probable,with nodoors between liv ar, drandha Everyone has different concept; but the creative ability ofthe individual dictates how far he is able to transfer his experience into reality and express it through the material at his disposal. Some clients and their architects are still in the 16th century but a few of each have already arrived in the 20th; if the right centuries meet then a happy marriage between clientand architect is assured.

Habitat

39

House organisation SUBDIVISIONOF SPACE, FROM1-ROOMDWELLING TO PALACE

dr

maid

I I

parlour maid

IsEanthr =

cook

ma

Activities taking place in single rm—1-rm dwellings become progressively subdivided in largerhouses until in palace everyactivity has separate rm specially adapted in shape & position. Lines ofsubdivision also indicatespatialrelationship betweenindividualrm, which makesdiagram helpful tool when establishing programme for houses ofall kinds.

40 Habitat

Houses N favourable

7NE

garage

2

lake —or river

Favourable& unfavourable sitesonhillsides

very good 1

N nosunshine coldwinter winds even distributionof daylight

Favourablehousepositions

garage workrm sto Ia wine cellar heating utility

W afternoon

Eearly morning

&evening

sun heatgain in summer; may have coldwinds in winter: double glazing advisable

sunmay have heatgain & glarein

summer: trees desirable

3

Optimalorientationof individual rm

Sbest sideofhouse siteboundary

high sun angle in summer deepsun penetrationinwinter meansforshadingglass advisable

yard

I

lineof bldg

SE ter optimal position

E-W road tine ofbldg

a 2

Z

I

widest possible spacing

N

4

Favourablehouseorientation on E-Wroads

EXTERNALINFLUENCES ON HOUSE PLAN

Siting &orientation

Principles of positioning house on plot illustrated diagramatically—(1). For detached house plot on south side of E-W road most favourable, permitting entrance and services to be placed near roadwhile living rm and bedr lieaway fromroad, face sunand have accessto garden. Arrangements on E-W and N-S roads shown indetail —(3)(4). Houses on hillsides should generally be placed towards higher parts of their plots—*(2). Prevailingwinds foreachsitemust beconsideredin planning forcold and heat protection. Wind effects —p7781. Nslopes —*p46. Orientation also —p33—7

5 Favourablehouseorientation onN-Sroads:plotsonEside preferable

Rules for siting detached houses also apply to dwellings grouped in pairs or in rows. Some of factors considered on following pages, eg problems of access, which are most extreme in terrace (row) houses, apply to an extent todetached houses because ofbenefits, in road and servicecostsand depth ofgarden,which generallyaccrue fromkeeping plotsnarrow.

Safeguarding against obstruction

Where neighbouring plotsalready built on, position and plan ofhouse can be adapted to known surroundings; otherwise possibility of future development must be taken into . Architect has duty avoid undue obstruction ofdaylight over adingland likelytobe developed forhousing —p33.

Habitat

41

Houses ACCESS

Accesstodwelling 5 basic systems can be distinguished; Houses and footpaths along road with no segregation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic: implies nothrough traffic, no on-street parking—*(1). Road and footpath on opposite sidesof house: implies house design permitting access either side without loss ofprivacy; requires children's play area other than road—*(2). Vehicular access stopped shortof houses: limited by access distance (46 m for most services: 61 m in USA); requires particularly well designed and maintained parking and garaging—(3). Residents'&visitor's parking within boundary ofproperty: noteservice vehicleparkingar 1

Vertical segregation of vehicles and pedestrians: expensive, suits high densityofsteeplysloping sites —(4). Primarily pedestrian access to small groups of houses shared with private cars and light delivery vehicles: requires careful design to enforcelow speeds and restrict useto legitimate access—*(5).

Accessroads

Access roads tohouses can besubdivided into 2 groups —p42. General access roads: accommodate service vehicles, cars and, depending onlayoutsystem, frontage accessoroccasionalvisitor parking. Design to limit speed atjunction with local distributor road. Minor access roads: designed to allow slowspeed vehicle penetration of pedestrian priority area, serveup to 25 houses, speeds kept low by width, alignment, surface textureand visibility provision, possibly hump or chicane at entrance. May be cul-de-sac with turning at end, short loop, or lead to restricted vehicle/pedestrian mixed courtyard.

Garaging the car 3methodsofgaraging orparking carmust also beconsidered; withinor partlywithinhouse, ading house, separate from it. First 2 of these will affect house plan—*plOO—1 (—*Bib225).

Design standards

2

Residents'parkingpartlywithinboundaryofproperty & partlycommunal

3

All parkingcommunal

4

Parkingaroffcoveredaccess belowpedestrian deck

National and local standards for zoning and subdivision reg should guide planner. Road widths and construction, footpaths, frontages, density, housing types usually established by codes and/orlocal reg.

5

Accessarsharedbypedestrians&vehicles

I C-

'-4

'-4

42 Habitat

Houses ACCESS

local distributor road general access road

minoraccess road

Roadhierarchywithinhousingar:examplemakes useof sharedpedestrian/vehicle courtsasminoraccessroads

Habitat 43

Houses ACCESS

a-

Primaryaccess

accessto singlehouse

A path reducedto single w to avoid occasionalobstructions

1200

'3000long12mapart

Footpaths should run asdirectly as possibletomajorattractions(schools, shops, bus stops) away from heavy traffic roads. Should be well lit and overlooked (for security), sheltered and avoid steep gradients. Use ramps rather than steps, or ramps as alternative routes where steps necessary. Critical design widthshould allow prams and wheelchairs to and clear obstructions. Mm 1 800, but on pedestrian traffic routes generally allow 2400 on open ground, 3000between bldg and fences. Footpaths between road or pedestrian traffic route and small groups of houses can be 1 800, 1200for2 houses (USAmm 1 220), 900 forsingle house —(1 )(2). Max distance from road todoor ofhouse, 46 m.

Secondary access Additional footways to serve garden side of houses, garage courts etc

canbe 900—1 000 between fences,600 inopen ground—p47(6) 106(22). Plan todiscourage use asthrough routes.

SERVICES footpath between solid obstructions

2400

obstructionononesideonly, open ground on other

1

Statutory utilities(eggas, water, el, telephone) should besupplied with details of any proposed housing development at early stage in order to agreeserviceroutes between different interests and avoid later adjustment, which can be both time consuming and costly. In UK they will generally prefer to lay their services within public road, as this gives them certain automatic statutory rights of access; but in segregated layouts or those designed with narrow road widths this may prove inconvenient or uneconomic and alternative routes may need to be agreed. Perhapspreferable:rear-of-blockservicestrips, easilyaccessible and surfaced with materialswhich may readily be removedandreinstated.

Television

Master aerials for television signal boosting often require licence or permit.Television cables below ground should bekept mm of300from el supply or lighting cables and well away from telephone cables.

1 800

Pedestrianaccess&trafficroutes

Recommended depth forlaying television cables: 450.

ACCESS FORDISABLED Housing fordisabled —p85—7;internal access —+p86. Spaces needed forwheelchairs —.(3).

1000

p

4a endparkingoverhang

a.

b

50

sideparkingoverhang

500

'—mm 914—' safetybarrier 1525

C

min1525

d

—mm

914__ signposts, traffic signals etc

walls, copings, parkingmeters etc

tamp posts should be sitedat heeloffootpath beyond recommendedclear width

a=minclearw

2

Footpaths:mm clear w

3

Mm

space

I

clear w: aforsinglewheelchairbfor2wheelchairsc1525dia dT-shapedspacefor1800 turn

44 Habitat

Houses STANDARDS& REGULATIONS a mm

space1

least dimension

arft2

luwith Obr

luwith luwith luwith

lbr

2br

3br

na na na na na na

160

160 100 120

170 110 120 80

luwith Obr

luwith

Ir-da Ir-da-sI lr-da-k

na

210

250

na

na

270

Ir-sI

210 100

na 120

Ir dr br(primary)2 br(secondary) total arbr ohr

100

120 na

120 80

80

200

280 80

80

luwith 4br 180 120 120 80 280

116''

80

80"

84" 94" 80"

b combined space

k-da

lbr

minarft2 luwith luwith

2br

3br

luwith 4br

210 na 270 na 120

230

250

na

na

300

330

na

na 160

140

k.

least dimension see note 3

USA mm

2

housing —÷Bib228.) Horizontal controlling dimensions should be, in descending order of preference, asfollows: first: multiples of300 second: multiples of 100 third: multiples of50 upto 300 For house planning tothesedimensions a 300 grid is used. Vertical controlling dimensions more closely defined. Heights of door openings and between floorsdiffer over relatively small ranges. For dimensions forhousing, with preferences for public sector in UK—.(3). Mm rm sizes USA—.(1). Bedrsizes —.70(1 7).

Ceiling heights

In USA FHA says ceiling heights must be such as not to create an unpleasantsensationand nottorestrictphysicallymovementofoccupants and furnishings. Ceiling heights clear under beamsorother obstructions

BUILDINGREGULATIONS Distinct differences in legal intention result in different degrees of controloverhousing design indifferent countries: eg reg in Englandand

Wales limited to securing health and safety of occupants and other s; in Scotland designed to secure health, safety and convenience ofoccupants and public atlarge, imposing mm space andeqpstandards (—nBib233); in USAFHA, HUD reg and state and local codes apply.

misizes aforseparate rm bforcombinedspaces ft

Recommendations forhorizontal and vertical controlling dimensions for housing have beendeveloped in orderto make use of dimensionally coordinated standard components. (Application in UK public sector

-*(2).

Ir

abbreviations: br bedr da diningar dr:diving rm kitchen hying rrnr iu:liningunit na: apphcable 0br iu with no separate bedr ohr otherhabiiable rm 51 sleepingar primarybedrshaH haveatleast1 uninterrupted wailspaceofatleast 10 3mmdimensionsofcombinedrmshall besumofdimensions ofindividualsinglerminvolved exceptforoverlaporcombineduse ofspace

fbi

Controllingdimensions

in

habitablerm ha, bathr luminous ceiling sloping ceilings

7 6 7 0 7 0 7 6at leastfor½ rmwith noportion less than 5' 0''

Most houses built for sale in UK by private builders conform to standards set by National House-Building Council (—vBib5l2); in USA generally conform to FHA standard mm sizes and construction as may be required byfinancing: alsoconsult state and local codes.

basementswithout habitable spaces

6

Fireescape

USA

mm

8

In houses of more than (consult codes).

ceilingheights

2 storeys fire escape must

be considered

Essentially single stairway in suchhouse should be separated fromall rmbyfr construction and self-closing frdoors and leadto hallorage giving access tooutside air at ground level. This has effect ofprohibiting open planning on ground or intermediate storeys unless alternative escape routes, eg by balcony to ading house, provided fromrm on upperstoreys.

ROOFZONE __________ nohntiton thidrness but lowerbotifiary lobeplacedtogive sa,nefloortoceiiing heightason lower

I I I

I—

LEVEL

2100

Pref}J_ __ 1ipa

lstprefenence250 2ndpreference200 oc300

1000

WiNDOWciLLLEVELS i

[ 0—

FLOORLEVEL—n_

C w

OOR LEVEL (2 dimensionslobe takenfromFFL

3

2—

WINDOWHEADLEVELS 1Stpret 2nd DOORHEADLEVEL

3,,,ivn

UK verticalcontrollingdimensions

200

Habitat

45

Houses RELATIONSHIPTO OTHERBUILDINGS

Daylight& sunlight—*p27—37

Consult relevant reg and codesfor daylighting standards in habitable ml; thesealso provide for protection of residential bldg and undeveloped sites from obstruction of daylight by new development. These provisions normally adopted in England&Walesbyplanningauthority in development control (to some extent mandatoryinScotland).Proposed bldg can betested forboth distancefrom itsown boundary and distance fromother bldg by using permissible height indicators(—Bib251). USA —FHAand city bldg codes. So far as possible rm should receive sunlight at some part of day throughout most of year but this not generally enforced by reg or development control. Angles and direction of sunlight can be established hourly foranytime ofyear at anylatitude:examplesfor at 5105Q N —.p36.Further orientation factors—.p34—6 4046.

Visualprivacy

Manyplanning authorities seekto prevent overlooking of houses from neighbouring houses oracross road (controlledbybldg reg in Scotland). Rule of thumb distance of 18 m often stated but is restrictive and ineffective sincevisibility affected by types of windows involved and

their respective levels and incidence to one another. As with other environmental factors privacy must be considered in relation to competing benefits and in high densitydevelopments it is matter forcareful consideration indesign and layout.

Use ofblindside orsingle-aspect house designs willhelp, egon sloping sites or where footpaths close to houses; effective screening of private gardens alsoimpomtant—.(1 )(2). However,privacy should notbe achieved at cost of isolation: ideally degree of screening for visual privacyshould bewithincontrol of residents.

Privacy from noise

Houses built near distributor roads, or main highways best protected from noise nuisance by embankments or other land formation —.(3). Privacy can, however, be improved by use of suitable house plans with rm facing awayfromnoise source (—.Bib240254).

Spread offire

Bldg reg generally restrict distances between houses built of combustible materials, such astimber, shingles orthatch,and their ownplot boundaries; where non-combustible materials used extent of window and door openings in walls close to boundary might be restricted to prevent spread offire to adloiningproperty by radiation.

75dB(A)

\

'/

8OdB(A)

8Sdb(A)

68dB(A)

/

I

unprotectedsite 75dB(A) BOdB(A)

85dB(A) %

\

68dB(A)

I — //

f.__?

siteprotected bysimple solid barrier 75dB(A) BOdB(A)

\ /I

85dB(A)

'

//

68dB(A)

siteprotectedbyplacing road incutting 1

3

Privacysecuredbyuseofsingleaspecthouses

Noise attenuation: shadedarwillbesuitable housetypes

fordevelopmentwith conventional

privategarden road

t

road

publiath

public path

In JL 2

Privacysecuredbyuseof reverse aspect houses: best orientation E-W

I0

46 Habitat

Houses SITE TOPOGRAPHY

Effect of gradient

Where slopes moderate, choice of plan affected little by gradient; on steeperslopessomeforms of plan can be used to greater advantage than others.Where houses run parallelto contours use of wider frontage houses minimises needfor underbuilding or excavation. Savings thus made can counterbalance usuallyadverse equation between wide frontage and greaterservicing and development costs.Verysteep sites can, however, present opportunities for imaginative use of split-level plans or entryto upper floors—(1). Houses running across contours, especially in terraces (rows), should employ narrow frontage plans, stepping at each house or pair ofhouses.

Northslopes

Split level

1

Northslopes aggravate problems ofmaintainingdensity while providing

adequate sunlight to each house and garden. Simple solution: reverse usual ruleand place each house at lower endof itsplot, with accesson north side but on severe slopes spacing required might be excessive. Solutionthen might be to employ upside-down' section,'placing living rm on upperfloors where they can enjoysun fromsouthand views in each direction —(2). Houses running across contours canbe particularly advantageous on north slopes, sinceno garden needbe immediately overshadowed by houses and all rmwill get sunlight.

i4

Aspect

2

In considering orientation —p4U,access, privacy and effectof gradient there has recurred the concept of aspect, an important characteristic relating house plan toconditions ofits site. 4modelscan bedistinguished —(3); Dual aspect: rm lookout inbothdirections, toaccess and garden sides

'Upsidedown'

Single, blind-side, or controlled aspect: rm other than kitchen and servicemi lookout in 1 direction only—usually garden side Reverse aspect: rm on ground storey and upper storeys look out in opposite directions Open aspect: ideal detached or semi-detached condition where rm can look out in3 or 4 directions withoutconstraint.

-1 3a Dual aspect

3b

Singleaspect

3d

Reverseaspect

1' 3c

Controlledaspect

3e Open aspect

Habitat

47

Houses

+

HOUSE PLAN: INTERNAL INFLUENCES Determining factors

Main internal factors affecting selection of house plan: mode of horizontal circulationwithin house, requirements, appropriate standards & regulations siteorientation & climate —p334046

HOUSE PLAN:CIRCULATION Circulation within house determined primarily by type of access appropriate toexternal conditionsand layout—.(1):5 modesofhorizontal circulation can bedistinguished;

Throughcirculation

2

Circulationthroughha

3

Circulationthroughha&sb

5

Circulationthroughha &liv

This —(2) provides circulation fromentry to garden side by-ing all living and working areas. Nosecondary accessto garden side needed. Through circulation suitable for all forms of entry and particularly appropriate where entrypossible fromonlyoneside.

Through-storagecirculation

In smallterrace (row) houses through circulationthough desirable can require excessive proportion ofwhole ground-storey area. Modification permitscirculation from entryto garden sidethrough hall and sto —(3). This arrangement suitable forall forms ofentry.

Through-kitchen circulation Provides circulation fromentry to garden side through hall and kitchen —+(4). Appropriate inlayouts which provide secondaryaccesstogarden side;but can beusedwhere thereis none.

Singlecirculation

From point of entrygarden can be reached only by ing through living rm —(5). This type plan should only be used in layouts which provide secondaryaccesstogardenside.Secondaryaccesswill normally be necessary only in mid-terrace houses but layout situationscan arise when sitingof other bldg imposessimilar conditions on end-of-terrace, detached and semi-detached houses.

I

4

Circulation throughha& k

ri4

By-circulation

Garden side can be reachedoutside house but within property limits eg by path orthroughgarage—.(6).

house

Throughatrium circulation—*(7)

6 By circulation

1

Accesstoproperty afrom bothsides bfromoneside only

7 'Throughatrium'circulationseenin USAsinglefamilydetached house

I

48 Habitat

Houses HOUSE PLAN: STANDARDS& REGULATIONS

requirements

entrances

Where house not designed for known client, requirements can most brieflybe summarised in statementof number of rm (not counting kitchen, bathretc) in house and number of people intended to accommodate. From normative standard of 1P/rm higher standards characterised bygreater degree of specialisation—.p39. Such specialisation hasin past time reachedastonishing lengths — one English Victorian country house said to have contained rm for ironing newspapers: nowadays degree ofsub-division associatedwith palace unlikely to be reached. What does happen isthat houses designed or adapted to meet special needs, whether, eg for musician, orchid enthusiast or disabled housewife, are morespecialised, either by planningor by higher level of servicing, in 1 direction This form of specialisation secured by adaptation: will not generally affect process of plan selection setout here.

living ar

5 is there space for required furniture in sensible arrangement? 6 is there sufficient space toseatguests in dining 7 doesliv faceprivate garden?

kitchen

8 is there directaccess, on same level, fromk to diningar? 9 isworksurface adequate, freefrominterruption &

is'work triangle' (sink—cooker—trig/larder)

from compact cross-circulation? 11 has possible useof k byelderly or disabled people been considered? 12 isthere space foradditional eqp, orlarger items, likelyto be used in furniture? 13 has kviewofoutside world—for callers, toddlers' play etc? 10

14 istherespacefor required furniture in sensible arrangements — consider use of singlebeds? 15 can bedr beusedforchild'shomework, entertaining friends

bedr

requirementcheck Iist—*(1)

& hobbies?

In absence ofknown clientplans should betested by list of questions about house that might beasked by. In

any suchanalysisall planswill not meetall requirements satisfactorily; it must be for designer to judge which

bathr

16 isbathr convenient for bathing baby? 17 hasuseof bathr byelderlypeople, orinvalids, been considered? 18 is therespace forappropriate bathreqp, hanging towelsetc?

sf0&

19 are refusebin &fuel sto accessible, conveniently placed forcollection & delivery? 20 can bicyclesbetaken outside, pram put garden, & garden refemoved, withouting throughliving

priorities should be achieved (—Bib234).

Housing standards

Consult reg. Standards for dwellings in public sector in Britain —.(2) based on Parker Morris Committee's report (—.Bib233). Mandatory only for new bldg by local authorities and housing associations these in practice provide qualityplatform against which new housing can be udged. Although mm floor areas stated for various household sizes emphasis functional rather than quantitive. Am layouts and house plansshould be shown to be able to accommodate furniture and domestic activities that theycan beexpected to contain.

is protection fromweatherprovided at entrances?

1

2 istherespace in haforreceiving visitors? 3 isthereconvenient sto foroutdoorclothing pram? 4 can metersbe read withoutentering living ar? (NBoutside inUSA)

accessibility

1

requirementchecklist N =netspace1 S = generalstospace2

For USA standards consult reg (—.FHA HUD) and state and local codes; mm rm sizes —p44(1).

houses 1 storey

numberof persons(tebed-spaces) per dwelling 1

2

4

5

6

67 4.5

75.5 4.5

84 4.5

82 4.5

94 4.5

92 5 4.5 92.5 4.5 98 4.5

70 3.5

79 3.5

86.5 3.5

72 3.5

82 3.5

92.5 3.5

S

30 3

44.5 4

57 4

N S

72

(mid-terrace)

N S

74.5

4.5 4.5

N S

flats

N S

maisonettes

N S

30 2.5

44.5 3

57 3

85 4.5

108 6.5 108 6.5 112 6.5

108 3.5

(67 if balcaccess)

Net space is ar01 aM fioors in dweiiing measured tounfinished faces, inciudesarof eachfioortaken up bystairways, bypartitions & byanychimney breasts, fiues&heating apphances& arofany externai wc; exciudes floorarofgenerai stospace (SI, dustbinsto, gar, baic, anypart of rmlessthan 1500 high because ofsiopingceilings& anyporch orcoveredwayopen to air; in singieaccess house—.p47 any space withinsto required forage from1 sideofhouse to other, taken as 700wide, shaM beprovided in addition toarintable.

Mm

7

m2

N

2 storey (semior end)

3storey

2

3

Generai stospace lobeprovided exciusive of anydustbinsto,fuelstoorpramspacewithin stoar,& risingleaccess house, space within sto requiredfor age from1 sideofhousetoother; inhouses somestospace may beon upperfioor, separatefrom anylinenstoolWa. but atleast 2.5 ni' shaii be at ground ievei; infiatsandmaisonettes up to 1.5rn' maybe provided outsidedwefing; in some circumstances part of garintegral withoradingdwelling cancounttowards generai stospace —.Bib479 (also gives schedules offurniture to be accommodatedi

arfordwellingstoaccommodate varioushouseholdsizes(UKstandards: USA—.p44)

Habitat

49

Houses SELECTINGPLANS

Classificationofplans

From external and internal determining factors set out in previous pages, basic characteristics ofhouse plan can bestated under following heads: levels: 1, 2, 3 storeys orsplit-level aspect: dual, single, reverse or open—*p46 horizontal circulation: through, through-sto, through-kitchen orsingle, core circulation through atrium —p47 numberofrm and size ofhousehold: stated as eg (4 rm, 5person). Thesecharacteristics provide basisforclassification ofall house plans. To themisadded vertical circulationwhen housesofmore than 1 storey considered.

Plandevelopment

Planselection not initially affected byhousehold size orspecialised requirements. First three heads of classification (levels, aspect and circulation) narrow choice to number ofplan arrangements at this stage expressed in simplest possible —+(1). This example shows how 1-storey house plans basically similar developed to accommodate different household sizes.

ONE-STOREYHOUSES

? HousesatDundeeScotland:variationsinsimplebasilan Arch Baxter Clark &Paul 1

1-storey house givesgreatest planning freedom, only planning determinants being aspect and horizontal circulation. Consequently both simplest and most luxurious houses often planned on 1 storey —(1)(2)(3)(4)p5O--1. Relationshipbetween kitchen and bathrhorizontal:economies in placing them together but savings in cost may not be great when weighed against convenience —*p51 (6).

1:r ih1± 2

'Arcon' prefabricatedhouse ArchArcon

4

Largeprivatehouse ArchBiecker

3 Old person'sbungalow

I C

50 Habitat

Houses PLANS: CLASSIFICATION

1

Houseat WhipsnadeEngland ArchLubetkin&Tecton

10

32

'

20 64

30m 96

3 HouseinBeverlyHills USA Arch ANeutra

2 Singlefamilydetachedhousebuilt round atriumClevelandOhioUSA Arch HirumABlunden

J.

Habitat

51

Houses PLANS:CLASSIFICATION

I C-

(

I

8 lOm

6 1218243011

1

Houseforanartist Arch Rogers

2 Bungalowwith self-containedflat forhouse-keeperorchauffeur

Arch Neufert

iIv 3

L-shapedhousewith day& night wings ArchKossler& Peter

4

HouseinCaliforniaUSAwithterfacings& bathrbetween bedr Arch Donald

d*j 0 I

4 6 8 lOm I I I I 6 12 18 24 308 2

'-4-,

'Iv

jT

L1IeirJ

er

6

II

6

5 Houseforcouplewithoutch: goodrelationship ofter, k &liv Arch Erchmannsdorfer&Kindler

American2-storeyhousewith upperfloor entrance (siteis notflat)

1Pm

[LF

12 18 24 306

6 Housetosleep6 Arch LHilberseimer

N

7

8

ArchE H& M KHunter

52 Habitat

Houses MORE THAN ONE STOREY Newplanning determinants introduced: vertical circulation, relationship between kitchen and bathr, which becomes vertical as well as horizontal, and balancing of ground and upper

storeyaccn.

Verticalcirculation:thestair In all houses of more than 1 storey plan is

influenced by position and design of stair. Stair and its location affectconstructional system to be employed: in repetitive house design most important single standardising component. Stairs differin design (straightflightordog-leg) and in position. These, incombination, impose different planning effects. To provide best circulation aim istoarrive onfirststorey as near as possible to middle of house; best choice of position and typeof stair toachieve this related to plan shape—a(1).

Kitchen& bathr These comprise most heavily serviced part of house;economy in plumbing and water supply systems and problem ofaccommodating bulky soil and waste stack at lower level eased by placingone above the other—.(4)(5).

Ibedri

edr C ____________________

''1

III Dog-legstair hasgreatplanningadvantages& much used intraditionalEnglishhouse;noteinter house how accesstosmall rm& servicescanbe provided at half-landingsaVictorianterhouse Georgianterhouse cGeorgiandetachedhouse 1

b

2 Straightflight at rightanglestohorizontal circulationoftenattractiveinsavingcirculation spacebutdividesplanrigidly:insomeinstances

not disadvantage,particularly inblind-side planning acentralstair throughhouse,single aspectplan b centralstairthroughhouse, dualaspectplan Ccentralstairacrosshouse, dual aspectplan

Balance of ground & upper storey accn In some house types, designed for both small and large households, total area required for bedr and related accn does not balance living, kitchen and other areas usually placed on groundstorey: this because space allotted for commonuse does not increase proportionally to family size, asdo number and sizes ofbedr. Economic design forsmall houses, sayfor3 or 4 persons, employs 1 V4-storey arrangement, basically of 1-storey construction with open roof truss to enable roof space to be used for bedr. Such roof on 1-storey house can also facilitate future extension of small house. —np78.

Opposite problem occurs in 2-storey houses designed formore than 6persons, where house plans can be adapted by providing bedr over pends, linking houses across pedestrian routes

3

Very simple& economicaldesignofterhouse with 'farmhouse'k &bathrongroundfloor

upperstorey

groundstorey

path under pondusedtoturncorner

45

Economyachievedby placing bath over k

6

7

rm

Bedrover pendsmeansofprovidingextra

Habitat 53

Houses MORETHAN ONE STOREY

1 2 2 'throughha' typeplanswithsolidfuel heating&chimney: note —.(2) how widerfrontagewith straightflightstairon perimeter leadsto long uppersto circulation Arch National Building Agency (UK)

4

HouseatHallandSussexEngland Arch Chermayeff

b

3

HousesatMoultonYorkshireEngland: bedrinsulated tromoneanotherby

d& staircase; note influence ofstairtypeon upperstoreyplan Arch Butterworth

ground floor

5 SmallSwedishtypewithshonext to kon groundtloor Arch Swedish ArchitectsCooperative

upper floor

Largertype with drnextto k& centrestair Arch W Kraatz 6

7 TerhousesinKlampenborgDenmark: appearance of detachedhousesachieved by staggering ArchAJacoben

I0

54 Habitat

Houses HOUSE PLANS bathr bedr

Plan ranges

By classifications of type outhned—.p47—9, many agencies providing houses,in both public and private sectors, havecompiled sets of related

house designs called plan ranges. Designs comprising plan range have basic constructional features in common, such as staircase type and location, kitchen/bathr relationshipand upperfloor construction. House designs in such range can be varied to meet differing requirements while retaining useful degree of standardisation

(1).

bedr2 bedr3

First storey plan of 3-bedr wide frontage house has been changed to

allow house to be used where controlled aspect —p46required. This possible because critical elements unchanged:ie, inthiscase,plumbing, heating, stair. Use ofsame firststorey plan asofnarrow frontage house, possible, would impose dual aspect conditions on its use in layout.

Combined rooms: natural lighting& ventilation

Unlessseparately lighted and ventilated required area should be based ontotalareaofcombinedspacesprovideddegreeofopenness,relationship

and planning of adjacent space allow adequate natural lighting (—. Bib187). In row-house (ter) plan —.(2)shaded areashould beused in calculating required amounts of natural light and ventilation forcombination dining and living space. Assuming total floor areadining and living rm 41.8m2 mm amount glazed area required would be 41.8 x lO% or 4.18 m2 in living rm exposed wall. Vent sashshould be locatedto providecirculation of air throughout area. Becauseof excessive distance dining areafrom sourceof natural light height ofglazing should be great as possible.

J

bedri

bedr2

r2 bathr

Rangeofhousetypesfor 4& 5 personwide & narrowfrontage houses Arch NBA (Scotland) 1

2

Combinedrm: naturallighting & ventilation

bedr3

Habitat

55

Houses KITCHENS Kitchens best placed towards NE or NW of house and in small houses should ideally overlook entrance, front door and children's play area. Kitchen relates horizontally to front door (or tradesmen's entrance, if separate), diningrm ormeal space, food sto,scullery and laundry areas, refuse sto or disposal, and outside clothes drying and toddlers' play spaces. It relates vertically to bathr, wc and other areas requiringwater supply and drainage. In large houses functions of kitchen can be spread over several rm (eg laundry, utility, pantry, scullery) combined in household wing separated from rest of house to prevent spreadofnoiseand cooking smells —np49(4).

rexck-up

unwrapping washing penling addingwater 1

weighing measuring mining

keeping lood hot, dishing-ap

baking holing hying grilling

stacking washing drying disposal

Sequenceofactivities

Main activities for which kitchen designed: preparation, cooking and serving of meals and cleaning up afterwards. Ancillary activities can include clothes washing, general household mending and cleaning, eating, children's play, studying, hobbies, entertaining and general recreation.

WORKINGSEQUENCE Sequence of activities —o(1) relatesto sequence of fitments, worktop — cooker —worktop—sink—worktop, which is basis ofmodern domestic kitchen planning —.(2): should never be broken byfull-height fitments, doors or ageways.

Worktriangle

Distance has to walk between sink, cooker and refrigerator or larder critical in kitchen planning. Lines ingthese 3 elements form what is known as worktriangle' —o(3). For normal family house combined length of sides of triangle should be between 5500and 6000. Distance between sink and cooker should not exceed 1800; should never becrossedby through circulation.

Sinks Sinks require goodnatural light: best placed underwindow; should not normally be more than 2300 from waste stack or external drain. Sinks should be kept away fromcorners —e(4) and there should be plenty of room tostandin front of draining side, though insmall kitchens washing bowl of double sink may be placed towardscorner-.(5).

2 Sequenceoffitments

00 I

I

Cookers& work tops—*alsop56—8

Cooker should never be placed in front of window but should, where possible, be provided with ventilating hood —e(6). It should not be placed below wall cupboards and gas cooker should be away from doors where draughts might blow out burners. Worktop should be provided on each side; where cooker ads corner fitting return of at least400 should be allowed for easy standing and access space. Low level cooker requires space of at least 1200 in front for access —n(6). Adjacent worktops should be at same level as cooker top; ifchange of level required should beatpoint at least 400 fromcooker—o(7).

3 Work triangle(sk —ck — Irig)

4

Singlesk

Split level cookers with separatehob and wall oven increasinglypopular. May be 1 or 2 (stacked) aboveworktop height. No perfect location:if in continuous worktop interrupt workflow; it outside worktriangle extra travel. Opendoor may bedanger tochildren. Space forcasual meals to betaken should beallowed at worktop height in working kitchen, and ideally in working partofdining-kitchen.

Refrigerator Most difficult of kitchen eqp to

place. Important component of work triangle; should adjacent worktop space. Frig door should open away from work area for food access; should not block ageway or hit another doorwhen opening.

5

Doublesk

6

Low-leveloven needsadequate space infront: noteextractorhood over ck

Also—p58—9 hardwood pull-out cutting board (drawer below)

DINING-KITCHENS—p57 Kitchen may be associated with separate but related dining space to become dining-kitchen. Separation can be achieved by arranging itments toprovide degree ofscreening or bychange inlevel offloor finish (undesirable). Dining area should be planned in same way as small diningrm.

I

f

Kitchen may also beenlarged tocontain dining table and chairs, without separation, toform'farmhouse kitchen': more economical in spacethan either separate kitchen and dining rm ordining-kitchen butoffers less flexibility in use.

1

850

7

Changein level

Provideplaceforworking seated,preferablywith pull-out worktophavingdrawer&cutting board above 8

I

ci)

56 Habitat

Houses noof bedr

workcentre

0 mm

1

KITCHENS 2

3

4

Fixtures& work tops

frontages

475 381

610 457

610 813 533 610

813 762

533

533 457

610 762 533 610

762 762

frigspace5 work 1 side1

762 762 381 381

914 914 381 381

914 457

mixingworktop

533 762

914 914

1067

sk'

worktop,eachside

cooker&hobspace236 worktop 1 side4

top

381

Notes. when dishwasher provded610skacceptable where built-in wall oven installed provide 457w worktop alongside cookershall not be located under nor within305ofwindow;wheredprovidedabove cooker 762 clearanceshall be providedtobottomofunprotected d or61010 bottom ofprotected d provide at least229fromedge ofcooker toadlacentcorner d and381fromsideollrig toadjacent cornerd trig space may be 533whenlug provided & door opens withinownw when cooker not provided 762space shall be provided 1

USA standards require kitchen area which provides for efficient food preparation, serving and sto, aswell as utensil sto and cleaning up after meals. Provision of fixtures and workfops —s(1); worktops approx 610 deepand 914 high. Clearance between base dfronts in food preparation area mm 1 020 Required worktops may be combined when placed between 2 fixtures: cooker,frlg, sink. Such worktop shall have mm frontage equal to that of largerofworktops being combined. Kitchen sto —up75. —+(2) givesrecommended kitchen sto shelfarea; mm 1/3 required area to be located in base orwall d; mm 60% required area to beenclosed by d doors.

Kitchenlayouts

—v(3)—(7) showvarious kitchen plans.

Standardsforfixtures&worktops numberofbedr 0

3

2

1

4

m° 2.23 2.79 3.53 4.09 4.65 minshelfar1234 mm drawer ar5 0.37 0.56 0.74 0.93 2.04 wall doverfrig Notes: dishwasher may be counted as037 m2 ofbasedsb shall not be counted asrequired shelfar shelf arabove 1880shall be counted as required ar inside corner dshall be counted as50% ofshelfar,eacepl where revolving shelves usedactualshelfarmaybe counted drawer arm excess ofrequired armay be counted as shelfarifdrawer atleast 152d

Lshapek

oo LIN

6

'N

'N 'N

A

8F 4

Corr plan k

N,'

StraightwaIIplan k

n

/

n I

0 0

D

,

uT

0 0

..iED °e0 \

-

I L

li

,,/7 Squareplan kwithdining ar

Habitat

57

Houses KITCHENS:EXAMPLES

7163

HH

__

7J rH6

I

1

kwith sewingar & homeoff 1 ptr 2sewing 3d 4familydiningoroff 5hob 6sk 7 freezer 8homeofffiles ArchJohn RPeterson

2

3 Gourmetcook's k 1 ptr 2walkintrig 3metal shelves 4choppingblock 5 marbleslab 6sk 7dishwasher S hob 9wallovens 10serving 11 warmingtray 12desk 13 hoodover 14dr Arch Cliff May

4

T rrr

Farmk 1 sk 2dishwasher 3waste 4cuttingboard 5hob 6oven 7d over Bfamilydining 9frig/freezer lOdrystoshelves 11 hotwater l2drop downironingboard 13 14dryer-washer 15sk 16 17freezers 18cleaning d 19 ventilated food sto 20preserves, coatd ArchE H& M K Hunter

Efficientsmall kopensto or closes offfromdr&ter 1 sk 2 dishwasher 3 ck 4 carrouseld 5walld 6trig 7chinad 82-way fireplace Arch E H & M K Hunter

--- 2642

dr

4115

r liv

1524

-

garden entry

()

r21

H

(0

[21 c'J

Ill

5

12 liv

service entry

1

[iii 110

——

5 Combination k/uty withgreenhouse 1 sk 2hob 3ovens 4bakingcentre 5trig 6chest

freezer 7deskwith booksover 9d 10 sewing 11 ironing 12stowall 13lau sk 14washer 15dryer 16greenhousewith sliding glass Arch E H&MK Hunter

6

Homecentre k Lifemagazine house 1 folding doors 2trig 3ovens 4hob 5sk 6dishwasher 7child's trig 8freezer 9washer-dryer 10liftup mixer 11 rotating sto bin 12dover 13skylight 14motorisedwoodslat blinds,lowerfromceilingto worktoplevel ArchM K Hunter

7 ksharesfireplacewith liv 1 trig 2 sk 3dishwasher 4ck 5k herb garden 6curtain 7fireplace Sd Arch EH &M KHunter

I

58 Habitat

Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT — 1 400

,.. _ I

Correcttoespace

2

Good &bad lighting

Hatchbetweenkor ptr&dining arorrm with 2-waysto dabove

4

6

7 Self-ventingcooker

3

Space neededforbottomshelf

5 Where noverticalshaft planned,hood&ducttoexternalwall advantageous

Outsidewallexhaustfan

T'j 1 270

__J

9

Standardcooker762wwith low oven

10 Range 1016w with lowoven

11

ovens

12 Singlewalloven

13 Smallcooker533w with low

14 Microwaveoven

15 Grill toaster

Doublewalloven

oven

T

.787h914-_,t

1676

17 Frigwith 0.65 m3 refrigeration & 1.17 m3 freezer

Habitat

59

Houses KITCHENS:EQUIPMENT

--

bhl

Frigwith 0.59 m3 refrigeration &

1

L

2

3

Frig0.25—0.34 m3

0.2m3freezer

Chestfreezer0.14—0.7 m3

7

1-

I 300

4

Uprightfreezer0.31—0.7 m3

6 Metal & plastics platerack

7

10 Juice extractor

11

El slicer

5 Mincers(meatgrinders) a hand bel —13O—

120

!T

T

C— 360

-1 F—180—-1

8

Mixer

9

Blender

Foodmill

I

13 Crockpot

14 Wastemill h

.7

//

.7 300

flute whitewine

/reclwino

//sheny

I/cocktail hqueur

200 160 150 130 120 100

0 95 75 70

Th 15001

12 Coffeemakers

200 260 300 420 480

-360-I

-j-H-I-]-l EH

1-

1000

l-500H

17 Glass orplasticsfood drawers

350 400 460 620 700

'

19 Woodtrays

moat

-8001

1000

A

wallscale

L022o

IH 21

kscales

Pedal-operatedwastebin

TJc\, -

ff I-I-l-l-.

50 80 30

I-

16 Glasses

15

___

18 Boards

60 Habitat

Houses LAUNDRYSPACES b— 1000

1

Hingedironingboard

2

Clothes washing may be done in kitchen, utility rm, bathr (notpopular), back porch, garage or, incombination with wc, in downstairs cloakrm.

-+

Space neededforironingseated

1 400

3 Elironingmachine

Laundry area needs space for washing machine and drier, for storing cleaning materials and, possibly, for storing dirty washing; may also have to accommodate ironing board or ironing machine and working surface for sorting. Although mobile washing machines available most models, automaticmachinesinparticular,bestplumbed inwith permanent connexions towatersupplyand suitablytrapped waste. Where washing machine not used, orin large houses where much hand washing done, sink 500 x 350 x 250deeprequired and second bowl ortub desirable. Tumbler drier —(12) best placed against outside wall to allow direct extraction of water vapour: removablelinttrap required bysome models. Even where tumbler drier provided rack or line needed for drip-dry clothes. In small houses orflats this can befixedabove bath orshower; otherwise should be in ventilated drying cupboard or over trapped draining tray. Open-air dryingpreferred by many and makes nodemands onenergyresources. Open-airdrying space should be easilyaccessible fromlaundry area and preferably in viewfromkitchen —p77.

4 Howthingsused to be

690690

1

V

1 0

0

-I 5 Twintubwashingmachine(not availableinUSA)

6

Automaticwashingmachine

7

Drier stackedonwasher:right handconnexions

8 Toploadedautomaticwashing machine

457

710 860

E c0

r(0

±

9

Combination frontloadwashing machine/drier:backconnexions (pullout)

10 Watersoftener

=

1100

11

Spindrier (notused in USA)

12 Tumbledrier(musthavespace

atrear forventilation)

}

j.

13 Eliron

24

Ironingboard

15

Sleeveboard

16 Sewingmachine

Habitat

61

Houses Best daylight orientation forbathr SE—NW; for ease of installation(gas and waterservices) should be related to other rm requiring services (above or backing on to wc, kitchen, utility rm etc, —.p52: will also minimise noise frompipes); forconvenience should becloseto bedr.

BATHROOMS—p62—5

Internal wc and bathr fairlycommon: may be unavoidablewhere economical use floor area important,especiallyin narrowfrontagehousesor in pointblocks. Ventilation essential and must accord with appropriatereg.

Showeruses less water than bathtub; often considered more efficient because of its continuous flow; provides convenient alternative to full

2

Mm

clearancebetweenb &wall

legs

8

45G-

\withoutlegs letinto

fioor Recommended clearances

1

3

Space requirements for movement(hfrom floor) 1-600

-r

4;; 2O0'

§ 5

wc withflushingvalve orh-level cistern

• 700

600

.

I-

900 -j

J1O 6

For ease of access, bathtubs sometimes partially sunkinto floor with access to trap fromrm below. Where bathtub parallel to wall distance fromcentre of bath to face ofwallmust be450. Where possible space should be available for at least 1 item of bathr furniture, suchas stool or laundry box. Fittings such as towelrails and toiletroll holders should not obstruct activity spaces. Heated towel rails best fixed 750 above floor level, above height of small child's head. Medicine cabinets should be out of reach of children and fitted with safety lock. Exposed pipes should be fixed to allow sufficient wall clearance forcleaning. Windows above baths can be difficult to open or to clean without standing in bath, common cause ofaccidents: may also limit privacy and cause draughts unless well insulated.Windows behind wash basinscan also be difficult to reach; wall abovewash basin best used for mirror or medicine cabinet.

convenience outlets nearwater source; safest locationaspartofsealed light fixture over mirror with remote switching neardoorway.

700

wc underslopingrooforstairway

Showers in wall recesses have shower trays ot enamelled cast iron, glazed fireclay or plastics with waterproof tiled walls or waterproof rendering and steamproof paint upto2000: prefabricated shower units in enamelled sheetsteel, aluminium or plastics also available—.p64 65. Fixed showerarmsshould be mounted at 1 900: otherwise adjustable, hand showerwith flexible hose should be used.

UK practice does not allow el sockets in bathr other than specially designed shaverpoint, which should be out of reach ofbath; enclosed light fittingswith cord-operated switch preferred. USA practice: no el

1-500—-I

4

length where space limited —*p63. Shower outlet may be fitted over bath where suitable wall or partition available at tap end for fixing, orcombined bath tap and shower fitting with flexible hose may be used. For either bath activity space —.(1) shouldbe at tap end unless permanent shower screens fitted.

Single basin swingrail

__.47Q .450 900-1000

900

700

600

700

11

12 Heatedtowel rail

13

14 Multi-pointfitting (hb,b& sho)

enclosedsho

400

7

/

iiii' 8

Bidet—ap63(9)

Sho length

length_projection 5(10

open sho

80

2

250 90

1000

\ 9

Grabrails

10

15

300

62

Habitat

Houses BATHROOMS Equipment

Gas water heaterfittedtohot water cylinder 1

cOqrleni5.

Movable baths of zinc or enameled mild steel suitable only for infrequently used baths, children's bath —p63(2), hip baths —np63(3) and use withoutmain services. Fixedbaths—'p63(4)—(8) usuallyenameled cast iron, pressed steelor plastics with various qualities ofenamel (fullgloss, acid resistantetc) or fireclay. Free-standing baths —p63(5) usually have taps at toot end: sometimes loined towall along 1 sideto avoid water splashing behind bath. Built-inbaths—op63(6) with extended rim attachedto surroundingwalls & overlapping front: access necessary in UK. Avon bathsfor use as built-in units p63(4) have integral front ; drain & overflow carried tooutside instandpipe ortrapped waste (USA). Space-saving baths p63(7)(8) installedwhere space restricted butdo not necessarily savewater; corner baths —.p63(7). Fireclay baths glazed inside and out beautiful and expensive but uneconomic as slowtowarm up; pleasantfor leisurely bathing, however. Footbaths p63(1O) movable or fixed, usually installed in larger public baths; may be fireclay, earthenwareor enamelledcastiron. Showers —op63(11)(12)base may be cast iron or fireclay (terrazo); should preferably be sunk into floor & provided with tile or enameled sheet steelsurround —also p64. Polyban baths —op63(8) Spanish patent: can be used as hip baths, footbaths, bidets or shower (With flexible shower arm); require little space & savewater(not used in USA). Bidet—op63(9)earthenware orfireclay, many variationsindesign; mixer with anti-scalding device —also p61(7). Basins with back skirting for plastered walls —np63(13); for washable walls—.p63(14) many shapes & sizes, sometimes with separatemouthwashbasin oras double basin —.p63(15)(16);mixers for washing with running water, butwasteful. Squat wc —(8) hygienic but uncomfortable; has either flushing cistern orflushing valve. Wc —n(5)—(7) siphonic more efficient butextravagant inwater &prohibited by some water bye-laws. Low level cisterns flush with little noise; flushing valves more noisy—.(5)(6)but use approx halfasmuch water. Water heaters (gas or el) —.(1)—(4). El sf0 heaters —.(2) use cheap night-time el & can be set toheat up at any time during day.

2 Elstoheaterforkorbathr

10, i3i

0—410 230—300'

190—270

conient 5, 10.

3

Gas water heaterforchimneyor outsidewall

4 Gaswater heat forhb

i-'11O-j

5 Wall toiletwith low levelcistern

I

\ioo

/

120

Ii

I

170

6

Toilet withbuilt-in cistern

T

,aper

F,)

L

-h corkmat

x

I

670

plan

7

Eqpforwc

8

Squatwc 960

SW

=!= —

760o 510

II

towel

I'

I

.J

L_Jf

Bathrwalld

10

Lockable medicine d

11

grab

,—

eieva5onA

9

1

609

1

recess r—l soap

grab

bar recess soap

clothes hook

hght

0

Bathr eqp &fittings aplan b elevations

ill

er

eievation

B

Habitat

63

Houses BATHROOMS

I

Equipment

r-4

w 1500

780_82O50

1600

420

& 1700

I

1800

800

1 Standardmetric bath sizes

2

3

Children'sbath

Parallel-sidedcast iron bath

6

Bath for incorporation as built-in

unit

Hipbath

4

Enamelledcast ironbath

8

Polybanunit

12V

castiron

5

1875

700

700

7

EconomyAmericancorner bath (enameledcast iron)

Shorterbathsrequiremorewater

——1004

1250

-

2

1500

1700

Shower requiresapprox301 water

1875

I

—900-

350— 400

610-680 350-420

1-.

recessfor soap& brush

9

+a

13

10 Footbath(maybeincorporated as built-in unit)

Bidet

a500—700 b400—600 —F-—

castiron, steel.fireclay,

earthenware,terrazzo,plastics

Sho b torincorporation as built-in unit

12

15 Hbwith separate

16 Doublehb

11

Shotray forincorporation as built-in unit

a500—700 b400—600 b

H

Hbwith back skirting

a

b

Hbwithout backskirtingbut incorporatingmixer fitting 14

wash bowl

mouth-

64 Habitat

Houses BATHROOMS

Wc &washrooms Wc with low-level cisterns -700

i

I- 1200

1850

KD

750j *

-4

2

under high-level windows —(1 )—(3); wc with high level cisterns —(4)—(6): where cistern placed against exteriorwall insulate againstfrost.

-

Bathrooms: smallest typeofbath may be recessed into bedr wall —*(7)with shower end screened off with glass partition and

3

remainder curtained.

COL

1400

'

In general doors should be mm 460wide,should openfull90°and open inwards except in accn for elderly, when should open out-

2200

wards.

5

4

6

Hip-b (loosebowlinfold-up steel frame)

Shortb

-,

Bathrooms

7

1

0 + 1.

binbedr,glass sectionat sho

end 4-

8 As (7)with dryingspace

1400

-4

9

91

-

1720

I-

c1]i 11

j°i 4—

2630

hbQ

Wa

b j

hbi)

-

1720

/

15

"

bedr

16

, TI II_I -. hb -

18 Doubleusebathr

L 6400

4—

I bed

-4

ter

I

I—

17 Divided bathr&dre

5004700-4

çciiip OL jo —

—4

14

1jdre

12

7315

—4

20 Dividedbathr&dre between

19 Deluxe bathrldre

bedr

Showers 4-

D 4- 900 -,

900 4

cii 21 1600

t1 -

-,

E1 26

4- 1000 4-800 -4

-

23 Withfold-up hb

22 4-

25

4- 900

2300

-1

24 H

I—

2540

—I

27 StandardAmericanb

T

3657 -4 highwindow

T:

1219sq thagortalb

28 Americansquaretubbathr

Habitat 65

Houses PREFABRICATEDSANITARY UNITS Standard layand bathr fittings mostly fairlycostly and taketime to install. As requirements more or less uniform prefabrication preferable: in particular forterrace houses, maisonette housesand large scale blocks of flats, also for modernisation schemes and prefabricated housing. Prefabricateditemscomprise complete plumbing units—.(1)(3), plumbingwalls—(2), complete elementsstoreyorrm high, with pipe mountings and el leads, also items with accessories, flooring and, usually, ceiling —+(4)—(9)(available without ceiling for old housing). Compact elements of fixed dimensions —(1 Q)(11). Also individual elements with variable

I wlumbingelements

2

fl\ U/.

Plumbing wall

F—1070—H

plumbingunit

Connexion to 1 -storey central heating system hasproved successful.

2100—1

I

3

ground plan design—*(5)—(9). Construction: mainly sandwichwith wood skeleton and chlpboard,glass aluminium, aluminium, stainless steel, glass fibre reinforced polyester, reinforced concrete floor slabs —n(1O)(11) or new types of plastics. Fittingsand accessories similar materials.Basic essentials: anti-scratch surfacefinish and long service life (no material fatigue). Prefabricated plumbing units mostly for use internally in bldg —.(13)—(16); proper through ventilation therefore necessary: possibly forced ventilation. Suitable forhotels—(14), hospitals,old people's homes—.(13).

4

Plumbingunitonwall

Self-containedwcelements& fittings

+— 1250 —a

75 75 e—600

50

I—

1435—.1

1

I

k

S

I

1

p—1800—

I 2050 ——-----—i

I

5 Self-containedwcelement&

6

She elementwith plumbingshaft

11

As 10butwith shoatside

12 Large unitcomprisingk, washr, heater

fittings

2285—-

I I

I 2240

7

Bathr unitwithwashing

machine

14 Sho elementinhotel

1400-i

I

/1 2875

9

13 wcelement in hospital

r—..1_———

U1

I

8 Bathr unit

Smallbathrunit

—...Qt_

2110

I

I

1530

10 Compactunit

—

I 15 Sho elementinsmall dwelling

16 Prefabricatedbathrwith k partitionwall

66 Habitat

Houses PUBLICROOMS Dining rooms

1-450*—900—4

•F550+4504

Position: breakfast area facing E —.(1 1), dining area facing W —v(1 2) (13)(1 5)(l6); directaccess from hall or corridor not necessary but from kitchenor pantry essential. Space requirement: formerly largest rm dining rm has shrunk to bare essentials: very often utilises corner —v(6), kitchen recess —vp55—7 ante-rm or area in living rm —*(4)—(7). Even in large houses dining rm keptmodest—v(8)(9),sometimes with provisionto combine itwith living rm for special occasions —v(10). Doors in rm corners convenient.

Mm clearancefromwall depends onmethodofserving (withorwithout 1

2

Space requiredbetweenheadof table &sideboard

servant) 4

1700

P—

r 0

24

P

200

x

IF1LII - .-

eg600wand6P=

0.60x 6 = 1040

tii :I11UEB

Outside dining spaces (verandas, terraces): should lie on windprotected sunnyside of house in front of dining or living rm (ie in W Europe with prevailing SW windsshould face E or SE). Since E sun shines at low angle roof can project quite prominently. Mm widthwith bench seatalong 1 wall3000: roof projection 2000sufficient.

1800

-

Sideboardwith drawersathead

to

Diaof round table =

F

oftable

6

Table w. . . 550 to 1100 Seating w/P 550to 700 At head oftableadd . . . 100 to

seat w number ofP 3.14

600

3

Size ofdr . . .

—1

600 —

5 Mm table spaceinrailway dining carwithtip-up seats4; little morespace requiredindiningrecess with loosechairs5 4

ri

H

3000

1—

iLJLP

b

3300

33

—1

flIfl9.

T

DftJij

breakia1I : 6

7 Formore than 5 Paccesstoall

Space-savingarrangementof table withfixed cornerseat& (possibly)small sideboards

I—

3200

seats mustbeallowedfor

H

F-

3300

In Americadiningspaceneark withamplesto d&sideboardclose at handoftenconsideredadequate 11

-

12 Diningrecess inliv (withor without curtain)with accesstok, intermediatestage toseparate dr Arch Byrne

-4000

-4

3300-

Trverk

8 Smallestpossibledrfor6P withoutsideboard; doorin corner

9 Smallest possibledrfor6Pwith roundtable & cornerd (double

Separatedr between k&liv Arch Schwarderer 13

swingdoor to k)

preferable

1 550

-

—F-—

3900

—4—

14 Drbetweenter& liv (sliding foldingdoors allowcombination)

.•.•.

:::....: —

1 500

covering

ter

I

sard

I

ci

UQOUG 7450 dr

],7t-

un

10 Drfor 12 Pwith sideboard&spaceforservants: maybe enlarged into living rm with space-saving arrangement of sliding foldingdoors

ser

15 Dr &livboth openingontoter, ensuringgooddaylight

16 Relationshipofdrto other mi

Habitat 67

Houses Guest& children'srooms

PUBLICROOMS

Livingrooms I- 750

TJ1

h=1100

—4

T 4-600-1

-Uk1øgoo 900

j&h=600 4000

I—

1900

1—

-H

Comfortablelow easychairs besidetable orstandardlamp 1

4750

4—

—1

2 Table in frontoffireplaceoff centreto allowaccesstofire

—I

11 Narrow rm forguestsor2 teenagechildren,with t work table, separateWa, fold-up beds

12 Similarrmtoll withfold-up beds &built-in d butwider:can beseparateworktablesoneither side ofwindow

teatrofley 10001

§

-

3100

4--

3500

4—

Easychairs350 h &table600 h fortaking tea inalcove 3

4500

4—

250

750

4

Seatinggroup withsettee:easy chair 380 h, table 600 h

13 Shortrmwithdl500h& fixed beds,primarilyguest rm

3500

+1000

14 Large rmwith bunk bedsin recess,largefreear, & hb& coat hooks neardoor

Sewin9 machine 800/450

I

4—

2000 -J

__

I

1

1 600 F—

3100

4—

—4

5

Seatinggroupwith settee& chairs: chair420 h, table 650h

3400

activity

—4

sitting

2 tea 3

aperitifs, etc

4

smoking

5

conversation

6

dancing

6

Seatingarrangementin liv (may also beused forbreakfast): chair 440 h, table700 h

Musicrooms

7 playing

8

sewing

9 breakfast

10 eating 11

writing

12 reading

7

Incorrectgrand pianooften drawnbyarchitects: long(bass)side isonleft

8

Grandpiano incorrectly placed: openingtowardswallinsteadof rm

13 music 14 indoorsport

internalwall

15

furnitureandeqp

specialised

rm

combined

rm

settee,lowtable,easy chairs teatrolley, sto ofcrockery etc,seating sto ofglasses, sideboard, liqueurtrolley smokers'table, pipe d, tobacco sf0, smokers' requirements fire place, comfortable easychairs, small tables parquet orlinoleum dance floor, 2.5—3.5 m2 per couple children'sfurniture, carpeted floor, toy sto table, sewingmachine, linend, baskets breakfast artowards E withter, or between bedr dining ar,sideboard desk,chairs, filing, waste-paper basket shelvesord,easy chairs with headrest piano, dforother instruments, musiclib table tennis, billiard table, punchball etc

salon ladies rm bar liv

smokingrm lounge ballrm

children'srm utilityrm breakfast rm

dr

dr

stu lib

stu

musicrm games rm

Livingrm uses

Living rm usually multi-purpose; layout and furnishing vary widelywith different uses entailing wide range of possible space requirements

9

Grandpiano wellpositioned in relationtoseatinggroup, wall& circulation,butwindow,heating& externaldoor wouldbeadverse factors

Grandpianoagainstinternal wall,away fromwindow&heating, wellrelatedtoseatinggroup&rm; daylightcomingfrombehindplayer 10

—*(15). Therefore necessary define functions in detail before shape, space for furnishing and movement of s can be planned. For liv tables—(5) allow 650 space per person, for easychairs —*(2)(3)866 and diafor roundtables personsx866

3 14

I

68 Habitat

Houses PUBLICROOMS Seating nearwindows 0

r

1400/8cc

2350-

Work tablescloselyrelatedto

1

window

2

Avoid seatingpeoplewith backs

towindow

3

Diagonalarrangementpreferable to 2&requireslessspace

On built-in setteebelowwide window,however, severalpeople can sitquitecomfortably 4

Seating away fromwindows

5

Bench seatalso satisfactory between2windowsin lightcoloured corner with suitablecarpet

7 Seatingagainstinteriorwallwith viewthrough picturewindow very relaxing,speciallyinfront offrenchdoors

Seatingin middleusually uncomfortablefrom lackof relationshipwith rest ofmi 8

Seating roundfireplace .400

draught

I.

§

1000 2000

V 9

Ingle-nook Arch Leusinger

10 Seatingarrangedtoavoid draughtfromdoortofireplace

Chairswithhigh backs& ears' also protectagainstdraught 11

12 Largergroupsshould follow patternof heatradiation

Seating round workdesks

700

970

13 Colleaguesworkingclosely togethershouldfaceeachother; with largewindows&light-coloured walls,daylightfromright istolerable forwriting

14 Visitorsusuallysitin lightatend

ofdesk,face of interviewer being in shade

a

15 Assistantsmaywork temporarilyonflapat endofdesk

16 Conferencetable unnecessary ifdesktop extensible

17 In small rmvisitorsmaybe

18 As alternativeto17visitormay beseatedbehindhost,who turnson revolving chair:door should bein frontofdesk

Correct arrangement of seating greatly enhances comfort of s.

Relationship of daylight and artificial lighting important —(1)—(8). Give careful consideration togoodcombination of furniture elements, choice of independent heights and colours, well planned free area, correctly hung doors, kind of floor (direction of boarding) —+(7), carpets —(5)(6)(8)(1 2), treatment ofwallsincluding pictures and sitingofwindows, radiators, fireplace and piano —+p67. Seating area, however, will remain focal point ofrm: everythingelse should be subordinatedto it.

seatedagainstinternall wall; small table shouldbeprovided

Habitat

69

Houses PUBLIC ROOMS 6900

I—

Living rm usedfor general daytime activities; serves mainly asfocus of social activities of family round fireplace, tea or coffee table and for evening leisure activities.Orientation best between E, S and W. Windows —np404

—1

Reception rm (salon): in larger houses often used as music rm or consult/waiting rm near entrance. entrance

L.—' seatingar

Conservatory (wintergarden): usuallyfacing S accessible from living ordiningrm. Music room: nexttoliving rm; dimensionsdeterminedbysizeofaudience and type and number of instruments; soft lighting from back or side of players. For acoustical reasons rm shape usually square with wood ling; position ofpiano —ep67. In largerm sound reflecting surfaces

ress

1-rmdwellingfor2persons,with differentactivitieswellseparated 1

2 Squareliv with seatingarnear window& fold-upbeds

—

sidoboard

Mur& liv,with needleworktable, fireplace,book-shelves Arch Neufert

ling) toheight ofabout 1 500.

4

Liv/dr cum murwith built-in furniture,suitablefor 10—12persons Arch Neufert

munc cxJ underwindow 6800 H-

4500

I—.

Study: frequently serves asoffice or workrm. Near entrance and living rm with W or E aspect; fitted with desk, bookshelves, filing system, seating area (deepeasychairs, lowtable, cocktail cabinet). Library: N orientation. 1 000 shelftakes approx 30—40 books. Height between shelves250—300,shelfdepth 220—320.Forapprox, 120—150 books1 m2 of wall. Larger volumes, maps, folders etc in lower, deeper shelves. Height oftop shelfapprox 1 700 from floor—+pl 46. Children's rm: away from living rm but easy supervision essential (from household rm) and preferably with access to garden or safe balcony; on sloping sites may be on lower ground to give garden access. Orientation E-W, low cill (guard rails outside), furniture to children'ssizes.Washable wallfinish(such aslinoleum orplastics-covered

7000 books

3

round players with absorbent surfaces behind audience.

1

H

H900-t

reading desk

I—

'O

T

stu

8 bode trolley

-I-

5

Smallmurwith grand& baby grand pianos& seatingar: avoid placing pianoclose toheatingunitor in directsun

-

6

Murforquartets,trios or2grand pianos &audienceof 12(daylight from behindpianists)

3000 -4

4—.

6500

—1

9

Booksto inlong narrowrmwith amplewallspace: reading desk underwindow,small booktrolley near door

'°°°

-1

T

-I-

7

Smallstuwith bookshelves, desk

&seatingar

3000 —

8

Largestu withbookshelves, seatingarinfront of writingdesk

11 Work rmwithwholewallfor bookshelves,sewingmachine (underbookshelves),writingdesk, seatingar, chestofdrawers

10 Smallworkrmwith writingdesk nearwindow,bookshelves&seating ar

70 Habitat

Houses BEDROOMS

Positionof bed Bedmaking requires clear space of at least 400, preferably 700 (USA mm), beside bed. In most small houses, therefore, choice of bed positions restricted by shape and size of bedr; to free as much floor space as possible single beds usuallyplaced along walls and double or twin bedsplaced headto wall. Nevertheless,relation of bed towalls and to rm as a whole can also be important in contributing to feeling of security. While stable, self-reliant person may prefer free-standing bed —(4)lessself-reliantperson mayprefer—.(1)(2)(5) regardlessofamount of space available.

Impression of restfulness depends on wall covering and colour, shape of bed, orientation (head towards N), relation to daylight (looking away from window) and relation to door (looking towards door). Relative position of 2 beds also important because where 2 people sleep in 1 rm differentarrangementsmay bedesirable,especiallywhere headpositions concerned, according to relationship between people —(9)—(12) (16). Also differentarrangementsforcouples,depending on personal preference —(13)—(15).Withseparate beds change of direction may be preferable —.(12)(15)(16). Separate beds for couples now common. Current fashion may also favour water bed, though well to bear inmind that, fully loaded, thismay impose floorload of up to2oreven 3 t.

— >p

J

1 Alongwall

2 Headagainstwall

3 Headnearwall

4

lncentreofrm

5

Cornerofrm

6 Rear wall

7

8

Alcove

9

Friends

10 Sisters

11

14 Twinbeds (2mattresses)

15 Separatebeds

1.5

Recess

Brothers

12 Guests

-

13 Doublebed (single mattress)

16 Bunk beds

a

17 USA bedrsizes(mainbedrmin11.15m2 leastdimension 2845,secondary bedrmm 7.43m leastdimension2438) sizes —.p71

a&bsingle C double d twin; USAbed

Habitat

71

Houses

Th

BEDROOMS Today's reduced flat and house sizes call for most economical use of floor spaceand make built-in cupboards desirable. Best arrangement based uponenclosed wall recesseswith flooring running intocupboard, walls papered or oil painted, and moth-proof doors. Ideal solution: complete cupboard walls between rm—U(7)(11 )(12): sliding, accordion or openout hinged doors. Cupboards on exterior walls must be well insulated and ventilated to avoid condensation —Up74(2); walk-in cupboards/dressing rm also require ventilation —U(13). Cupboards can be located between bedr to reduce sound transmission. w 762 914

0?

a,

c U'

1

bed I in UK vary according to manufacturer; 1 905 is commonsize; othersizes 1880,1981and2133

69

U)

1524 1829

00

Modernbedr fitmentcombining bedhead, bedsidetables, fitted wa & sto spaceabove 2

child'scotsize usually 1 219 long, 610 wide USA mattresssizes king

ao

queen

3-quarter

twin

I

1828

1828

2032

1905

1905

w

1981

1981

1524

1371

990

-1 J

note:add 76toeachdimension forframe

9

Double-depthd,single& doubledoors(opened)

USA water bed sizes king

queen

single

I

2133

2133

2133

w

1828

1524

1219

2500

-Iii0001

10 Double-depthd(withdouble doors) & cornerd formedsimply bydoors;walls& floor of rm continuous

Bed, divan& mattresssizes 3260

F-

1—

-I

2000

1500 -IF-1500-11750-4

-II-

2000 H

12 d wallwith walk-ind & d wallwith walk-ind between2bedr: linendopeningto washrwith sho between 2 bedrthat corr;wall thicknesses varyfrom30 to are about4000deep 100 dependingonmaterialsused 11

Elevationofdoublebunk-bed recess&built-in d 3

4

Elevation& sectiontoplan 5 showingeconomicaluse of space

:r

60

F—

3600

—I

I—

3600

500

—.i

,"mirror 13 Walk-in dbigenough to serve as dre

5

Bed recessformedby built-in

d

6

7

3600

-

Built-in drelatedtopositionof beds

wall withd

d acrossfullrmw, with window (above) &mirroronsliding door (below)

FF-

14 Americanexampleofwindow

3600

—l

bedr 11 2001

Linend atend of corr,door frame serving2doors 8

15 As14butwith deepdonboth sides angledatfrontto avoid obstructingdaylight

16 Loweredceiling &curtainwill combined of 14& 15toformdre

72 Habitat

Houses BEDROOMS Rm sizes determined by bed sizes: beds and wardrobes often built in rm accord with standard bed sizes. Window preferably parallel to bed (for reading and view) so that with desirable E orientation bed will stand N—S —.(2)(5)(8)(9)(13)(15) etc. Doors should open without encroaching on sleeping area —4(2)(8)(9) (12)(14)(16)(18) etc. Comfortable access to whole rm of of paramount importance —4(5)(7)(1 1). —*(1)(4)(6)(1 1) and sizes of small — 3000 1

4000

9—

—.

-4

9

Singlebedr

USA bedr sizes —.p44(1)70 Stu/bedralso —p140(1 )—(5) 4—

4000

I—

—4

2

—I

10

IDL_Ji °1 T

I—

4000

7

—1

5000

4—

I—

—i

11 Doublebedrwithdoubledepth d

3

4500

I-

4

5000

5000

—9

Bed-sittingmi

4000

—i

—

—

5

1—

4000

5000

4000

—9

13

4000

—..

23 Main bedrwith pull-outbed

—4

9—

18 Main bedrwith doublebed

12

—l

—

17 Main bedr

i__

I—

4000

6000

—i

24 Main bedrwith dre ar

—-

T

-r

§

8

I

I

19

25

I 8

1100 F

5000

—

6 Bed-sittingrrnwithdouble-depth d

a--...--Vi_V]1 —

6000

—

—I

14 Doublebedrwithsleeping

4500

I —4

20

recess

f

5000

7

—1

I—

Bed-sittingrm

21

—T 6 I

4—

8

5000

—.4

Bed-sittingrm withfold-upbed

ed

16 Stu-bedrwithsleepingrecess

22 Main bedr-sittingrm

—4

27 Separatebedrfor husband & wife

—

4—

7000

7000

28 Separatebedrwith walkthroughd

—i

Habitat

73

Houses STORAGEIN HOUSES& FLATS Shape and position of sto space as important as its size. Sto should be provided within easy reach of activities to which related and shape should allow max useofwallareaforshelving —s(1). Stogenerally more useful atground level than on upper storeys. Familyhouse willrequire at least5m2ofgeneral sto, ofwhich at leasthalfshould be on ground floor (USA mm 1.23 m2).

General storage

Sto rm require ventilation and those providing part of ageway

Entrance on longside of sto allowsmax useofshelving 1

2

Allowspaceforagewayin through' sto

through house should also permitnaturallighting.In suchcasesallowance mustbe madeforloss ofusablespace tocirculationrequirements.—a(2). Garden tools, bicycles etc usually best inexternal stoor,ifwithin house itself,in stowith direct access from outside —*(3).

Hats & coats

Space required in or off entrance hall for hanging hats and coats and storing outdoorfootwear, preferably in wardrobe or with racks to take hangers —+(3). Additional space may be needed for storing working clothes and eqp —(1 1 )(1 2).

Thepram

In family houses space required for pram —sp74(4): should be easyto manoeuvre pram indoorssothat itcanbeused ascot(crib) during dayif required.

25 _____ 3

Meters

Credit metersshould be capable of being read withoutentering living area of house. Arrangements which can be read by inspector from outside —p74(3) available. Prepayment meters should be easy to reach fromfloor level butgasmeters, especially, should beout ofreach of small children. Space forgasmeters —*p386.

biding doors

4

Inlinewa

Walk-in wa

Linen

q 0120

130

I

bI

________ 510 80 35 400 Iao 400 40

Separate sto space should be provided for linen and bedding. At least 0.6 m3 required, fitted with slatted shelves. Must be dry and therefore not entered from bathr or kitchen or sited against outside wall (unless insulated). May be combined with suitably ventilated hot water cylinder cupboard (heater closet) but not with 'combination' water unit as condensation might occur.

Wardrobes 5

6

Hat&coat rack

Umbrellastand

1

Forclothing in particular,ease ofaccess more important than sf0space. Effective depth of built-in cupboard forclotheshanging 600 but deeper cupboards can be more fully utilised byattaching accessories to backs of doors—s(7). As loads not great normal blackboard doors on strong hinges adequate; shelves can be ed by adjustable ladders and brackets. Walk-in cupboards —*p71 (11) take uplittle wallspace, as door of 550 (USA mm 610 preferred 660) will suffice for cupboard of any length; but floor space less efficiently used because of necessary access area. Walk-in cupboards must be ventilated and lighted and may be entered from, and used as access or escape routes between,

r

adjacent rm.

Is!

7

Clothes& linendwith doors puttoadditionaluse (fordimensions

8

Dressingchairwith backrestin coat hangershape(copyright: Neufert)

600

ftLLEh.

I

' fd8flselTflO8 —

Internal stoaccessible fromgardenwithoutingthroughliving arof house 11

house

house

a

secbone-t

sectiona-b

9Wa

Section c-d

10 Built-inwa

12 Gar sto aside b rear

b

I c)

74 Habitat

Houses STORAGE T

1. I—

1000

600

*

USAel meteronbrickwall

4 550 +350-i

Section

Sechon I—

1500,-".

4 700 P4700

,=.==tJ';= 8 I,6

Built-in doublewa (cheap&

1

2 Walk-in wabetweenbedr

3

5

Externalel meterd

—.also p71

space-saving)

Pram

1

200

320

240

hangers

I

/

Ac.

280

350

men's hats

1

150 320

women's hats

7

—

-260

350

'0

200

6terrytowels900h

3pairpyjamas handkerctefs

x1,x70 12women's handkerchiefs 110 x 80 x 30

6

Dimensions

ofclothes

stockings

'

10shirts 120

3pairheavy '—'2z./ men'ssocics

x80 x 35

3 bath towels lBOh 6 120

480

/5o

-i 200.,,

300

500

6 handtowels40h

1

20, A

80,

/

Habitat 75

Houses Kitchenstorage 600 "1°

Space required in or nextto kitchen for storing food and cooking eqp. Stoalso needed forgeneral cleaningand laundering eqp and materials. Dry goods should be enclosed and readily accessible from cooker and sink positions. Floor cabinets best used forstoring heavy or infrequently used articles. Wall cabinets economical in space and provide convenient sto for smaller and frequently used items: should be shallow enough to allow full useof worktops below —(i).

1

Larderventilated to outsideairand protectedby flyproof screendesirable even when space for refrigerator and freezer provided: should not contain heating orhotwaterpipes norreceive direct sunlight. Should be provided with well fitting door, preferably with threshold, to discourage

Sectionthroughworktop& sto

vermin.

Freezer need not necessarily be near kitchen: ifplaced inoutside stooi garage must be locked against theft. Should be served by el power outleton independent circuit.

Wine

3 Cloths &towels

4

Space-savingverticalsto of dishes

Wine cellars should be clean, dark, dry, well ventilated (but avoid cold draughts) and in quietposition free from vibration and away fromdirect heat. Whitewines best kept at constant tempbetween 6°—8° C and red winesat between 10°—i 2°C. Bottle sto may be in racks or in unglazed clay drainpipes —*(11).

Fuel storage

Solidfuel requires volume of not less than 1.13 m3forfuel sto. Should beaccessible fromwithin house orfromporch orother shelter. To avoid spread of dust arrange that bags can be tipped from outside without -500-1

LH-I4-

1000

ETh 1-500-4 5

Dish dwith drawers

II1 -4

1000

-4

H500-

6 Glass orplasticscontainers

entering house. In makingprovisionforoilstowellbegenerous—*p386—7.Fuel tanksupto 2000I can generally be located adlacent to houseswithout restriction;if enclosed should beseparated from remainderofbldg and provided with catch pit. Fuel inlet point should be positioned within 30 m of place where delivery tanker can conveniently stop. USA: oil tanks often buried if 21001 orover.

Refuse

8

Refuse sf0 should be outside house, easily accessible from kitchen door. Simple, easily cleaned, covered stand required. Carrydistanceto collection vehicle access should notbe more than 46m and ideally less than 25 m.

Q0c

Eggrack for 100eggs (500 x 500) 7

8

hi

Slattedrackforfruit (800 x 420)

13

Lazytongs'rackingtofitavailabledspaces(80x BOx 80) 200130 220130 270x 150 30017O

I

180

/ / 210 / 180 180

Carpei

Potatorack

10 Bottlesstored sardinefashion' indeep shelves

Q

300 120

depth300

7

oo

Bottles storedin drainpipes(64 boffles/ri?) 11

sweeperf iloor

pohsher 420 ,

pyramids

1

;/o 320

12 Bottlesstored in overlapping

16 Vacuumcleaners

.'

4

Mop

9

/

4400

40

I ci)

76 Habitat

Houses SECURITY

PRIVACY:PUBLIC& PRIVATE SPACES

External security best served by good lighting and visibility. Access routes and entrances should never be dark or concealed, however romantic thismightappear, and should ifpossible allow sufficient space toavoid unwanted encounter.

Amongmostdifficult problems in housing layout: striking right balance

Avoid dense planting round entrances and ground floor windows (or use prickly shrubs!). In small blocks offlats entrance may becontrolled by entryphones —.(1)(2) but this may be inconvenient where many smallchildren. For single people or working couples someprovision needed fordaytime deliveries.

Forthievesease ofexitas important asease of entry. Professionalmay be willing to break window to secure access but will be unwilling to rely on thisas his means ofexit Allexternal doors should therefore be fitted with deadlocks and openable windows, ifpossible, befitted with window locks. Free detailed advice, based on expert local knowledge, available from all UK police forces through their crime prevention officers.

between need for privacy and need to avoid social isolation. Balance obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and age so no perfectsolution possible but good layout will at leastallow somedegree of individual choice. Designs which opt strongly for either social' or 'private'approach unlikely to satisfy majorityofoccupants. Dwellings opening directly on to busypublic spaces and access decks designed to encourage social and neighbourliness may also suffer intolerable intrusion, while screening desgned to provide 'defensible space' may result in roads and footpaths bounded byblank wallsand fences. Eitherapproach likely to lead to feelings of insecurity and dissatisfaction amongst residents. In high density layouts, in particular, satisfaction likelyto be enhanced, and incidence of vandalism to be reduced, by sub-divison of large anonymous public areas intosmaller spaces related to identifiable groupsofdwellings. For flats,transition between entirely public zone of street and entirely private zone of individual fIat may be by way of both semi-public zone sharedbyall flats inblock (elevator and staircase hall etc, possiblywithsome formof supervised access) and semi-private zone share by 2 or 3 flats withaccess undercontrol ofoccupants —.(3). For houses, public access road may lead to mixed use pedestrian! vehicle court .-.p42, with psychologically restricted entry, related to groupof 20 or so houses and further transition zone provided by front garden toeach individual house. —.alsop77 Gardens—.p103-—14

Bell-push& doormicrophone mustbe in reachof children 1

2 Typicaldimensionsofdoor transmitterwith light button& bells for5floors

k

Iiv/dr 1bedr

:rL fl1dr tcr==ir=i_[I ,jL

bedr bedr

r-I.b1

down±ffh±[ bedr

flfl baI

0

5m 15tt

3

Semi-privateentrancezoneforflats a perspective

b plan

4

HawaiiHousingAuthority;2-storeyunitsover flats,solves 3-storeypublic stair requiredfor3 floor flats agroundlevel bsecond level cthird level Arch Akiyama!Kekoolani

Habitat 77

Houses PRIVATEOPEN SPACE All family

houses require somekind of related open space — whether garden, patio —n(7) or balc—np88 —which is sunny and sheltered from wind. Should ideally be large enough to allow space for clothes drying —s(5)(6), toddler's play,out-door hobbiesand sittingout. Factors affecting location outdoorliving areas—*(3).

I,

Gardens —p1 03—14

Enclosed garden enhances privacy. Walls,hedges and, to lesser extent,

Nface ofhousein shade& immediate foreground overshadowed but longerprospecton to sunlit garden&wallformingsuntrap 1

air20°C; wind 16kph

___________________

air 20°C; wind 16kph

trees can providenatural protection fromnoise, wind and dust. Advantage if private garden can open out of liv, providing out-doorextension oflivingspace: but not necessarilybest placed (UK) onSsideof house sinceenclosed garden toN can provide sunlit view, though will need be deepto be effective because ofovershadowingbyhouse itself—n(1).

Gardenstructures—pll1

Tents and sheds in gardens do not usually rate as bldg in UK: not considered permanent living access when occupied only bydayand not used for trade or business. Distance fromsite boundary orother bldg should not be less than 1 800. Forframes and greenhouses —spi 11.

you feel 20°C

a

60steel rods

a spaced 32apart 6 25steel flat barlj"

x

dia 7

weldedcap76 inside

air20°C;wind 16kph

0 yoeefeel 24°C

b

019pipe

F-

woodseat

9t4

brick laid dryon25 sand

I

hand bevelie

-

benchnut° x ii I angleiron cement compacIeo1OdirodS sub-soil

:- :

Built-inbarbecues aadjustablegrill canberaisedto305abovebrazieron masonrybase bbarbecuefirepitcombination continuous unitwithgarden seat &patio paving:hard-burnedfirebrick liner; ironpins adjusthof grill Design aAKTobin bCMasonWhitney R Burton LittonJrRobertJ 4

Tetlow

Windeffects greatestspan 2400

h

1900

c 425 weight 15kg cord horn

3

Factorsaffectingoutdoorliving arlocations: consultlocalreg

5

Washinglines

7

Patio& deckonwater's edge ArchLawrenceHalprin

6

'Whirligig' clothesdrier

I0 ci)

78

Habitat

Houses

45, 10 ---—-f——lU8'—4-——l0'

-:Th

ADAPTABLEHOUSES

r

Two recent developments in house planning in Britain are intended to extendflexibility in meeting requirements.

8"——---10B"—-

N

'liv

WalterSegal'shouses

Architect Walter Segal has designed houses using sheet materials in standard sizes assembled in timber ing construction. Column centres 3000—3600 apart give great planning flexibility with acceptable beam depths and accommodate most rm sizes. Bldg are raised above ground, with columns based on concrete pads. Planning readily adaptable and materialscanbe reused —(1)(2).

Extendiblehouse

hILI

Extendible houses intended to permit first-home owners to enlarge their houses as family size increases. Examples illustrated represent 2 approaches, extension of 1-storey house to form patio —(3), and construction of rm in roof—(4).

I

Self-containedextensiontoexisting houseinSussexEngland 1970: externalwallswhite glazedasbestos sheetoutside, 50woodwool slab core,plasterboard&laminateinside:flatroofoverhangs at eaves; imperial dimensionsretainedtoshow howsizesrelatetosheetmaterials, 2' 0' w + 2" t &tolerance ArchW Segal

V

elevahon

before

afterextension

extension

8

21' 6"

6"8'6'8'64

or Inthis Scottishdesignhouseisextendedupwards:nonewfoundations brickworkneeded Arch NationalBuildingAgency Edinburgh 4

2 This largerhouseon slopingsite at Ballycummisk Ireland shows great flexibilityofsystem Arch W Segal

3 These 1-storey 1-bedrhousesat ChathamEnglandcanbe extended to provideupto3bedrbutspacerequired maymeanhigh initialsitecosts Arch

WCook BoroughArchitect

5

Americandesignforlowcost plywood house; roofs&wallsare built inflat position& hoisted ortippedupintoplace agroundfloor bfirst floor Arch E H&M KHunter

Habitat 79

ato dr

entrance

ha

hv

Undergroundhouses Growing concern with safeguardinglandscapefromill effects ofintrusive development engenders greater interest in underground building for housing. Application to domestic house of techniques of construction devised for civil engineering or military proiects: costs involved cut by recentrefinements in bldg technology. Energy conservation further factor tending to favour building underground, ifonly in part. Soil provides good insulation layer, keeping heat in during winter, out insummer —ep8O. Underground housing still experimental. Designers must base predictionsfor such details as number of air changes/hr needed to keep up ventilation levelsfor preventing build-up ofcondensation on empirical calculations: not enough built examples see how different forms of excavated construction behave in practice. In UK bId reg framed before underground housing became likely prospect; official approval thereforedependentonindividual negotiation.

a

F

sectionA

12 18 ii

sieepingpiaiforrn entrance

ter

k

b 1 Hill tophouseFloridaUSA:sitedforpanoramic viewsbutpartlysunkin groundtoreduceinterferencewith naturalcontours;turfedroofshelprest blendin:upperlevelformssinglespace observatory asection bplan Arch WilliamMorgan

3

HolidayhomeJutlandDenmark: partly underground soasinvisiblefrom landwardsidewith viewsseawardthrough2largeglassdomes;underground componentconcreteshell absections c plan ArchClausBonderup

a

b

1

2

3m

98

b HouseinPenninesEngland:toavoidintrusion inaesthetically sensitive areapartly underground,partlyhidden behindearthmounds asection b plan Arch ArthurQuarmby 2

4 Twin beachhouses FloridaUSA: underground soas notto interfere with views ofhouseson landside;built inpairsfromshellscast inGunite, cement mixtureusuallyused forswimming pools; lowerhalvescast firstinto excavatedsand then 100thick rootshellbuilt up oversteelreinforcing rods; claimed costs approx1/2 thoseofequivalent conventional structure thanksto layerofearth mm 560 asection bplan ArchWilliam Morgan

I

80 Habitat

Houses ENERGYSAVINGBY PLANSHAPE

Minimumperimeter house

Reducing exterior wallarea can save energy. In theory dome or sphere ideal configurationbut haveobvious drawbacks:circularplan has smallest perimeterfor given floor area —.(1), Next best alternative: perfectly square plan of 1-storey house; minimises wall and window area and therefore energyIoss—.(2).

Entry locks

Enclosed entries, either within perimeter ofhouse—.(3a)oras appendage —(3b),can reduce energy consumption. Size ofentryshould allow access doorsto openindependently.

Atriums Windows responsible for 1530Yo total heatingenergy loss from house. Strategic placing reduces loss and maximisessolar gain inwinter. When windows face on toatrium this acts as ive solar collector —.p81 (1).

Sun planning

In many climates significant energy saving can be obtained by meansof S-facing windows provided with overhangs,computedtorestrictsummer sun, and Nwallsbuffered bysto areas.Sun trap with wind buffers canbe

make sure no drain or leak into sitearea from surrounding construction suchas parking lots &septic systems identifyground water levels & seasonal variations in level before deciding location of bldg & excavationdepth assure adequate soil percolation for sunken courtyards & atrium areas; consider installing overflow drains

anystructural system can beused, providing designed forproper loads; general rule: 290 kg/rn2 (150 lb/ft2) for grass-covered roofs & 1950 kg/m2 (400 bItt2) where small trees are to be ed; snow &

pedestrian loads must be added wall design generally same as anybelow grade (ground level) construction; but insulation needed between earth & exterior wall of structure, allowing ittostoreheat, avoidingcontinuous loss toearth; best currently available material styrofoam (because of closed cell construction); insulation can be reduced in thickness as depth below grade (ground level) increases when banking (berming) earth against existing walls advisable add cement plaster on metal lath between earth & insulation to prevent roots, insects & rodents from reaching existing walls

very effective in cold climates —.p81 (2).

butyl sheeting good material for waterproofing; also serves as vapour

ENERGYSAVING: EARTH

to control dampness inside use dehumidificationorcirculating air

—alsop79 Check list: gentle S slopesidealfor underground structures: can build into hill & still have benefits of southern exposures avoid low-lying depressions: heavy, cold airwillsettle inthem; increased danger fromfrost & damp

earth pipes (ducts buried in earth) may be used for cooling or for pre-warming outside cold air forwinterfreshairsupply

1

Circularfloor plan

a

o 3

Entry lock:

II

-

barrier

examine all local bldg codes, especially in relation to fireexits&ventilation; increased aircirculation eqp may affect energyuse

studylighting carefully: important for undergroundstructures determine howthis affects interiorcomfort &energy use

2 b

iiii

awithin baddedto(USA) standard practicehouse

1-storeysquarefloor plan

Habitat

81

Houses ENERGYSAVING: VENTILATION Effective ive approach to cooling: capture prevailing breezes and ventilate house naturally —(3). Ideal orientation for this places face throughwhichbreezes are to enter at oblique angle of 200_700 to wind —(4). Instead of allowing wind straight through house this creates turbulence which makes for betterventilation. When wind velocity low internal velocity can beincreased by useof wing walls next towindow to create 'mini pressure zones' there. Casement windows or adiustable shutters can achieve same effect. Place windows where ventilation required with cillsat desired cooling height: egin bedr at mattress level. Window heights also—p4O4. Plant evergreens on Nand Wsidesof house to block coldwinterwinds (2).

Use ground shape and any nearby ponds or lakes to improve natural ventilation. On slopingsites (particularlyfacing S) breezes move up hill duringday, down at night. Near bodies of water cooling breezes move fromwaterto land during day, fromland to water at night —.(5). These guidelines may run counter to effective use of orientation to maximise solar gain —p8O. Therefore for any design brief specify whethersolargain ornatural ventilation should have priority. fn general consult local weather bureau foraccurate informafion on solar radiation, solar altitude and bearing, cloud cover, rain and snowfall, direction and strength of prevailing winds. 1 Squareplan with atrium:windowsfaceinwards;atriumcoveredby skylight

2OO 2

I-louseplannedtodealwith climaticconditionsof NW USA: suntrapwith wind buffers Arch FrankLloydWright

rnrnrn 4

Orientationfornaturalventilation

5

Influencesofgroundshape&bodiesof wateron naturalventilation

3

Bldg sitedto accept prevailing breezesdraws airquicklythroughportal, ventilatingcourt&drawingcoolingmoisturefrompoolintoair; massing reduces heatgain & providesevening warmth

82

Habitat

Housing: old people Strong trend against putting old people in homes unless in need of special care and attention; —÷old people's preferences below. Limiting factor can be land values. In USA most low income housing forelderly has been high rise to allow use of expensive land near shops and recreation possibilities. UK standards envisage 2types housing: self-contained for 1 or2 more active old people—(2) grouped flatlets for less active with some communal amenities and services—(1 )(3)p84(2)

a

Old people'spreferences Check listofwhatold people want, based on USAexperience: viewfromliving rmwith 1 window lowenough to see outwhen seated exteriorpersonal territory' leoutdoor area forsitting and social s

9

1

? Ô

4m 2ff

b

(porches, gardens) closeto shops informal home-like scale community outdoorarea within easy walk frequentresting places alongwalks securityand fire alarm systems adequate sto kitchen worktopslowerthan usual separate bedr rather than efficiency design choice ofdining inorin community dining rm

Communal amenities Common rm provided for self-contained dwellings may include sitting rm, tvrm, hobbies rmorworkshop. Mm floorspace/P 0.95 m2. Provide near common rm 1 wc and hand basin, tea kitchen or pantry with sink andhot waterheater, space for hatsand coats, cleaningdand sto 2 m2.

Forgrouped flatlets providewarden's quarters, emergency alarmsystem —(1) connecting each dwelling with warden's, common rm with 1.9 m2/P and ancillary amenities as for self-contained above, laundry rm, telephone for tenants with adjacent seat, d for communal cleaning materials 1 m3. Provide access between all accn by enclosed and heated circulation areas and fordirect goods delivery fromdoor todoor; delivery hatches orgrouped lockers acceptable.

Housingforelderly at CumbemauldScotland has31 cottages, warden's house&commonrm, each cottagehaving wardencallsystemwithtalk-back; meals providedatdaycentre asite layout b2-personcottage ccommon rm/day centrelayout plan Arch RobertWhiteAssociates 1

2

Privateretirementhousewith ading unitforvisitingchildrenUSA Arch EH & M KHunter

3 Low budgethousingforelderly FloridaUSA a typical 1-bedrdwelling bsite layout plan Arch C Randolph Wedding

Habitat

83

Housing:old people 1730 reachmax

r r shalt mar 1370

1 435

reachmax

1585 0,

it

ita,

1

Max reachover worktopto shelf

&d

reachtoiward on 850worktop

Access: if involves climbing more than 1 storey provide elevator: 2 elevators if more than 4storeys high;access stairs should be enclosed. Stairs —*p86(5)408; ramps—*p87407. Alldwellings should have hail or lobbywithspace forhanging outdoor clothes. Doors —*p401 —2. Doorsto wc and bathr must open outwards and be fittedwith special locks which can beopened fromoutside.

in iO

E

Planningfactors

11

2 Max reachtounobstructed wall d

Kitchen; worksequence —ep55. Provide working surfaces both sides sinkand cooker. Max height working surfaces 850; max height shelves 1520 —*(1)(2).Cookers specially adapted for safe use by old people. Mm size trig 0.7 m3 (NB do not site underneath worktop). Mm sto capacity 1.7 m3. Safety precautions—*p84. Heating: space heating living areas capable maintainingmm 21°C; for circulation areas in grouped flatlets mm 15.6°C when outside temp

sd=59

—1°C.

370 WO4(top

sink topmax max850—

hh

table700

L. w'I E+

3 hof worktop workingsurface& reachforwardtofittings

4

h+

h& thigh clearancefortable&

sittingworktop

about rm. indeg stospace oldpeopletendaccumulate treasured possessions.

Guest rm: preferable provide rmforvisitsfromfamily in self-contained dwellings. For grouped flatlets guest rm may be provided; should be placed closeto communal lay.

bath nm

1) -

El socket outlets: generous provisionof el socket outlets atconvenient positions and levels important; mm (UK) kitchen 4, living area3, bedr 2, hailorlobby 1 bed sitting rm 5. Livingspaces: important provide adequatespace formovement round furniture; consider use of buiit-in units (specially d, wa) but take also of furniture which can afford hand holds when moving

40-50

timberhandrail face(itused) mountedunder __________ rail 30mm

Bedrinself-contained dwellings follow standarddesign butnote importanceof room tomoveround; built-in wardrobe desirable. Bed sitting rm sometimes ingrouped flatlets, usual in old people's homes —*(10)(1 1).

Safetyprecautionsfor old people —*p84

6 Section of brimadaptedforeasy gripping

7-

T

255

-

560

5 Aids forgettingin &outofbwith maxhrimfromfloor

'\T

7

rim orwatmountedhandles

hingeabner

4

900 450

*

p

40-Sodia verticalpole

SefH

/

Iourta"—II verticalpote oorannei dram tho

grating

L

seat__

T

Mountingofinclinedrailforwc

WOhhandspray

8

Bathr plansshowinghandingto suit Pwith disabilityofright orleft leg &positionofpolegrip

9

Sho mi plan

—

I

I_—

hb IPd

3600

3600

24OO

T

3000

I. 10 Doublermdimensions&data

11

Singlermdimensions&data

I

-4000

I

84 Habitat

Housing: old people Safetyprecautions

service entrance

Check listof safety precautions based on USA practice: heating system should be designed to avoid burn injury hotwatersystem should hold watertempat43°C orbelow air conditioning should be designed to avoid draughts in sitting or sleepingareas radiant floor heating plus airsystem preferred door bells and alarms should have low pitch: high tones perception deficientin many old people automatic shut-off forall gaseqpto prevent inhalationorexplosion place fire sensor over cooker el cooking preferred forsafety ofoldpeople generousoverall lighting: avoid glareorshadowed areas avoid rough wall surfaces avoid slippery floors; no 'scatter' rugs; wall to wall low pile carpets safest, especially in bedr, butNB strain on heart when vacuum cleaning carpet nothresholds between rm

Bathroom,lavatory

Relationshipsof elements inplanforhomeforold P —

a

Bathr large enough for undressing and dressing, if necessary with helper(especially in homes). Handholds: atleast 1 forgetting in and outofbath —ep83(5); atleast 1 at side of wc pedestal —ep83(7). Consider use of pole —vp83(5). Bath rim should beadapted foreasygripping —vp83(6). Bath: low-sided, flat bottom; length limited so that cannot be completely immersed: max 1 550. Consider seat atrim height for sitting towashlegsand feet.

Hand basin: rim between 800 and 850high. Shower —*p83(9): compartment well heated with pegs for clothes on dry side, divided from wet side by shower curtain. Floor non-slip and free fromhazards; if smooth with fall todrain, 1:40traywith upstand to step over, not necessary. Provide secure handhold and wall-mounted seat. Water supply thermostatically controlled to give between 35° and 49°C (UK requirement but—lJSAsafety precautionsabove). Adjustable spray outlet on flexible hose which can be clipped on in different positions.

Taps: must be usable by arthritic fingers; tops boldly colour-coded; keep hotandcold in same relationshipthroughout bldg. Wc: seat height 380—p83(7). In 1-P grouped flatlets hand basinshould be provided.

•

tt

10 15 20m 15 30 45

m

2 _______________ 9 12 ft

OLD PEOPLE'SHOMES Main areas residents' rm with related bathr and lay communal rm: egdining, sitting, tv, handicrafts kitchen, service, sto , matron, med staff accn, resident and day Relationships —*(1)

4-storey Iayout—v(3) Bedrooms: usually bed sitting rm. Typical layouts single p83(11), double—*p83(10).

Furniture Table heights: dining 700; gap between chair seat and underside of tabletop mm 190 —p83(1 1); occasionaltables in common rm not lower than chairseat height.

2

AmenityhousingforelderlyatSQueensferryScotland: 15cottages arrangedround commongardenshaveexternalalarmbellsbut nowarden service asite layout bhouseplans Arch Marshall, MorisonAssociates

3

Easy chairs: not too low for getting out; low enough to keep feet on floor: 400—430; footstools forthose with short legs; seat depth 410— 470; arm rests 230 above seat. Back high enough to head (consideradjustable pad) angled at28°to vertical. Gap between under seat and floor for heels to draw backwhen getting up. NB too soft seat padding can put strain on tissues

Layoutplansof homeforelderlyDorset England a ground plan b 1St &2ndfloors C3rd floor

Habitat 85

Housing: disabled Housing forphysically disabledtraditionally in institutionalcentres. Now accepted as preferable provide accn in which disabled can live as ot general community, with theirfamilies oralone. Particularrequirements tobeborne in mind when degfor physically disabled divide into those for ambulant disabled wheelchair s

Parking for wheelchair s should preferably be under cover and linked to house. Car port particularly convenient: allows unimpeded access. Cross beam should be supplied to take stirrup grip or hoist. If garage provided should preferably be integral with house and give direct access. In this case floor should be laid to fall of at least 1:100 away fromhouse; inUK relaxationfrom bldg reg requirements necessary to provideflushthreshold.

Houses designed for ambulant disabled need not differgreatly from thosedesigned forgeneral use; detail and fittings principalconcerns.

For wheelchair s particular attention needed to requirements of wheelchair circulation —(1) and to accessibility of fittings from seated position —p86(8). At initial planning stage allow approx 10% more floor area than forsimilar accn in general needs housing —.p87(l)(3)—(5).

*1:1525

Choiceofhousetype

Wheelchair s should preferablybeaccommodatedin 1-storey houses orgroundfloorflats,though upper storey flatmay besuitable on sloping site where level or ramped exit to place of safety can be provided. 2-storey house acceptable if bathr and at least 1 bedr on ground storey but this arrangement not ideal, particularly where disabled member of familyis housewife.

I

Turningarrequiredforwheelchair

Ambulant disabled may be housed in suitable upper floor flats of 2-storey houses; but seriously disabled, even if ambulant, should not be housed above third storey, max height for normal UK fire service rescue ladders. In bldg more than 1 storey whichhouses disabledelevator location and design of critical importance. Lift doors must have 800 clear opening width. In USAcab must be mm 524 x 1 524 with easyto push controls 1 220or less fromfloor and with raised or indented letters beside them —p412. Escape stairs must have treads not less than 250 and risers not more than 175. Provide space within stairway enclosure on each floor for thosewith limited mobility towait for help.

i

Kerbrampsshouldwheneverpossiblemakenaturalextension of alignmentoffootpath 2

x

.1

In 2-storeyhouses:

1 ground floor rm should be available as bedr and wcshould beprovided atgroundstorey level. Straightflightstairdesirable.

Siting & access

Housesfor disabled needto be withinreach of shops, children's play spaces, church, pub,surgery. Access by level or rampedapproach, mm width 1200, max slope 1:12,preferably 1:20. Gradients greater than 1:12 needrest areas 1 200long at9000intervals(inUSArest areasalso if ramp turns); thosein excess of 1:20 at 18 m intervals—p87(l1)407. In USAplatforms at doorways as for footpaths—below.

3

Slottedgratingsshould belaid at rightanglestowheelchairtraffic

Kerbs should be lowered at crossings and driveways to not more than 25 above roadway; USA practice prefers kerb ramps —.(2). Camber shoufd not exceed 1:100. Slotted gratings should always be laid with barsat right angles todirection of wheelchair traffic —.(3). Footpaths —p1 9 43: where gradients exceed 1:20, or where dropto side more than 600, handrails required 950 high extending mm 300 beyondbeginning and end of ramp or ridge. Railswith smooth surface required for all ramps in USA on at least 1 side, 813 above ramp surface and extending 300 beyond beginning and end, with 1830 straight clearanceatbottom. Avoid loose gravel,cobblesorsells, though materials with distinctive texturecan be helpfuf, particularly to blind or partially sighted, in signalling approach toobstruction orchange in level. Provide continuing common surface not interrupted by steps or suddenchanges in level.Blend with levels ofotherpaths orparkingarea laneswhich may cross. At doorways level platform at least 1 524 x 1 524 ifdoorswings out or915 x 1 524 ifdoor swings in, stretching at least 300 each side of

300 mm

4

Openingwindow hazard

5

Footpathwforwheelchair ing

doorway (USA requirement). Main access path to house should be at least1 200 wide and anygarden paths mm 900. Access from front to back garden should preferably by-house —.p47(6), be kept clear of opening windows and similar hazards —*(4) and, in wheelchair housing, provide turning space for chair—(1 )p43(3). Widthneeded for wheelchair ing —.(5).

Hazards:where suchhazards as open manholes and access s of openexcavations occurprotectby barrier mm 2400fromdanger point and markwith sound and sightwarning devices. Car parking: provide near houseaspossible, preferablywithin boundary of property. Ambulant disabled driver requires parkingspace mm 4800 x 2700, wheelchair mm 4800 x 3000; USA requirement mm 3660extra on each side. In general car park handicapped should be nearest bldgand clearly marked.Disabled should not needtravel behind parkedcars. Garage space needed forwheelchair —.(6).

6

Gar spaceforwheelchair

(2800wadequateforambulant disabled)

I0

86 Habitat

Housing: disabled Common accessareas In flats builtto accommodatedisabled and in other bldg likelytobe used by them in any numbers at least 1 main entrance and any door giving access to emergency exit orexternal space likely to be used bydisabled

____ 1

occupants must have: level or ramped approach flushthreshold clearwidthmm 775

1800

Elevator mustbe accessible to such entrance.

Withdoubleleafdoorsdesignsothat only 1 needopen

Double leaf doors should be designed so that only 1 leaf need be opened —(1). Automatic sliding doors operated bypressure pad most convenient but expensive. Where revolving doors used normal side hungdoorof suitable widthshould also beprovided.

300 360

r1'

Internalplanning

=1300

maIbask4t...Ij

Forambulantdisabled 900 wide enough forentrancehalls and ages;

500

will also allow enough space foroccasionaluse by wheelchairs.

1500

2

Clearspacebeside doorforease 3 Deliveriesboxbesidefront door, ofaccesstokeyhole;shelfforparcels insideboxdoorlockable mm

900 775

240

J

Stairs

mix 280 preferred370

maxi preferredmax 145 externalsteps

4

Doorsforwheelchairs shouldbehungwith hingestowards corner

5

Stairsforambulantdisabled& elderly people

y1dr

sj

IYM -'n

3600

casual diningar

2400

Standardklayoutforambulant disabled

6

7 Similar k—s(6)alteredto suit

wheelchair: 0oven, H hob,

TStrolley sf0unit B broom d, WM washingmachine, A frig, AS rotatingsto unit, Ssk

i

For wheelchair s entrance hail mm 200 wide for depth 1 800, preferably 1 200 throughout. Lobby between 2 sets of doors will need be 1 500 x 1500 clear of obstructions to allow freedom to manoeuvre chair.USA: floor level insidc and outside for 1 524 fromdoorindirection doorswings. Clearspace mm 300 should be provided alongside leadingedgeoffront doorforease ofaccessto keyhole and handle.—x(2):USA 300 each side of door. Shelf 300 x 300 useful both inside and outside to take parcels when opening orclosing door—s(2). Door closures should be suitable for disabled s. Nosharp inclines or abrupt changes oflevel atdoor ciii. If deliveries box provided —*(3) inner door should be lockable. Mat wellsshould be fully recessed —s(2).

All internal doors should have mm

opening 775. Thresholds should be

flush. For wheelchair sdoors should be hung with hinges toward corner—*(4) or, insmallrm, open out. Lowhanging doorclosures must not obtrude into traffic ways. Floor should be non-slip. Each storey should be on 1 level orconnected by ramp iflevel changes. Stairs & steps —s(5). Avoid abrupt nosing. Handrails813 fromtread at face of riser, 1 extending mm 460 beyond top and bottom step (USA requirement). Ensure adequate lighting without confusing shadows.

Withlow hangingceiling lights orsignsallowfree-standingstairclearances 2133fromfloor. Controls & switches for light, heat, ventilation, windows, curtains, fire alarms and others ofessential use should bewithin reach ofwheelchair .Identification of switches important, specially for blindor partially sighted. Provideraisedorrecessedlettersornumbersfor rm identification at side of door at suitable height. Knurled handle or knob on doors leading to areas dangerous for blind person. Living areas: additional space needed in wheelchair housing to manoeuvre chair inliving rm, kitchen—s(6)(7), bath—.p87(1 )and atleast 1 bedr—p87(4)(5). Living rm windows should bedesigned allow seated person seeout withoutdifficulty. Baywindow very suitable,especially in wheelchairhousing —ep87(6). Kitchen worktops and shelving adjustable in height —s(8). Knee space beneath fitments particularly important in wheelchair housing —s(8). Cooker should preferably have separate oven and hob. Deep sinks difficultfor mostdisabled people: max depth 150. Bathr & wc should be equipped with basic and grab rails —*p87(7); seat 400 wide should be provided at head of bath. Hand basins bestset into worktops cantilevered from wall; preferred height for use by ambulant disabled 850, by wheelchair s 750. Mirror, towel rails and shelves 1 016 above floor.

8 a b k worktops&sheMngshouldbeadjustableinh

Wheelchair sneedenough space round wc pedestalto permit both frontal and lateral approach, with space for assistance if necessary —ap87(8);doorshould swing out. Dispenser and disposal unitsatside of wcnot directlyabove. Bathr ceiling should besoconstructed toallow for fixing hoistortrack ifnecessary. If bathr planned opendirectly offbedr track can be fitted provide directroute between bed, bath and wc.

Soundwarningsignals should beduplicated byvisual for deaf.

Habitat

87

Housing: disabled Internalplanning

I—

Li

2 Withoutwardopeningdoor ambulantdisabled 3 Forwheelchair wccompartmentarmust can usenormalwccompartment bebigger

2700

Standardbathrenlargedtoprovidespacefor wheelchair 1

4

Single bedrlargeenoughforwheelchair 400

1600—1700

'

L

I position I ofceiling

hoo possible

5

Doublebedr forwheelchair

6

Baywindow in liv cangive pleasureto wheelchair

External detail

45O

35

posihon

ofpole

possible

ofhoist

line

p possiblepositions

ofpole& hoist

H

9

Publictelephonesuitableforhandicapped & children;goodlightingimportant; instructionsin braille & pushbuttondials forblind;volume control onheadset

LIJJE

10

Drinkingfountainforwheelchair;should beoperatedbyhandlever;pavedarroundfountain toprevent mud & puddles

plantmaterialsshouldbe located sothatshadowsdo not preventsun frommeltingsnow& iceon ramp surfaces

__________

slot forfeetofmobilehoist ortrolley(cart)

Spaces&fittingsforbathrforwheelchair

providemm asof54 lightat atallramp&stair locations

—750—t---l°°—i

rampwvary accordingtodesign

-situations,preferredmm 1-way—9l4minw 2-way—lS3Ominw

hoistoreye-hook

—I

possiblepositionofhoist oreye-hookforstirrupgripetcj shouldextendmm 460

-1fr

maograthenl8.33%

300

8

____

Spaces &fittingsforlayforwheelchair

11

Outdoorrampdata:maxgradient1:12—sp407

& beyondtop bottomoframp T1524mm clearspaceatboth top & bottomoframp provideitOhkerbatedgeoframpsurface foruse bysmailwheeledvefridesor wheek*tairsasemergencywheelstops

88

Habitat

Houses BALCONIES

Wind-protectedprojectingbalc

Cornerbalc

1

Balcony desirable extension of living rm, especially forflats. Corner balconies that cannot be overlooked and are protected from wind —e(1) more comfortable than freely projecting balconies which have to beshielded on wind and weather side —n(2). Grouped balconies should be suitably dividedforprivacy. —u(3) orseparated—a(4). Loggias less economic as they createmore exterior wallsurface—u(5). Balconies staggered vertically more difficult to protect fromwind and from being overlooked —n(6); balconiesstaggered in plan well protected and private —.(7)(8). Important considerations include orientation to sun, view, position of neighbouring flatsand bldg and relationshipof living rm, studio, kitchen and (sometimes)bedr. Other factors:appropriatesize, privacy,protection fromstreet noise, shielding from excessive sun, windand rain. Suitable materials forparapets: frosted glass, plastics, asbestoscement, timber slats and steel sheets fixed to ing structure of solid or tubular steelsections firmly attached to bldg; steel verticals (horizontal can be climbed by children) do not give protection against wind or being overlooked. Draughts created between balcony floors and solid parapets —.(9): betterplace parapet in front of floor—.(1O)or usesolidparapet (nottoo high if 'bath tub' feeling to be avoided) with steelrail at byelaw height, possible room forflowerboxes —.(1 1). Access balconies _-np9O 9697

4

Groupedbalc withseparating sto

partitions

forfurniture

5

6

Staggeredbaic

3 Groupedbalc with projecting

Loggia

I

7

8

BaIcsfaggeredin plan&set at angle

Staggeredbaic

lii

//4,4;

70

100

0

9

Parapetabovebalc floorlevel

10 Parapetin frontof balc floor

Solidparapet

vo

___________ a

11

I

roofgarden

round

0 square

Q rectanguiar

Prefabricated balc designed to be pluggedontoapartmentbldgto define&enhanceexteriorspace Arch Kamriitzer

13 Apartmentblocks at Cross Creek VillagePlayadel ReyUSA have round, square&rectangular balc placedtomodulateopenspace betweenbldg Arch Kamnitzer

12

a

open(summer)

b 14 a largetop-floorapartments atLosAngeles USAhavesimilarbalc to those ofsmallerunits bat apartmentsinHollywood USApenthouse liv includesbalc ar&roofgardenmezzanine Arch Kamnitzer

i_ b

slopedtodeflect sun (summer)

-

partialiyenciosed

_____________

I

intermediate

iotaiiyenclosed (winier)

______ sioped toit Sun (Winter)

15 a Flexiblebaic created byusingframe of slidingglass doorsset on perpendicularrunners bhingedglass createsbalc adaptableto seasons Arch Kamnitzer

Habitat 89

Flats & apartments BUILDINGTYPES Thissectiondiscusses bldg divided horizontallytoprovide separateand self-contained dwellings which need not necessarilybeon 1 flooronly. Types can bedistinguished asfollows.

Low-riseor high-rise

In UK accepted max height of entrance door to dwelling normally reached by ramp or stairs 4 storeys from ground level or from main entrance to bldg. Beyond that limit elevator access must be provided: bldg containing such flats called high-rise. In practice low-rise flatted bldg often provided with elevators; in public sector housing these required where more than 2 storeys have to beclimbed to any private entrance door. Such bldg, from3to5storeys, oftencalledmedium-rise.

Pointblock or slab block In point blockall dwellings share single vertical access system —*(1). Vertical access mustalways include stairway; according to height and layout bldg mightalso have 1 ormore elevators and secondaryescape stairs. Slab blockcontinuous bldg in which dwellings reached by 2 or more separate vertical accesssystems —(2).

Maisonettes Separate dwelling in low or high-rise blocks

Upperfloor plan of12-storey pointblockat Battersea London England designed1963:balc provide escaperoutes between flats ArchGeorge Trew & Dunn 1

having rm arranged on more than 1 storey known as maisonettes: have been built in UK in 4-storeyblocks —(3), in slab blocks and in combinationwith flats —u(4). Such arrangements can show savingsoverflatsofsimilar accnbecause common access space less. In USA similar 'skip floor' design halves elevator stops in high rise.

pñvatebale

2

uppertloorplan

Slabblock:9-storeyflatswith balcaccess built1953atPimlico London; in-situ rcconstruction: noteuseofsto Arch Powell &Moya

toinsulate bedrfromstairwell

rt 3rdfloor

a

sedoo

ri

4

2ndfloor gar floor plans

2

3

4

b 3 Maisonettesin4-storeyblocksinhigh-densitydevelopment in London England;levelsonsite permitaccess atsecond-storey h& demand single aspecthouseplan:notescreening ofstair &escape balcatbedrstorey inupper maisonette Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall

4

Housingat RuncomCheshireEnglandon5storeys: sectioncomprises

2 x 2-storeymaisonettes, lowerenteredfromgroundlevel&upperfrom second-storeywalkway,&top-storey flat approached bystairsfromgroundor walkway,connectedby ramps&bridgetomainshopping aroftowncentre Arch J Stirling

I

cr

90 Habitat

Flats & apartments: access TYPESOFACCESS Accesscan beclassified asstairway, balcony orcorridor.

Stairwayaccess

Stairway access, with 2, 3 or 4 flats per landing allows grouping of services and can provide high degree of privacy: standard solution in point blocks. Inslabblocks, however, disadvantageswhere more than 2 flats servedfromeach landing: usually involves back-to-back planning andconsequently some form ofartificial ventilation—(1).

Balcony& corridor access

Balcony and internal corridor access, usuallyemployed in slab blocks, permitsavings in common access space. Exposureto weather obvious disadvantage ofbalconies, particularlyin high rise, and internal planning constrained by potential lackof privacy on balcony side;window design can modify this constraint.Internal corridorsescapeweatherbutintroduce new problems of sound insulation, lighting and ventilation and require higherstandards of management inuse. Open corridors orroof-streets avoid most of these difficulties. In medium rise development open corridors and sheltered balconiesgivingaccesstosmall flats overlarger dwellings can accommodate wide variety of household sizes at high densities. —(2). Balcony and corridor access have been much used in conjunction with split-level flats and maisonettes. Such arrangements —*p9697.

_____

I

a

Bridgeaccess

Forsiteswithsteeporvaried slopes bridge access—÷(3)offers flats with 1 storey at bridge level with 1 or 2 down and up. Stairs and landings covered but notenclosed in all butseverest climates: ifclosed possible byorientation usethemasive solar trap.

4

1rm/1P

bedr

2

L

hi 4rm/5P

1

3 x 2-rm flats/landingachievegooddaylighting&cross-ventilation but extralengthofwall hasto beweighedagainst economyof circulation Arch EGutkind

garden

1

b

ground

+U brid1

I

roofstreet

4...1

dr

I-n-I

first

ground a

1

cc

C

2 3 Bridgeaccess asection bplan

Medium-risehousingat highdensity(618 B-space/ha)at LillingtonStreet London England:each familyhouseenteredatgroundlevelthroughprivate garden;smaller maisonettes & flatshaveaccess fromopencorror roof streets' which bridgebetween blocks &areservedbyelevators a siteplan bfloorplans ctypicalsection Arch Darbourne & Darke

Habitat

91

Flats & apartments: access FIRE PRECAUTIONS: PLANNING CRITERIA

layout

conditions

flats & maisonettes enteredfromcorr: no alternativeescape route from each dwelling; a with smoke dispersal iewherecorris ventilated direct to openair b withoutdirectventlationto openairto securesmoke

corrhassmoke outletsat each end, &at intervals not exceeding 60m

Horizontalescape routes

Everystorey containing entrance door to flat or

maisonette should be planned to ensure that fire in any 1 dwelling will notobstruct escape of other occupants frombldg. Problem related to type ofaccess. Permissible travel distances in relation to access and plan arrangement given

as designer'sguide ie planning criteria not code/legal information —(1). In USA national, state and local codes apply;

inspections and approvals usuallyistered by localauthorityin cooperation withstatedepartments: designers should seekearly review of their proposals.

dispersal

Protectionof stairways

Every stairway serving flat or maisonnettemore than 2 storeys above ground level should be enclosed and separated from remainderofbldg byfr wallsand self-closing frdoors. No dwelling should open directly from such stairway but should be reached through intervening lobby, access balcony orcorridor. Enclosure requirementdoesnot apply tosubsidiary accessstairways serving small groups of dwellings from opencorridors oraccess balconies,subjectto conditons stated in (1)and in p93(l).

1 Traveldistancesinstoreyscontaining flats&maisonettes:table hasnolegal

authority but isdesigner'sguideto escape requirementswithin bldgmorethan 2storeys hwhich containflats or maisonettes, based onvariouscodes® currentlyapplied inUK (1979);itgives maxtravel distancetostorey exit which musteitherbedooropeningdirect to openairatgroundlevelordoortoprotected stairwayasdescribed—.p931.

flats &maisonettes enteredfrom corr:each dwelling hasalternative

storeyhas 1 exitonly with, i everyentrance doornot more than4500 tromstairway approach lob,or ii everyentrance dooropening intoventilated lob & not more than4500fromselfclosing frdoortocorr leading directlyto storeyexit everyprivate entrance door opens intocorr withsmoke

traveldistanceiron, privateentrancedoor to storeyexit

i escape in

1

direction

only: notmorethan 15m ii escape in 2 directions: notmorethan 40 m notmorethan 4500 notmorethan 15 m

i escape in 1 direction

only:notmorethan 40 m

outlets

ii

1 notmorethan 4fIats per storey,&netfloorarof flats above1st storeynotmore

notmorethan4500

2 notmore than 4flats per storey, & netfloor arof flats

not more than 15m

flats & maisonettes enteredfromopen accessbaic

floorofaccess balc

not more than 50m

flats and maisonettes enteredindirectlyfrom openaccess balc by subsidiaryaccessstairway

each flat &maisonette has independent alternative escape route,or subsidiary stairway does not extendmore than 1 storey above orbelowopenaccess balc,&subsidiary stairway servesnoflat at accessbalc level & notmorethan3flats at higherorlowerlevel,&each flat entered& whollycontainedwithin 1 level, & noflat entrance door more than 5000fromhead orfootofsubsidiarystairway, &subsidiary stairway opento accessbalc &permanently ventilated atits head

notmore than 5Gm

escape route

flats enteredfromlob in bldg upto 4storeyswith 1 stairway only

escape in 2directions:

notmorethan 50m

than 380ni

above 1st storey notmore than 720m2, &noprivate entrance doormore than than 4500 fromstoreyexit orfromself-closing frdoor across lob, &everysection lob ventilated to openair

constructed ascompartment floor

92

Habitat

Flats & apartments: internal planning European development Development of flats in Europebetween 1919 and 1939 largely dominated byconcept of mm dwelling. In extremehousingshortagedwellings of small floor area and few internal amenities were used to provide

cooking breakiast

sql

ThHi.

high-density housing in inner-city areas —v(1)(2)(3)(4)(5). More generously planned flats used in surburban situations and for middleclassoccupation —v(6)(7)(8)(9).

J

Standardsforflats & maisonettes

Modern flats not regarded as 'second-best' but should provide accn

similar to houses forequivalent householdsize. Indeed space standards for flats in public sector in UKslightlymore generous than for houses, recognisingdifficulties ofproviding for internalcirculationand fireescape —p91 93.

5 Convertibleflat inday& night use with fold-awaybeds&screens;ar44) m2 Arch C Finger

Ii

6

5-bedrflat insystembldgStora Tuna Sweden ArchYJohnsson

•h

k

iii_:,

4' 7 4&3-mi low-riseflatsatNeubuhlZUrich Switzerland 1931

Arch M E

Haefelieta!

recess

N Igar85e

IN

Viennese2-rmflatofl92Os;4 fiats/landing Arch F Schuster 1

2

SmallGermanflatwithwcon innerwall;living ar28 m' Arch MãrkischeWohnungsbau

J

8

ClassicalGermansuburban flat;4&3-miS aspect flats withgenerous livingar& privatebalc Arch LHilberseirner

bedr

bedr

—1

JE 3 More generous3-mi fiatwithwc &sho

4

9

Moretightlyplannedflats forE-W aspect Arch LHilberseimer

Dutch3-mi flat with intemal bathr: compactplanwith separated service Arch H Leppla

10 5-miflatatHighgate London Englandwith bedropeningfrom internal lob (1936):this arrangement wouldnow needsecondaryescape frombedr Arch B Lubetkin

I -'H PL

1 lift 2 staircase

3 liv 4 loggia

5k

6rm

7 bathr 8 11

Flatsin high-riseblockBalomockScotland Arch SBunton&Associates

rITL

heating &water tank

12 Apartment-sizefloor inblockofflats Rouen Arch LodsDepondt BeauclairAlexandre

Habitat 93

Flats & apartments: internalplanning layout

allrmon samelevelas

conditkns

1

entrance door

2

allrm on level above entrance door

number ofescape routes

bedr doors open into entrance ha: no bedr door morethan7SOOfrom entrance door any othercase

bedr doors open into age athead ofstair: no bedr door morethan 7500fromhead ofprivate stair toentrance door 2 anyother case

1

1 plusalternativeescape roatefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromentrance door

1

1

1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr withdoor more than 7500fromhead of

private stair

anycase

1 plusalternativeescape

bectropenfrominnerlob withfrconstruction&selfclosing doorsasrequiredfor private entrance ha

an alternativeescape route fromeverybedr opening frominner lob

bedron levelabove liv &k;entrance door at

privatestairwayseparated fromupperlobbyIrscreen with self-closing frdoor

1 plusalternative escape

liv level

bedron levelabove liv & entrance door at bedrlevel

privatestairwayseparated fromentrance ha by screen with self-closingfrdoor


bedron levelbelow

privatestairwayseparated fromlowerlobbyfrscreen with self-closing frdoor

1 plusalternativeescape routefromlower level

no bedr door morethan 7500fromentrance door

1 plusalternativeescape routefromupper level

alternative private stairwayleadsup ordownto alternative escape route

liv & kseparated frombedr

1 plusalternativeescape

open plan maisonette

1

allrmon level below

route fromeverybedr

entrance door

bedrnot opening fromentrance ha or landing age

k

liv&k;entrance door at liv level

bedron levelbelow

liv&k;entrance door at

fr

Ir

route fromupper level

route fromlower level

route fromlevel whichis not entrance level

with privateentrance ha & stairwayseparatedfrom otherstoreybyfrwall or screen & self-closing fr door


2 withprivateentrance ha, but stairwaynot separatedas in

1 plusalternativeescape routefrom every enclosed rrnatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, &

condition 1

Privacy and fire escape principal determinants of internal planning of flats and maisonettes. Other requirements summarised in Parker Morris standards—*p4448 Bib233.

Privacy—*alsop769698

Privacy bestsecured bystairway access where onlyentrance door and possiblydelivery hatch opento landing. In balcony access, bathr, wc andkitchencanbe placed onaccessside,but note difficulty in providing natural light where high windows are below balcony. Sound insulation presents greater difficulties in flats than inhouses,and privacy best secured by planning. Avoid long separating walls to bedr, and avoid bedrbeneath access balconiesor adingelevators, stairs or refuse chutes. Where possible usecupboards (closets) to increase sound insulation of separatingwalls.

Fireescape

Bedrdoors opening into private entrancehall should wherever possible be nearer toentrance door than living rmorkitchen. Alldoorsother than bathrand wcshould beself-closing and fr;wallsenclosing entrancehall should have ½hr fr. In most other conditions planforalternativeescape routes from bedr above 2storeys. Recommendationsgenerally based on current codes of practice summarised in —n(1) and illustrated — (2)(3)(4). Butnote:always consult appropriatecode.

Services—p383—97

bedrlevel

byself-closing frdoor

DETERMININGFACTORS

route fromeveryenclosed rmatentrance level not opening into privateentrance ha, & alternativeescape route fromstorey which is not entrance level

Attention should be paid to grouping of services and provision of adequate service ducts, especially where bldg incorporate variety of dwelling sizes and plans not repetitive. Standard location and arrangement of bath, wc and kitchen fittings facilitates design of ducts and service stacks. Internal bathr and wc require mechventilation, either individually or by common ducting. Sharedventilation systems require smoke-stopping byfiredampersand stand-by fanstoensure continuous operation.

Checklist forservices in flats water

el drainage (+ rain water drainage) gas(not in high-rise) mech ventilation TV/FM radio aerials TV/radio relay telephones main entrance phone & control

alternative escape route fromeveryrmon atorey which isnot entrance level

anyothertypeof layout

1 plusalternativeescape routefromeverybedr &fromeverylevel which isnotentrance level

Escaperoutesfrom flats&maisonettes: as—.p91(1)thisalso has nolegal authoritybutisdesigner'sguidetoescape requirements relatedtointernal planning,baseduponvariouscodes® currentlyapplied inUK (1979): wherelocaldifferencesexistthey mightbelessonerous, buttableshould alwaysprovideguidetosafe planning 1

3

In largerflatsdistancebetween furthest bedr& entrance doorsshould not exceed7500unlessalternative escape route provided

EPt ec

2

Conventionalsmallflat plan,mostsafelyarranged withliv &kfurthestfrom entrancedoor

4

ienot morethan 1

bedr1

Jindowof

Flatwith innerlob,above2storeys, alwaysrequires alternative escape

provision

I

94 Habitat

Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS Byingenious planning upto 10flats served by 1 vertical access system in some continentaldesigns. Fireescapereg make suchsolutions difficult in Britain, unless flats very small or unless access balconies used, reducing convenience of point blockarrangement. Some point blocks built in Britain —(1)(2)(3)(4). American and continental examples —p95

upper floor plan 1 Point blockatThamesmeadEngland: 12-storey system-built structure provides4 flats on eachstorey ArchGLCArchitectsDept

1 21/2

a

layout plan

a

b

Vblockshavebeendevelopedinseveral countries, particularlyinlow-rise formswheretheycan beedtogetherwithoutovershadowing: this example,built in1957atCumbemauldScotland, hasarmsat unequalangles, giving greatervarietyoflayoutarrangements &avoidingclosedcourts atypicalupperfloorplan b layout plan ArchCumbernauld Development Corporation 3

water tanks carriedonliftshaft

—

flatson 17 storeys

2elevatorsstop

alternate storey

Tir

tJF caTny main entrance level

b

2

Point Royal BracknellEngland: one offew Britishpointblockswithmore than 4flats/storey;Split hexagonal plan logicallyaccommodates 6flats & minimisescirculationspace &escapedistances;carspace foreach flatunder circularpodium aupperfloor plan bsection Arch Aruociates

Low pointblocks or stubblocks',withelevators, canprovidesuitable housingforeldertypeople, asinthis London England 3-storeyblockof shelteredhousing—.p82 Arch YorkeRosenberg Mardall 4

Habitat

95

Flats & apartments POINT BLOCKS liv (bedrl

Some American and continental examples, most meetBritish reg.

of whichwould

not

Flats in point blocks generally small, with kitchen and bathr planned as standard unit and often with artificial lighting and ventilation. Point blocks can be planned as 2 blocks of flats connected by vertical access core.This twin plan arrangement improves daylight and sunlight to larger number offlats —(4).

Americanapartments; smallserviceflats surrounding 16-storey circulationcore Arch R C Reamer 1

0 I

4 12

8 I

24

12

I

36

16m 0

4811

12

2

Swedishpointblock:fire precautions relyon containing fire inflat whereit originates& preventing smoke penetration bydoubledoorsat flatentrance; escapehatches provided in balcfloors: accepted thatstairway &access landingsmightnotbeusablewhilefire being fought

0

I

4

8

I

4

8

12

12

24

36

24

l6rn

12

I

I

4811

36

4 Twin plan: 10flats/floor,escapestairwellprotected buttraveldistances wouldbetoogreatfor UKreg ArchMUller-Rehm, Siegmann

16m I 4811

0

4

I

12

3 5flats/landingBerlin: flats haveno corrbutlargeloggias: liv acts ascirculationar Arch AAalto

5

8 I

24

12 36

16m I 4811

Yblockon Siemenshousing estateMunich Arch Freymuth

I

cr

96 Habitat

Flats & apartments DUPLEX& TRIPLEXSECTIONS Designs for split level flats and rnaisonettes, with access balcony, deck or corridor every second (duplex) or third (triplex) storey, have beendeveloped over many years. While some design problems solved, egvisualprivacy,cross ventilation, others increased, such as sound insulation. —.alsop97(l)t4)

plan at corr level

Duplex:Russian type verysmallflat with limitedsleepingarbutmore spacious liv: accessbalcserves2storeys; wcoftentrance lob ArchM IGinsberg 1

,1

a

C:

2

Tnplex: earlyFrenchtype; lob opensfromaccess baicwithstairsupor down Arch Pingusson

access

k!kkkk

access balc

balc),)

5ra = 5rm,liv above 4rb = 4rm,liv below

I

iiv4rb

j

___ liv 5th

bedr

be1r

I iiv5rb

3 Split levelflats withbalcaccess: entrance, dining ar&kat entrance level, liv 1/2 storey up,bedr

½ down

Arch Hirsch

escape balc

b —

luggage sto, etc

ffloset

'above'

'deck level'

below'

escape balc

section

section

4 Triplex:Mareschal

system, withaccessbalceverythirdstorey, Cambridge USA;separateentranceswith private Stairstorlargerflats:allflatshavecross ventilation Arch Koch-Kennedy

5 Wide accessbaic or deck' housing RobinHoodLaneLondon England: 1/2 baypartitionscanbearranged to permitwidevariation ofdwellingsizes: Stairs &blacked-inwallsmustberegarded aspermanent structure; noteescape balc at bedrlevels Arch A &P Smithson

Habitat 97

Flats & apartments INTERNALACCESS

bedr

1je. 9

F

baic

- JkI;1: 1

tS'lilc

sectionthroughstaircase

planotconleseia—b

planandercorrc—d

planone,cone—i

1

Split levelflats servedfrorn internal correvery thirdstorey: allflats have cross-ventilation —'also p96 Arch Neufert

2

Accessbycentrestairway;each landing serves2 flats:again allflats cross-ventilated

Arch Neufert

rwa5 EIIIL1

I<jc1kI plans

?• k

—

t

N

-

sections

3

Narrow-frontage flats Marseilles through extendedthrough verydeepblockwith pnvate balcon each facade: doubleh liv allowsun &daylight penetration,access bywide internal coneverythirdstorey Arch LeCorbusier C

section

4

Centrecorrshortwell lit& ventilated, givingaccess to 1-rrn flatsatcorrlevel& 3-rrnflats by shortstairwaysup or down Arch vanden Broek

98 Habitat

Stepped housing Steep slopesinvite stepped form of construction. Rake (storeyheight toterrace depth) must relateto slope: canbe80_400. Mm terracedepth of 3200 facing S will secure privacy while providing full sunlight and view. Gardentroughs at front ofterrace provide someadvantagesof private garden and prevent overlooking —(1). Other arrangements giving increased privacy

Gardentroughspreventoverlooking ofter:necessary trough depthx = a(ha— ht) hc a=depth ofter ha = eyeh hc= storeyh hI =troughh 1

2 Teroverhangforextraprivacy

3

In 2-storeyunits upperfloor overhangs

Advantages of stepped housing, with privacy and viewat high densities, leadto use in special conditions,even on level sites in bldg oftriangular or slopingsection: can be in combination with different bldg use —(9) or in single aspect situation, to enjoy sea view or exclude motorwayor railway noise—(8).

5 L-shapedflats with protected patios

4

Staggeredfloor plans

9

Section throughconference centre Designed byEGisel

6 Hillsidehousing ArchStucky& MenIi

7

Steppedhouseson levelsite ArchFreySchrdderSchmidt 4p maisonette 2P flat 2Pflat

Housingat AlexandraRoadLondon England: alldwellingsenjoysaspect &railwaynoiseexcluded ArchBoroughArchitect London Borough of 8

Camden

Habitat

99

Shared housing Needs of 1-person households normally very much like those of 2large singleflat

mediumsingle flat

small singleflat

1

person. In certain circumstances, however, single people may prefer share. May be provided in formof flats orhouses, usuallyforbetween 4 and 8people, containing 1-bed/sitting rm, bathrand farmhousekitchen orseparate living/dining rm and working kitchen. Houses or flats used for sharing require more parking space than normal housing (at least 1 space/bedspace). Large private garden unlikely to be required though some out-door sitting out space should be provided. Generous provision should be made for sto of bulky objects, sporting gear etc. Particularly advantageous if meters can be read fromoutside —*p74(3) and ifsomeformof external delivery boxcanbe provided for use when occupants out atwork—(5).

HousingforsinglepeopleLeicesterEngland: typicalfloorplan ArchDoE

firstfloor

2

Variantofpartof—(1) whichprovideslargesharedflat for4people insteadoflarge,medium&small singleflats

groundfloor

4 2Victorianterhousesadapted forsharing

ArchYork (England)

UniversityDesignUnit

1\e4

280

.

-v

C,)

5 siteplan

3

Bed-sittingaccnwith kcommon rminsmall4 personhouses: notewc separatefrombathr Arch ManningClamp& Partners

Externaldeliverybox

Housing references: —*Bibliographyreferences 037 038 044047 092 179 227228 233234

235236237238240242245246247248263264299300302363 372458464467511 512519521548558573574624631637650

I0

100 Habitat

Houses PRIVATEGARAGES Size

Avoid under-dimensioning garages. Clearance between car and side walls should be mm 200—300 with margin in front mm 500. For getting out allow at least door width between carand wall or between cars and never less than 700. For car cleaning,wallsor other cars should be mm 1 200 away. 0

100,5

0.5 1;0 1.5 2;0 2.5

o

3

6

3;0354.04;55;055m 9

12

l

15

Typicalvehicleelevations

Garage should becloseto houseentrance, though not necessarilyfront door, with easy access; actual distance from house will vary with size and number of vehicles. On steep slopes with houses above road, garage can be sitedatstreet level (maxdriveway gradient6%) butmust be protected against ground water —.(6). Where house is close to boundary garagecan be setatangle orcombined with next-doorgarage Access driveway should either beconsolidated over its whole width or have concrete wheel-runs —o(9). An apron infrontof garageshould be concreted full-width, 5000—6000 long and drained forcarwashing and to provide occasional off-street parking for another car. Garage floor should be raised 30—50 above washing areaand slope towards it.

DJH rt__ L

Siting garages

Integral garage—eplOl(1)(2)

2.0 2.5

2 Planviews of typicalvehicles dimensions no L B

T

1

1 T

2 3 4 5 6

I a

3.0

2.0

40 50

6.0

70 80

O

I—

L

H

-1

2

2J

h

16

2,2T2.4

3.0 3.0 3.5

2.4125 2.4 3.0128 3.0

40

p]j8

67

4.2

6.1

34

2.2124

2.4

30

F

o=regular

7

lb

2.5

USAsizes

I

H Tentrance

—

I23 y=

20 20

compact

—I

H

-

3

4

5

H

6

J_

5

J-

I I b

Houseonslope,garageon road below 6

Usualsiting

1

Standardgarages ainelevation bplansizesfor: 1 motor cyclewith side-car2—4 cars5&6vans&trucks; usualmaterials forthesedismountable garagesasbestoscementorsteelsheets,flat orcorrugated, &timber 3

7

Boundaryin close proximityto house,sogarageat angle

8

Combinedgarageswhere distancefromboundarynot stipulated

I— 1000—1500

J 4

Garage in plan—.(3)

I—

-

I—

—4 I—

-4

4—

2000 600 —4

__________

9

Accessdrivewaywheelruns

—1 4—

600

-

__________

Habitat 101

Houses PRIVATEGARAGES

Incorporatedwithin house

Garages have been placed in basement,sometimes under conservatory orsimilarannex to house —(1). Should be avoided if possible; should not be used in areas whichhave freezing weather: access slope not morethan20% —(4). Driving up steepramp with motor stillcoldshortens engine life, is noisy and can be difficult. Garage therefore better placed at ground level, driveway having slightfalltowards road. On sloping sites groundflooror terrace may be raised sufficiently to allow basement garage at road level. Direct access to garage fromentrance hall or lobby via self-closing fr door usually permissible: threshold must be 100 mm above garage floor. Otherwise access to garage can be provided under common canopy with entrance door to house. Garage should beaway fromliving rmand bedr, accessiblefromkitchen and side or service entrance. Car washing and driveway should be screened by shrubs and bushes, which will also muffle noise.

I9

Carports —.pl 02(6)

Doors—*pl02(7)—(10)

4115H

—I

1

Garage in basement, various arrangements: wofgarage doors& ramp = 1000;garagedimensions 2800 x 5500—3500x6500

car -4-

2ndstorey

Up-and-over doorsor rollershutters now usual: can be operated by el motors with remote control switch or by electronic devices, provide additional head-room for motorcaravans and similar vehicles. Slidingfolding doors require additional width. Hinged doors opening outwards can be blocked by snow. When used should have provisionforfastening in openposition. Folding doors also —*p402 Windows and el lightshould be near carengine, with switches atgarage doorand any other entrance; spark protected socket outlet, well clear of floor, desirable. Heating best situated in front of or under engine, keeping garage above 5°C. Water tap with hose attachment should be near door, in easy reach of washing area, with hose-reel mounted nearby. Garage should be ventilated near floorlevel.

Internalfinishes 1ststorey

Walls can be fair-faced brick or blockwork, painted, or tiled. Floors usually cement screed, but oil stains hard to remove. Asphalt tiles dissolved byoil; best flooring material oil-proof ceramic tiles. Fortyres, standing on hardwood timber inserts orwoodblock isbest ifcan be kept free from oil. Garage should have floor gulley, and floor should be 150—200 above ground level outside.

groundstorey

2 3-storeyhousewith integral gar:canbesiteddirectlybehind pavementas gar & centralporchprovideprivacy; access togardenthroughuty

I

In basementgar,whereunavoidable, slopenotmore than20%

3 2-storeyterhousewith attachedgarinfront, screeningsemi-private entrancecourt:generallymoreeconomical (&attractive)than 3-storeyhouse withintegralgarage—.(2) but implies lowerdensity'

I 'I

102 Habitat

Houses PRIVATEGARAGES:BUILDINGREGULATIONS Small garages Fordomestic garages in EnglandWales—uBib65O Small garage definedasonewhich hasfloorarea not more than 40 m2. Such bldg subjecttospecial rules (El5) Where small garage combined with small open carport rules of E19 mustalsobe studied.

Sing'egar(for a b—spi 00(3))

2

Doublegar

measurements —.p100

0

'

250

Detached bldg consisting of small garage,orsmall open carportorboth should be regarded as PG 1 bldg for purposesof Part E (E18). Detached small garagewhichis 2000ormore away from anyboundary must have roof covering complying with El5 (roofs) but need not conform toany other reg in Part E (E16). Detached smallgarage within 2000 of boundary must have roof complying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of boundary must be externally non-combustible. All its internal wall surfaces must beclass spread of flame (El8). Detached small garagewithin 2000ofhouse musthave roofcomplying with E17 and any part of external wall within 2000 of house must be externally non-combustible. All internalwallsurfaces ofgaragemustbe class spread of flame. However, if house wall is itself externally non-combustible and has 1/2 hr frand no unprotected areas within the 2000 distance greater than 0.1 m2or nearerto oneanother than 1 500 requirements on non-combustibility and flame spread do not apply to garage walls(E18). Requirements on class flame spread in E18 (3)(4) do not apply to exposed surface of frame member forming partofwall. Small garage attached toorforming partof housemust have rooftoEl7. If there isfloor overgarage floor must have fr ofat least 1/2 hr. Any wall between house and garage must have at least 1/2 hr fr. Any opening in thatwall between house and garage must have threshold at least 100 above level ofgaragefloorand befitted with self-closing frdoor(1/2 hrfr) to El 1. In all other respects suchgarage must comply with relevant requirements of Part E (El8).

petrtrap

0

i_I__i_I

J•:

1U-f 10004—

±—

C

— 400

—•I

a

1_1.1_1

—H

I—

3 Gar with work bench, 1 car, motor cyclewith sidecar&bicycles

I__I

F_

I_I.!.! —I

5000—6000

4 Gar with washingar

0

Garage references.—eBibliographyentries 225 276 348 435 636 650

7

Overheaddoor(flyover)

8

Overheaddoor (foldaway)

Doublegarusedtoextend1-storeyhousetoscreen patio; lowdensity solution

5

a

6

=

orr acn

b

Examplesof Americancarports wellrelatedtoentrance a Arch-team Gropius bArch HSeidler

9

Overheaddoor,sectional (flyovertrader)

10

Rollershutter

Habitat

103

Gardens ENCLOSURES

12

Simplechain-linkfencing:iron postswith wire mesh 1

x 75

1

mt square

1 250

expanded

J.

3

Battengate (from inside)

Wire nettinggatewith bracing

4

hexagonal

100x 19 boards 125x 100setin concrete

undulating

Wire netting:usualsize40—55

13 115brickwall (half brick)with ingpiers

14

Close-boardedfence

\

600-800

uptx2h00

groned

concreteorstone

,-.

5 Wrought-ironrailing rectangular

6

Framed,lodged,braced& boardedgates 15

Angle-ironrailing

section

•ø10 1800

16 Hedge with link-mesh infill

—

1 1120

.1.

7

Wrought-ironrailingof 10—15 sections& bars

8

Wrought-irongate between concreteorstone posts

100x100 125 x 19 railsnailed aftemativelytoboth sidesofpost

17 Horizontalboarded(ranchtype)fence

-1

x

150 75 mainpost

Most timbers used for fencing require some form of protective

4270

87 1< 38

treatment. Particularly important timberposts treatedagainst decay below ground and at least 200 above ground. Concrete plinth helps prolong life of most timber fences.

x

87 38 prickpost pointedfordriving

I

Lt

9

Timberpost& rail (4rail)

Design offence and materialsused in itsconstruction should harmonise with surroundings. Showbest side (fair face) of boundary fence outwards with posts visible from within site. On sloping ground fence should follow contours. Extend protective fences against animals 100—200 below ground, especially where hedge planted —(16).Hedges —ep104.

10 Fenceofforestbattens(topof battensweathered)

18 Wire-boundwoodfencing availableinrolls

Where termites present inground very desirable use pressuretreated or termite resistant wood egcedar.

104 Habitat

Gardens SITING& LAYOUT

protection fromnoise& dust: NE(winter) espaliertrait

pStreet

NIw ter fl

_Q,2lJuo

was

•i protection twall lawn from wind (insummer) shadyar boundarywall

-

Suitableplantingforhousewalls

according to orientation

Dec

2

Suitablelayout forsmallgarden protectedfrornwind with vegetablesnearkentrance

manure strawberries

teiII,eS_r

car wash 9W sandpit

side - entr

Layout

Plan landscape simultaneously with design of house so that levels of drives, terracesand entrances are coordinated. Where space permits provide turningarea forvehicles and rrtechanisedeqp. Study position ofsunand prevailingwinds andavoid frostpockets when siting planting areas —n(6). Plant treesand hedges to give protection fromcold N and E winds. Vegetable production: allow 55—75 rn2/Pon best soil available.

Humus or sandy loam better than heavier loam, clay or loose sand. Conserve topsoil excavated from areas of paving or building for use

fruitbushes

elsewhere —api05.

water grass

•N

garden

4

Layoutforsmall sitetogive largest possiblevegetablegarden

!

slopeswarmest during May and Sept SW slopeswarmest Oct—Apr SE slopes warmest Jun —Oct Orientation —ap40 7781

Soil

•

swwig

3

N

waterbasin fruittrees

—

ter

Aspect of ground and its angle of slope —v(6)plOS have important bearing on amount ofsun radiation it receives at different seasons: S

positionofsun 1

Siting

Orientation& relation

ofrm&tertogarden crop plaidpoorneattosbdue toshade& rootcompetition

*— shelter belt

-

I

relatively

J.

Enclosuresforgardens

Walls: brick or stone (use type which blends with materials used to construct house). Fences: wood or metal (match surroundings)—api 03. Hedges —a(7)(10): clipped foliage (formal) orflowering (informal). Allow sufficient space for ultimatewidth ofhedge when established, 450—1 200. To producethickhedgestagger plants thus:

Windbreaks

Planting of shelter belts has marked effect on soil temp, giving considerable increase in crop production—(5).

increasedcropyield

5 Effectofshelterbeltoncrop production

coldairbufids op invalley& createsfrost

—

plantlower-growingplants on higher partofslope good

B

good

Effect ofslope &exposureonestablishment of plants

§ -1-

6OO-12t

stonesbuiltup in diminishingomjrses

Jc

eon

thin sodsplaced betweenindivdsarl

Hedge innorthern

9

grasseventually growsoverStones giving appearance ofturfhedge

Stoneusedinconstructionofturf hedge

7

Hedgeh

hawthornhedge

L600— stones

8

bad

10 Turf hedge

il

Jf.

waler channel

Habitat

Gardens SOIL PREPARATION

Topsoil

Top layer of soil must be preserved: provides growing medium for plants.

underground

___________________________ I

Soil compaction

lopsoil malerial unlenor malenal

7

On bldg sites storetopsoil in temporary spoil heaps —e(1). Keep free from weeds. If stored over long period use green manuring. Turn over heapat least onceayear. Spread topsoilafter completion ofearth moving. Allow 600—1 000depth for planting trees, 500 for climbers and wall plants, 300 for shrub beds, 150 forgrassed areas.

Fill on gentleslopes

Topsoilspoilheap

105

5OO

Soil used as fill for hard landscapedareas should be spread in layers 300—400 deepand well compacted—e(3) (notall soilssuitable forthis).

Materials of different character should be deposited and compacted separately.

Banks Buildingup inlayers

4 Cohesivematerialin corewith slight stepping

T/.177777'

8

Deadwattle

prevent sliding of fill material —(4). Angle of slope should beconsideredin relationto maintenanceoperations required and topand bottomofbank gently rounded off. Providedrainage at bothtop and bottom of bank sothatsoilonly receivesmoisture falling on its surface. Max gradient for mowing grass 1:3, forplanting 1:2 (or 1: 1 where no maintenance required). Turf laid on banks should be secured with wooden pegs —*(5). On slopes steeper than 1: 1 turfs should bethickerand laid stepped—(6). Use wattle for steep banks where difficult establish plant growth. Distinguish between dead wattle —+(7) and live —e(8). In using live subsequent planting ofshrubs necessary aswillow actsonlyas pioneer. On very steep slopes etainingwalls—epi06(19)—(20). Crib structures —.(9)and grass-concrete construction—+(10) may also be used.

Binding withsteppedturt

7

To prevent soil movement fill along slopes should be placed in layers. Form cuts in existingground surface to create serrated profile to retain fill material —u(2). On higher banks ground profile should be stepped to

Live wattle

selplantsbetweenbeams atlopofwall sothaIthey cascadeoverface

soiltype

weight kg/rn3

angle of repose (degrees)

loose &dry loose& naturally moist loose& saturated withwater consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist loose& dry (av forlight soil) loose& naturally moist loose& saturated with water (av formedsoil) consolidated &dry consolidated & naturally moist mediumcoarse&dry mediumcoarse& wet

1400 1 600 1 800

45

he ernbankrnienl beanis

slopeof

earth

groundlevel

loam

Cribstructure g ravel

sand

brokenstone,wet cia

1

900

27—30

42 37

1 500

40—45

1 550

45

2000

20—25

1 800

40

1 850

70

800 2000

dry

1 800

30—45 25—30 35—40

fine& dry fine,naturally moist fine &saturated withwater coarse&dry

1600

30—35

1 800

2000

40 25

1900—2000

35

2000—2200

30—40

1 600

40—50 20—25

.

loose& dry loose& verymoist solid & naturally moist(heavier soil)

drysand & rubble 11

1 700

35—40

Weights&anglesofreposefor different kindsofsoil

1

2000 2500 1400

70

35

I

106 Habitat

Gardens PERGOLAS,PATHS,STEPS& RETAINING WALLS Retaining walls

Concrete construction cheaper than stone walling. Good form work detailing essential obtain pleasingappearance.Dry stone wallingsuitable for retaining earth up to 2000high. Brickbacking necessary for higher walls-(1 9)(20).

Paths

Widthof ramped paths 1 220—1350;length 6000—9000. 1: 12 gradient necessary foreasy negotiation bywheelchairs. For short pedestrian ramps 1:7 acceptable—vp85. Ifstepped, max height ofstep

is 125—e(11)—(13).

Paths also—*p1943

Steps Insulationoftimberagainstrot

Climber

1

Tread width not less than 300. Risers 90—150 high —e(1 4)(15)(17)(18). Detailof finish to end of steps important, especially where set in grass bank.

monolithoi graniteor basait

I

16 Walkingmore comfortable ifpath longitudinally concave:

agood, riseofstepsconcave bbad, rise convex

3

Tt:

4

Pergolaofmonolithstone (commonin Italy &Ticino)

Pergolaonbrickpier

18 Stepsof naturalorworked

17 Steps withflagstones

stone

70-80

flY

6 Cobbles:expensive

,; •..

but durable

hli,ng

—soil brokenstone

drainage

••

625

-t.e2 :1 19 Concreteretainingwall (w base 1/3 h)

8

Pavedpath bedded

& raised(easier keep clean)

Pavedpath flush (preventsobstruction oflawn mower) 9

10

20

Drywalling (specialdrainage

notnecessary)

Th

of slabs

Spacing = length ofstride:

114

thickness 30

=8386

sideview

19

end view

21

Turf &concretepayersfordrives, fire route round bldg, bank

iIli 14 Stepswith post s

15 Stepswith flagstone& blocks

22

p3004

eoo

path

wheelbarrow path

Dimensions of paths

j!l 2004

1,004400I 3004

orgarden

doubieflagstone path

9OO—1

access path

107 Habitat

Gardens: equipment 03000

350 x400 290 x490 410 x700 300 x800

2500

1150T

1200

800I

01000-1150

200

1

-5501

2

Metal foot scraper

3

Gardenchair&table(iffolding:

top600x 1000, l00thickwhen

Sunshade

r

700

1800 1500

folded)

400—,

610

i 85o)

J

tolded1B5th Gardenchairs

tOIded80th(

4

2000

5

6

Deckchair

Hammock

8 Charcoal&gas portable barbecue

9

11

Gardencarts &wheelbarrow

12 Lawntnmmer

Seedspreader

13 Walkingsprinkler

14 Lawnsprinklers

C

Ii'°j 15

Riding tractor

16

18 Reelmower

Leafcollector

) 20 Sprayer

19 Garden tools

21

Hose reels

22 Motortiller

1000-1100 2

(240)

2

1800—2000

'420 23 Tennisracket

24 Toboggan,skis

25 Tricycle

I

26 Bicycle

108 Habitat

Gardens TREES,SHRUBS

Trainedfruit

-1

300-500 1200

P

I

wire

canes

T

2250

600

•eseaber

2

Pipe espalierframe

1

3

Framefordoubleespalier

4

Woodespalierfence

Wall espalier

I-41

T

T

ffrff[; 1-5004-500-

5

1-600-1

6

Uprightcordon

7

Doublecordon

Palmettecordon6& 8branch

8

Chandeliercordon

Tree planting

—espaherwire

1270strap& 400 spacersecuredtotop ot stake&tree stem

tree securedwith wire threadedthrough n43ber hoseto protect

4

-ì

prevailing wind

5000

—I

9 Horizontalcordon twit, treeshape, stock

crowned varieties planting interval

standard apple appleon strong EMstock

bait

10 Heavystandard

11

On exposedsite

12 Normalsituation

appleon weak EMstock standard pear bush pear on pear stock bush pear on quince pear spindleon quince

prevailingw*id

—8

atandardcherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard bitter cherry 1/2 standard cherry on Pmahaleb standard & bushplum

13 Onexposed hillside

14 Toformclose

15 Fruitbushes

group

bush apricot standard walnut

hazelnutbush

Shrubplanting clay lodredintotop 80-150

replaceescavatedsoil with town:25%

spreadout rootsaway fromwall

maId, 500

removeanyrubble toensuretree

breakup sod: incorporatepeat & grit

16 inpoorsoil

peachbush standard apricot

ircoryodeecompost

17

Insandysoil

drainage

18 Against wall

gooseberry, red & white currant black currant gooseberry & currant cordon raspberry & upright blackberry rambling blackberry annual strawberry cultivation perennial strawberry cultivation

inhouse garden &small-

enclosedsite

10 x 10

6x 6 5x5 Sx

3.5x3.5

8*5 6x6

4.5*4.5

4*4

plant/ha 100 277—400 400—816 156 277 494

planting

8v 8 x 4x4

plant/ha 156

''

400—625

x 3*3 7*7

625—1120

2.5*2.5

1120*1600

5x5

204

3x3

625—1120

10*10

100

6*6 6x6

277 277

5*5 7x7 5*5 5*5

400

4 v4

204—400

5x5

400

400

4*4

625

7

204—277

5

400

6*6 6x 6

8*8 5*5

156

5 x5

400

2.5 x 2.5

4x 4 70—100 Sx 8 3*3 625 2x2 2000—2500 2* 1.5 2 *2.5 1600

1.5

4444

1

2*0.5

10000

2 *05

2 *4

12*12

4*4 2x 2.5 2v 2

* 1.5

277—400

* 1.5

1250

2 >i 4

0.3*0.3

160000— 111 111

0.3

0.8 *0.3

66666— 41666

* 0.5 *0.3

0.25 0.25

625 1120 2500—3333 2000 6666 10000

*

0.25 0.25 160000—

* 0.3 05 * 03 0.6* 0.3

111111 66666— 41666

19 Plantingdistances:affectedbysoil&moistureconditions, manuring, strengthofstock,variety& pruning, consequently greateror lessvariation from 'coefficients'possible;EM = EMailing

Habitat 109

Gardens WATERSUPPLY rotaryspnnklerwith

diaup to 12.0

Water essential for plant growth. If no mains (municipal) supply available trial holes should bedug to ascertain presence of water in soil.

sprinklingcircles musi overtap

sprinklerforbeds (arcovereddepends on pressure(

reservoirfor handoperation

•

Shallowwells Sunk directly into water-bearing strata. Yieldlikelyto fall off in dry weather.

0

hand

u4

Topreventcontaminationriskwell

should be at least 10 m (15 m USA) fromanyseptictank orsewer

well

1

2

Hand-operatedpumpdrawsup

El-operatedpumpfeedswaterto pressurevesseluntil switchcuts out atapprox4atm; aftersome lossof water pumpstarts upagain at 2atm

to7000d,pumpsupto 30m h;

output/mm 40—801: forgreaterd largerpumpsneededwith suitably built deep-seatedsuctionvalves

3 Perrot' typesunkensprinkler: dug intolawn &centrallyoperated;

coverage8000—10000 at 1.5—3.5 atm; capacity/hr0.5—1.0 m3/valve

Reservoirs foamor clay

flowerpot ofclayoroak

main and constructed with water-

tight lining(steining). Wells may be operated by hand —*(1)orelpump—v(2).Well house mustbe insulated, protected from frost and adequately ventilated if below ground. Recommended size: 2100 x 1500approx. Switch and fuse box sited above ground level.

Reservoirs

4

Small pools may be constructed invariety ofways, depending upon site conditions and economics —v (4)—(8).

5

Waterproofing withclay, for wateringonly (notsuitablefor paddlingpools):thickclay covered with layers of soil &gravel

Inexpensive gardenreservoir, incorporatingfelt, sheetingor continuoussealingwith 3—4layers ofhessianstuck withbitumen;in caseofimpermeablesub-soil pan should bewateredtodiminish pressureonseal

•.J

\.:.3iayers,,?

6

Reservoirwithclay asseal,lined withstones:suitableforflowerponds

rendenng15thick

rentorc

L •te

Overflowshould be incorporated —(1O)—(12); make provision for emptying by either submersible el pump orsiphoning —a(1 2). Bottom of poolshould be sloped tooutlet ifemptying tobe complete. Pool edges need concealing. Paving flags or coping more suitable for formal shaped pools — (7)—(12), and grass—v(4)(5), marsh plants orrocks forinformallayouts, accordingto ultimateeffect desired.

consolclatedfoam

Paddlingpools 7

8 Swimmingp001ofreinforced

Reservoirwith brickbuilt banks

concretewithdamp-proofrendering ormembrane;poolshould be emptiedinwintertoavoidfrost damage;also —vpl14

9

Marsh&water plant reservoir, showingvariedcombinationof differentplants: notsuitableforhard water;also—npl 13

Waterlily &fishpools

—p113

Emptying

Irrigation

vent opening

it

Recommended depth for children foradults; for 200—400,800—1000 swimming pools —api 14.

removable

air ::::: overflow

:::::. outlet

10 Overflow&outletwith plugs

Overflow&outlet pipe combined 11

12 Floatingel pump;further emptyingbysimplesiphoning

Simplest form consists of series of channels flooded with water —a(13). Drains needed to remove surpluswater—a(13)—(16). Overhead watering bymeans of line or rotary sprinklers more efficient. Rate at which water delivered should be sufficient for soil absorption withoutforming puddles on surface.

Drainage —

1n

--

—

—

::

contour lines

drain fascine

conuiexion

ofirrigation

pipewith thannel

13 Drainageplan

14 Open ditchwith wattle

15 Coveredwattle

ditchwith sand bottom

16 Coveredditchwith flagstones&rubble

I

110

Habitat

Gardens Gardensfordisabled

Heightof raised bed suitable forwheelchair 600 (must have knee space underneath —v(3)); for ambulant disabled approx 860 —v(4): varies according to individual heightand physicalstate. Forsome elderly and handicapped outdoor gardening difficult; indoor garden can be designedsuit special needs—v(2)p112. Restrict widthof beds to 1200sothat workeasily carried outfromeither side to cover whole area; comfortable total reach forward 750—965. Surround bed with hard paving—v(1). Important provide convenient supplies (eg water), sb and controls whichmake lifting and stooping unnecessary; rolling cart ortrolleycan eliminate muchlifting and carrying.

Roofgardensalso —p112 Provide background of screens, walls etcto protect plants fromeffects ofhighwinds. Tofacilitate drainagefinished surfaceofing roofstructureshould be laid tofalls—v(5).

Rockgardens

Undulating site with SE or SWaspect ideal. Simulate life-size outcrop (not mountain range in miniature) linked by irregular-shaped areas of stonechippings, alpine lawn orgrass. When placing rocks first select 1 or2 specimens, mm 500 kg, for key positions. Build up nucleus of rocks 250—500 kg round them. Place smallerrocks 150—200 kg towards perimeter—v(6)(7).

Floodlit landscape features To highlight foliage floodlights mounted on lower branchesof tree and

lightbeam projected upwards through foliage —v(9). Iflight-source canbeconcealed floodlights maybepositioned atbase of tree and beam projected verticallytoilluminatefull heightoftree—v(8b). Light source placed somedistance away fromtree where foliage used as illuminated background and details unseen —u(8a). Sculpture may require only singlefloodlight butisenhancedbysubdued lightingin surrounding areato give impression of reflected light. individualrockslaid lifting singhtiybackwardsto aiiowrainwater totnckla overplants rocksgroupedtogethermust havetheirstratarunningin direction&observe sarne naturalmarkings

Raisedgardenfordisabledgardener—+(3)

1

a

[

1220

584

stainless

drawers

[

stainlesssteel planttos

r1[5t°JJ

b

51

window

roll-outbini

I

'I

2590

vent

stratamusttoiiow that occurnngin quarrybed

--

—

Positioningofrocks& method ofbedding

6

t3 —

—

spread25 dia drippingsalter

no manureortertiliserlobe incorporatedintopsoil

planting

7

coarseshingle

-

4..

—50—ltodna formationlevellaidtofails totacilrtatedrainage

.

Construction of bed

ofrockgarden

2

Stand-upgardenplan a &elevation hand,roll-out bin forfetchingsupplies

bwith water, supplies,eqp closeat

rocksliabletotopple itsettooshallow

a —..

wheretheretsan obstruction,eg stream. ffoodftghtpositionedsome 'Uistariceaway

-. —

——

b

8 afloodlit landscape feature blightsourcebelowtree b

oos

.

on

.

lowerbranchestoproject beamoflightupwards

positionedat pointwherecascadestnkes water &hewn projected upwardssothatftcatches eachdropletofwater

-

4

Raisedplantingbed for wheelchair 3

trees ____________

Stand-upgardensection

shrubs

1= glassftbrequill

9 a

alightsourcelocatedwithintree bfloodlighting waterfall

•. /

•1

600 peat

25 _______________ gravel 5

t

topsOit

.t ________

150

254

Roofgardenconstruction

Pest1 gravel

grass

io

peatLi1 1

ifI

b

t light

beaniof light positionedparallel todirectionofwater projected jet

.

.

toosoni

jet

——

gravel

10 afloodlitfountain bunderwater floodlighting

submerged

beamdirected

hilydownwards

into pooi

Habitat

111

Gardens

:

T

ii

1200-1800.

1

Smalltent in 2sections

2

Largertent in8sectionswith2 end sheets

4 aFree-standingworkcentreasdecorativescreen bworkcentreattached togarorhousewall, closedwith hingedglazed ; sto bins underpotting

3

Housetent

5

Open shed

6

Open shed withroof &toolsto containingprivy

bench

"S

r.

—

for ___sc--dOor weather

-.

protection

/\canopy

onokung

5000

3750 3750

7 Similar to 6butwithsolid separatetoolsto & parapetsto

Enclosedshedtosleep 1

GARDEN STRUCTURES

9 Enclosedshed to sleep3,with separatecookingspace

Not usually rated as bldg or considered as permanent living accn unless continually occupied or

providespace

used for business purposes.

fflhing

N l50 30011

Compost sto

12

Should not be sited nearer than 1 800 to site boundary or bldg on same site, unless boat-house structure and waterway boundary. USA:check setback requirements in local zoning ordnance.

a'

'80/80

10 Peat privy(dry)

Tents & sheds

1000 1500 1000 2000

Frame

Barbecues —p77 107(8) Glasshouses & frames Specifyglasshouses according to type and width. Lengthadapted tosuit conditions. RoofridgesitedN-S.Framesface S.

4)built fromground level and often transferred to another plot aftercropping. Other typesmay be seton dwarf wall. Glass usually680g. Heavierweight 906gorplastics sometimes used. Dutch-light—÷(1

13 Smallgreenhouse

14 Dutchlights

15

Hothouse againstwall

Temp ofunheatedglasshousesand frames 5—7°C, heated 12—15°C. Ventilation essential. Specify adequate numberofvents. Hot or cold bed frame lights—*(12) may be setonsliding tracks, completely removable orraisedforventilation.

112 Habitat

Gardens INDOORGARDENS Indoor gardens lend adjacent rm spacious feeling: plants freshen air, add hum, provide hobby, educate children. Ideal orientation in most climates for most plants StoSE. Nto NEdaylight should beaugmented by special plant lights. W sun difficult control. Plan artifical lighting not only for plants' welfare but in relation ading rm. Studies showcool whitefluorescents provide many characteristicsneeded byplants: also availablespecialised plant lights with greater rangebenefits. Idealheating and coolingforplants verylowvelocity airsystem: othersystems can be adapted.

ROOFGARDENS-p88 Consider shade from nearby bldg, wind and smog when choosing location and plantsfor roof garden. Weight ofsoil factor in roof garden design (0.03 m3av soil equals 36kg).Ifquestion of structuralstrengthof roofconsider hydroponic gardening using lightweightholding medium suchasperlite orvermiculite. Desirablesetplants inplanters orhanging baskets ratherthanbedsforease ofplant replacementaswellasweight considerations. Planters may beofwood, pottery or reinforced plastics. Shade tolerantplants could include fuchsias, begonias, hardy ferns, impatiens, azaleas.Smog tolerant plants include ivy, oleander, azaleas, ginkgo, camellia, privet. Wind tolerant plants: holly, ivy, boxwood, euonymus (should be started as small plants tobuildup resistance).

Corr gardenplan

1

13 type condensationgutter window stool

/

glassH

slatefloor

cill

asbestos board

38sawedwoodcap sect,00s

1152c/c radiation

_J9re

(L.

gardenconstructed

?t:z c3r" 28ã :

150stepOsrrs

withstaved5Qx lOOsides

I

\

if

gods 1—SlOradius—--f

50

50 topsoil groundlevel

brokenbrick 50

20 plywood

5

concrete wall

914 \ vermiculite& gravel

Entrygardensection

hold,,,g

mediums

\ galvan isedwashtub asphaltcoaledins,de 305clay potwith fitting stainlessfood strainer forpeastone

8

Methodofcontainerisedhydroponicgardening

2 Sectionthroughcorrgarden

Li flnr

fixed glass

p I..-grill

slate So

Icopper

6 Entry gardenplan

step carpet liv

3

infloor overradr

Add-ongardenplan liv

fixed glass

•

•

-

\

4

.

framing insulati 50 x 150 CIII 100 concretesIab,, 255 concrete p 100 gravel wall 50 concreteblock compactedearth

Add-ongardensection

7

Roofdeckoutdoorrm; roof surfaceprotectedfrom foot damage bypreservativestreatedwood floor; design usestypicalapartmenthouse penthouseaspartofplan ArchEH &M KHunter

Habitat 113

Gardens WATER LILY, FISHPOOLS

-. 1 liiterplate 2 liitertray 36pipefittings 4 pumpfittings 5 underwaterpump . 6 6ppefltfings 7 hosetowaterlajl , 8 cablewith groundwire H hoseconnexiontopump

G fiitermat&gravel I

—-— —

,-.,_h,

7

0

86

water lev 355

Can be formal or natural in shape. Pre-fabricated pools usually glass fibre or other plastics. Built-inpools reinforced concrete, using rather dry concrete mix 127—152 thick, placed in wooden form or shaped excavation in firm soil linedwith vinylplastics before pouring concrete. Pools must be sitedfor max sun, high enough ensure ground water not enterpool in heavy rain, near watersupply ifnoautomatic supply. Depth waternot less than 355 sothatwaterlilies may be planted in boxes for ease of removal. Provide overflow pipe, removable fordraining.

3 H

2 1

Filtersysteminstalledin pre-fabricated glassfibre pool

II

I 111)'ImII tog sir wa

ovens

dEan

4 Natural' poolwith waterfall

5

Smallpool &outdoordiningar next k Arch Stedman&Williams

2

Garden arlargelydevotedto fish & lily pool

boiteo.t

spilipan todeck

_i

chemical

characteristics

chlorine gas lowers pH

sterilisingagent: formof chlorinewhich canbefed into waterin continuousdoses, inexpensivebut highlyacid &toxic: needs specialhandling,automaticfeeder. constantalkalineadjustment

sodium hypochlorite raises pH

sterilisingagent: popularchlorineformwith high chlorine content; dispersesquickly when addedto waterwith no residueto makewater harder;inexpensivebut needs carefulhandlingavoid splash,damageto clothes;tends deterioratestoredtoolong; needsfrequentpH adjustment;dispersesfast in sunlight

calcium hypochlorite raises pH

sterilisingagent: effectivealgaekiller, speciallyfor treatingclinging algae;inexpensive;storeswell;but dissolves slowly,leavingresidueunlessplacedin basket orbag inwater; can causecloudiness& builds uphardnessinwater

iso-cyanurates noeffect onpH

sterilisingagents: dissolvecompletely,giving consistent, highresidual; need less acidcompensation than other forms; easy to use but costmorebecause mustbeusedwith conditioner;needspecial kitfor periodic check of conditionlevel

bromine lowers pH

sterilisingagent: canbeused insemi-automatic distributionsystem but is expensive,corrosive,toxic, difficult handle;less effectivethan chlorine

iodine lowerspH

sterilisingagent: stable,odour-freebutless activethan bromine;does not causepHfluctuation;easyto use but expensive;can turnwater green;difficult test for residual; lesseffectivethan chlorine

sodium bicarbonate raises pH

correctsalkalinity: recommendedformakingextensive adjustmentsin alkalinity;long lasting;easyuse; inexpensivebut slower actingthan sodium carbonate

sodium carbonate (soda ash) raises pH

correctspH: effective,quick acting, storeswell; inexpensivebuthas relativelyshort life inwater;must bepre-mixed

sodium bisulphate lowers pH

correctsPH: generallyconsideredbest ofdryacids; easier store than liquids; good forsmallpools needing small quanfitiesbut has to be pre-mixedand needs careful handling

muriatic acid lowers pH

regulatespH&alkalinity:readilyavailable;mostpopular pHadjuster;stores well;needsnopre-mixing but canbe very damagingto pool ifnot used properly;needs careful handlingprevent splashon ; smallamounts can cause significantpHchange

'13flow iine

frompump

%4 d13m wiremost,

.1

3

-

.-.•

_____________________________

'.. -:.. l9drainiine'< - '

Plumbing& pumpingsystems

•. -

6

Guidetocommonpoolchemicals

I

114

Habitat

Gardenswimmingpools Siting

Protected from wind, close to rest rm (for use on cool days), withinviewof kitchen (children in sight) and living rm (foroperationofautomatic gate) ie within field of vision. No deciduous treesorshrubs bypool to avoid leavesdropping: provide means of preventing grass etc from falling intowater; possibly raisedcoping (design decision).

2250(

smallest1 .bnepool (2swimmingstrokes, —4250—I 1/1.2P( medium-sizepool(3-4 strokes. smallest size 2/4-5P). permittingstartdivehornend

2

Layoutdiagram

1

Poolsizes

Size

3

Depth

ofwater

Width 2250. Length ofswimming strokeapprox 1 500plusbody lengtn: 4strokes = 8000length. Depth of water to chin height, of mother not children. Difference between height of pool and water level —v(3) depends on skimming method adopted.

Shape

Simple as possible for reasons of cost and water circulation (—abelow: maintenance). Rectangular but with ladder or steps in corner. Circular pool shapealso economicalwith welded steelplateconstruction.

Constructionmethods

Foil pool basin (foil = sealed outersurface) on

Layoutoftechnical installationsforfullyequipped swimmingpool

Deckatlevel of pavingconcealsfiltereqp &heaterbelow DesignArmstrong&Sharfman 6

exhaust prpes

skimmer

prevailing wind

sluice

-auxiliaryfloor S1JCbOfl pump/outflow

ing structure of masonry, concrete or steel (including above ground) or in excavated pit. Basinsmade of polyesterorglassfibre reinforced plastics, rarely erected on site, normally prefabricated; in general not self-ing, backfilling of lean concrete necessary. Waterproof concrete basins (on-site concrete double shells, cement-gun concrete single shells, prefabricated concrete components). Surface liningof pool usually ceramic mosaic, less often coated (chlorinated rubber or dyed cement)or cemented plastics sheeting.

Pool maintenance

Usually kept clean by means of recirculation system —*(4): surface circulation —v(5), with surface water kept clean by effective surface skimmersor preferably sluices. Types offilter:

feed:nozzles abovepipes below

gravel or sand (bottom filters, some with scavenger blower), diatomaceousearth (surface filter), plastics foam.

5 Simple longitudinalflow with suctionpipes

7

Perimeterfenceatpropertylineprovides safety&background for plant materials,shelter

Additional algae control by means ofchemicals (chlorine, chlorine-free alginic agents, copper sulphate). Common pool chemicals —spi 13(6). Water cleaning also—vp337

concretedeck

Heating By counter-current device or continuous-flow heater in boilerorsolarcollecting system. This

prolongs bathing seasonfor moderateadditional outlay. In some places system using thermal heateconomical.

plantingbed

50 deepscupper

8

Scupperkeepschlorinatedwater outof plantingbeds

Section showingwater dfor6100 x 12.2 poolwith springboard

9

suIt-priming punlp&rrloto-

returnline

lioej vacuum

titting

inlets steps

mainsuction line maindrain,

5fli

____________

frnertine) /

10 Plumbingsystemfor sand orpressure

diatomaceousearthfilter with linesfrommain drain, skimmer&vacuumconvergingon1 point (notevalves)before entering pump&filter

deependfitting

flfler

IIconcreteslab/ hlter heatrn

valve__________________ 1vacUUm returnline

heater

With skimfilter all linesdrainintoskimmer; water filteredthen drawnintopumpforreturn topool: pump& motorusuallyplaced within 15.0of pool 11

Preferably not onlythrough fencing off pool but by providing pool coverorself-operating alarm signal system (triggered offbywave formation).

Protectionagainstfreezing

pump&matOr unit on slab

va&iurn

Safetymeasures forchildren

With rigid pools by insertion of edge beams, heating or anti-frost outflow system. Do not emptyinwinter. Open air pools also —vp333

Habitat

115

Private indoor pools water

I

I

70—j-

temp

reiativeairh

a

%t

reiativeair hum 60%

I 70%

temp inuse 2WCI26Cair2RC 3Ci 28'C

R R R itiö4 R iti

Ii

-•-

M 2191 193 143

50

—,

67

2

0

M 2941269 218 1631 143

20_LI

M 378' 353

10-b0+10+20

M 395 3391 320 temp difference.4Kwater/airnottobe maintainedtorany lengthoftime

+30+40 air &watertemp

—10

Evaporationlimitincoveredpool; topline: Poolinoperation,bottom line: instate of rest; example: water tempto = 27°C,evaporation limit: in use36mbar (=30°C184% hum), resting28 mbar(=30°C/65% hum) 1

311 36 2471 227 811 89

66 302 123

2

Specificvolumeofevaporation in covered pool(g/m3h)instateof rest (A) &with max use(M)

Standard

I

Watertemp26—27°, airtemp30—31 °/60—70% relativehum;maxairflow 0.25mIs; waterevaporation 16gIm3hr(stateofrest)tomax 204 g/m3hr with pool inuse. Main problem airhum: water evaporates from pool until

cD

evaporation limit reached —+(1)(2). In state of rest evaporation stops even in low temp range, as saturated 'boundary layer' of water vapour remains overpool: pool should therefore not be 'blown at'with ventilation air. Expensive dehumidify pool house byventilation (though essential, below); with hum at level ofup to70°even small thermal bridge can cause structural damage inveryshorttime.

Construction Most common formfully insulated hanger-type bldg suitable for winter use (Km max 0.73); less frequent form, uninsulated 'summer' pool house (can also be ofkindwhichcan be dismantled). Semi-retractable roof and othersliding parts make possible openpool house during fine weather, so can be used as open-air pool (all weather pool); however, this causes problems overthermal bridges. size—+(4); as part ofpool house, in annexes if necessary: wc, sho, spacefor mm 2 deckchairs. Width of pool surround depends on wall surfacearea (heightofsplashing—u(6)); accessibleage round pool belowfloor level control leaks,full provision forleads and air ducts. Mm

i—2 —l 500

Location Incorrelation with: agarden (ideal 'covered pool'open-air)and shallow

___I

6counter-current

system

4 Smallestsize pool surround

400 1250

I- t5O

§ §

heavysplashing

torwindowcleaning

1+—

8000 ——-4 625

1000

Standarddimensionsofcovered pool

5

6

2000

Distancefrompoint of origin

circulatingair 1

suspended

2

3

4

pool

:u5t

ceihng

I

feet-washing troughs: b master bedr (withpabathr perhaps to beused for showering); cliving rm: allocate 10 m2 ofplant rmfor boiler. Auxiliary areas forrest, galley, bar, massage,keep-fitapparatus,sauna —epi 17, hot whirlpool (massageat40°C).

Equipment

Mech eqp and installations: water treatment with filter plant, steriliser dosing system, splash water trap (approx 3 m3), water softner(from) waterhardness 7°dH), athlete's foot spray (particularly iffloorcarpeted round pool); ventilation system with either fresh air or secondary air —*(7) with ducts in ceiling and in floor, or simple ventilation box and extractor (air flow not too fast, otherwise risk of draught); heating by radiators, convector heaters or warm-air heating, combined with airconditioning, possibly solar collector system. Underfloor heating as extracomfort: only practicable with floor insulation k greater than 0.7 and surfacetempless than 29°C. Energy saving bymeans ofheat pump (cost depends onthat ofcurrent) or heat recovery heat-exchangerinair-conditioningplant, or bycovering pool (rollerblindor covering stage), or by raising airtemp in between use (temp regulation byaquastat). Effective saving of30% total heating requirement.

Other installation and eqp: starting block, underwater light (as safety element), reverse current installation, chute, solarium; diving boards require appropriate pool depth, and height of pool house. Sound protection (sound-absorbent roof, noise-dampingwith air-conditioningplant (white sound), protection against structure-borne sound in pool basin itself).

Technical specifications In principle only corrosion-proof

materials: pot-galvanised (hot dip) steel, corrosion-proof aluminium, no plaster, timber open-pore glazed. Heatinsulation km, max 0.73 kcal/m2hr k.

mixing reguiator pump

—l

1 mixingchamber

3 heat exchanger

7

Bottom-topventilationwith mech plant forwindowheating

rçr circulatingair

hash air

topool

Layoutforheatingplant

chamber

exchanger

condenser water

2 airintake 4 airextractor

Layoutofventilationplant

standardi

standard

Iexhaust Ilair

w

122 177

244 323 330 427 533

regulator

I3 mixing heat

9

8

2 airintake 4 aireutractor

10 Airstructurewithaircompressor, pliantmulti-layeredcanopy&airlock 1 stress-reliefdesign 2cablesystem 3skylight topviewshowing doublecable system 4anchorsystem 5lightingsystem 6 HVACsystems 7 inflation systems 8airlock 9revolving doors 10emergency doors 11 transparent plasticswindows

mm

12.2

177

244 323 330 33.0 1280

max

hal centre

550 61 800 88 1100 100 1450 122 1620 12.2 2620 15.2 2620 20.0

116 Habitat

Private indoor pools Poolbasinsmainly reinforced concrete, in separatelayers. Expansion

iointsnot necessary with lengths under12 m. Important: ground-water equalising valveessential to prevent damagetobasin. Lining: ceramic, glass mosaic orpaint onsingle layer ofwaterproofconcrete orpolyester, pvc film mm 1.5 thick assealing. Include in design skimmer orpreferably overflowgully,bottominlet, counter-current system, underwater floodlight, and build in with sealing flanges. Plastics pool basins, because of below level floor access surround, only possible in exceptional circumstances orwithspecial structural reinforcement.

Floorlining:ceramic material orstone (must slope forwatertorun oft):

recently also water permeablecarpet(so savingneedfor sound-absorbent covering). Provide forkeeping outwaterfromunderneath liningand for sprays against athlete's foot. Floor heating pleasant addition but not essential.

Walls: surface lining material must be damp-resistant and unaffected

bysplashing.

Airconditioning essential. Hotelswimming pools: basinof60m2normally sufficient.Exceptions:

irregular periodsof use, wintersports hotels. Important: generous rest area, deck chairs, holiday atmosphere, bar, keep-fit apparatus,sauna, direct communication between hotel rm and pool bldg (elevator or separate staircase); not many changing cubicles needed but clothes lockerswith samelocks ashotelbedr.

Bath attendant usually required. Extension of use throughout summer bymeans ofadditionalopen-air pooland connectingchannelforswimmers (sun bathing lawns). 1

Poolrooted over with alurniniurn framedacrylic plastIcs dome

Indoor pools also —p329—32;changing rm —÷p335—6

mm

recommend

arratio

25 mardeckar(ratio) ir (arofpool)

2.0 0

15 10 0.5

I

0

93

1á6 279 372 465 558 6O arofpool in')

73 86 99

ld2t) 1 15

4 Ratio ofdeckspacetopoolarea forindoor&outdoorpools

2

Woodframedpool enclosure with hatcentrefordiving

5 Layoutforcovered pool

3 aingframeworkofdoublemetal archesspans18—36 m risingto 7.4—12.3 m; pliantmulti-layeredcanopyprovidestension-stressed structure b squaredomed structurewithingframework of4 metal1/2-arch

sections arranged6.0—25.0 rn/side;canopyoftension-stressed pliantmuttilayeredmembrane

Habitat 117

Saunas Sauna more than body bath: formany also method ofmental cleansing. In Finland 1 sauna/6 P; used 1/week.

Bathing process: alternate applicationof hot and coldair, sweating in dry hot air, hot clean gusts of water vapour at 5—7 minute intervals by pouring on 1/4 Iwater. Can besupplementedwfth intermediateapplication of cold water, followed by massageand rest. Construction: usually blocks ortimber: good heat insulationnecessary for enclosingwalls since heat difference between inside and outside canoftenbe more than 1000in winter.

1300

Saunawith lobby1,changingrrn2,bathr3,benches 4—op338(4—7),water tank 5, bathstove 6 1

Bathing area small as possible, 16 m2 2500 high. Dark wooden liningtoreduceheatradiation onceiling and walls orsolid woodenwalls of softwood,except forstove area. Plankbeds of lattice (air circulation) atvarious heights forcomfortable sitting and lying, topbed approx 1 000 below ceiling. Plank beds demountable forcleaning, floors of gripping material, no wood frames.

Smokesauna: layeredstones heated tohigh tempbywood fire, smoke beingsparingly drawn offthrough opendoor. When stones glowing fire removed, remaining smoke driven off by waterand door closed. After short time sauna 'ripe' for bathing. Good smell of smoked wood and reliable vapour quality. 50% traditional Finnishsaunasbuiltthisway. Fumigating sauna:after heating with smoke removal, 'heated inwards' when stove bricks heated to about 500°C. Combustible gases burn out completely withoutcausing soot. Stove doors then closed even if still flames ingrate. Temp quickly risesby 10—20°C. Lastcarbon fogremoved before bathing by quickly opening door etcand ladle ofwatersplashed over stones.

2

Saunawith lobbybetweenbathr1—6,& changing mi7

Chimney sauna: brickstove clad in jacket of stone ortin sheet which guides smoke and gases to chimney. Heating by tire door to bathr or lobby. When stones hotfiredoor closed and upperairflap instove jacket openedwhen required to let out hotairor pour water on stones. City sauna: with special el heater; heat regulation ofel heated stones with pressbutton. Tenip: at ceiling 95°Cdropping by 60°Cdown tofloor. Relativehumidity: 5% or10% at90°or80°C: 100—120°C also possible ifsufficiently low airhum.Sweat thenevaporates immediately. Shower orwaterrm: where possible separated forinitial washing and watercooling, 11/2—twice sizeof sauna area, withoutwood if possible. Hip bath worthwhile 1000x 1000, 1100deep. Air bath: for breathing in cool freshair to balance hot air, cooling of body. Protect against peeping. Shower, spray and cold water basin desirable. If noopenairbath possible, then wellventilated area.

Changing: openrm orcabins, twice as many asvisitors at peak times (public sauna) —p338. Rest rm: rest benches functional area.

3

Largersaunawithlobby1,changingmi2, bathrplatform3, withstove4,& massagemiwithwater boiler5 massagebench6, water basin7

_______________________________________________________ Saunawith bathr 1, massage&washr2, changingrrn3, veranda 4, wood sto 5, d 6, bath stove 7, waterboiler8, &watersupply9

4

for half guests in sauna area, remote from

Massagerm: allow for30 persons, 2 massagepoints (public sauna). Detailsconstruction & eqp public sauna—+p338

Garden references: .—oBibliography entries 002 021 032066 087 155 161166167 171 263

264320376410411 430 431 466482550562 563

Z

118 Community

Schools PRINCIPLES ——

Since each countryhas its own tradition of school provision, governed byeducationaland economiccircumstances,notpossiblegive universally

applicable data forschool design. Informationgiven largely derived from experience in England and Wales, but presented so faras possible in ofwidelyapplicable principles. These apply both to new schools and toadaptationofexisting ones, to industrialand totraditionalmethods ofconstruction.

water climbing steps seats

4frotectiorr

protection

In last generation school planning hasevolved in response tochanging teaching methods and school organisation. Curricula have become increasingly diversified to meet needs of individual pupils; whole educational process more active and interrelated between its many aspects. Classrm and independent special subject rm no longer sole ingredients school design, particularly for younger and middle age ranges.

Ageranges forwhich schoolsdesigned vary widely indifferentcountries: compulsory schooling may start at5,6or7years,and end at12upto 16 years, with correspondingly different interpretations of pre-school, primaryand secondary stages. These can usefully be studied in 3 age ranges: younger, approx 3—8years; middle, approx 8—13 years; older,

approx13—18 years.

Regulations I

For UK DES reg (—vBib2l3) lay down mm standardsfor playing fields,

Planningingredients: underfives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

tablework:eq usingmateiisls& ob$ctanotmakingmuchmess ring:eqbaneplay,camping,shops, hospitals music:eqeaploringsoundsindledusty,singing&dancingtogether messy:eq usingclay,water,sand quietwork:eq lookingatbooks, writing,resting.storyteting moving:eq climbing,swinging,p.inpng, rolling construction:eq buildingwithblocks,small& largescale, undertakings such as engines,boats,houses

[F5I

unila0 screen:

itablework eqtableslorsitling' andstandinground localsto&display

2

acting

le

eaplsy[J. tr

frolleYtey traycart

-

5 quiet eq benchseats easycltair

-'

v?s

-

:t

fJscmen she8 n— bench

boaea eq screens local 'properties'clothestrolley

3 music indhoduals

large trolls'1'

&smellgroups

e'Ling wcekaurtscea-'

to b1

tables

work

fightbenches sk easels local sto sand/watertrolley

2

benchC

genemL-,.10 service

localsto

ri

48

bert,

'

-

bin

bed

n

Schoolfurniture—vpl 19130—3 Boarding schools—+pl 27—8

YOUNGERAGE RANGE: NURSERYLEVEL For pupils of pre-school age, in nursery schools and kindergartens, learning process combines work and play. For main ingredients ot planning, bothforindoorsand outdoors (which should beconnected by covered areas to provide shade and shelter) —v(1).

6 movingclimbing

rostra

eq display

lowdisplayshelves lowd booktroeey

sites, sanitaryfittings and prescribeprovisionofsuitableaccnforchanging rm, do, lavatories, meals, med, staff. Reg are supplemented byadvisory publications. In USA referto state and local codes.

ct5jlow

nO rostm d

°bo

Cfl\ stacking trolleys sand/cubes waler trolley

0

eq clearspace hieght suspensionfront ceiling

1r

L.,

—

iF

'

8

7

7 construction eqlocallowsto rostra&cubes bldgblocks

3

-t

toveranda

Activityzones: youngerchildren

lose

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

sandpit high low ladder

house stO

cupressus

mound

10 swing 11

12 13 14 15

3 Nurseryunitonsite ofassociatedprimaryschool,built in 1972for60th from3—5years with2qualifiedteachers&3assistants: 30fulltime, 30 morningsonly,30aftemoons(iegoonroll);play ar,carpeted/tiled, opento verandaleadingtowalled playcourtwithviewsoutbutenclosed forsafety

shoe frame

weepingash pots roses

t6

boat 17 coveredar 18 roses 19 up

20

cotoneaster

21 tltorn 22 radioetc

23sk

24 tym 25 pets 26 roses 27 tlaps 28 waler 29 screen 30 logs

31 20P 32 raisedarsto under

33 paints 34 send 35 tolding

house

36 send 37 38 39 40

tlaps 20P books rootlight 41 staff 42 torsythia 43 mbbish

44 45 46 47 48 49 50

shed piano milk coats display hatch

St sty 52 med 53 music 54 tOPhandicapped 55 56 57

my

willow birds

Community

j

ingredientsof localcentres

Schools NURSERYLEVEL Workandplayofveryyoung children can be divided roughly intoabout 7 categories —(2). Indoors definition of zones mainly byarrangement of furniture, but appropriate surfaces important eg for messy work (clay, water etc) and for quiet work. Height also important for moving and climbing. Pre-school accnmay be found as unit of school —e(3) or as

sharedar outdoors

schoolsite i

L schoolbldg

schoolneighbourhood

horsebase

119

separate nursery school —t.(4).

EARLYSCHOOL In earliest years of compulsory school definition of spaces probably

reliesmoreon architecturalplanning: can beconsidered in3categories:

F

00000

L—

7'i1

parhcularbays

I

general work ar

garden

[_c:?

y

grass

ar

LJ

B

hardplayar

enclosed

— EE

I

-

Ohht&

coveredwork ar

adventure&discovery

ingredients of localcentres, shared areasindoors,sharedareasoutdoors. Design ofoutside as place forworkand play continues important —+(1). Working groupsvary considerablyin size and may change fromhour to hour as pattern ofworkchanges. Ingredients of 'local centres' can beassembled into centres ofvarying sizes and types according size and age range of school —e(2): homebase, space forallpupils forwhom 1 teacher responsibletobetogether, not necessarily attables and chairs; enclosed rmforquietconcentration or noisyactivitysuchas music-making; particular bays where special eqp, egsink or cooker, can be installed and independent projects can be pursued with continuity bysmall groups; general workarea, uncommitted space in which furniture can be arranged respond different needs; covered workarea, toextend rangeofworkbyprovidingsheltered transition between inside and outside. Change fromstandard classr planning to planning in of centres can be seen in adaptationofolderschool —e(3)(4) and onedesigned on new principles —api20(1 ab).

Youngerage rangear01work

[H

IHiI

E

ULEJT II

UL;1! FE1

L[1I1

1

Hj

rEl

r1JflLEJflLfl

HjII1 orginplan1931

23

2 Diagrammaticexamplesoflocal centreseach for2teachersworking incollaboration:Hhomebase, P particularbay,Ggeneralwork, Eenclosedrm, Vcoveredworkar

45678

classr

boys

0

5m

0

1

2

homebase

smallgroup rm Sb

3 cot 4 bin blocks 6 up 7 costs 8 plants 9 d 10 books 5

11

racks

12 sto 13 vinylfloor 14 trays

23 24

15 16

25 26 27 28 29 30

rostra SI

t7 homebase2.

smallgrouprm

18 19

20

shelves ck sand

2t birisunder 22 bookdisplay

pe store displayon corrugated

31

5

10

15 20 m

16 32, 48

168 1

girls

plants displayshelves picture models rug recordplayer& cabinet recordplxyer& speaker

32

pampasgrass 33 displayof bottlesetc 34 climbingIrarne 35 displayof gardentools& 36 37 38 39 40

plants piano

64

ft

3 Conversionin 1976of 1931 schoolbuilt tostandard classrplanning; as reorganisedthere are 3centresfor60P&teachers,with corrfurnishedas additionalwork,reference&displayspace; ha&drshownhatchedareshared byall,nursery unitadded

drums xylophone

screen

Detailof centreBfrom (3); furniture&fixtureshavebeenarranged give adaptedbldg greaterflexiblity 4

120 Community

Schools in primary schooldesign —*(2):inclusion of nursery unitas integral part of design yetwith degree ofindependence; contribution of money (and

RURALSCHOOLS

therefore space) fromsources outside education service (here about 1/3 of total cost) so as to offer wider social service, both forschool and for adultcommunity, than could be provided independently.

Modemisationofruralschools hasreceivedwidespreadattentionbecause manyofsmallest have fallen behind standards oftheirnewer suburban counterparts, being economically hard to sustain. For2 general trends

—'Bib2l5 AREAS NET

8560Cm2 3.56m2/Pat24OP 4.53rn2/Pat189P 163.62rn2 3—Syr 2.73m2fPat60 p WORKING 612.66m2(72%otnet area) 2.55rn2/Pat24OP 5—7yr 324rn2/Pat189P 5—7yr

3—Syr

key 1 centre C 2 mc 3 cia 4 base2 5 6 7 8 9 10

it 12 13 14 15 16 17

stO

k ha base3 basel head

books stall cafe

centreB narsery LIlY

centreA

140.0Cm2

230rn2/Pat6CR

analysisofar teathrig

72.3% —.. Ia2.55 m2/Pat240P

teacttingsto

1.9

Psto&aan

5.7

k

7.4

amiki ersetc circulation totalar

10

F

301t

6.9

1

42 100.0%

5 sk 5 sb 7 do

key

16 is3.56rn2/Pat24OP

a

2 3 4

aeranda practical

8 9

wc

10

base

k

grouprm

11 12 13 14

court ha

lb

books cate stall

16

sty

16 17 18 19 20

birchtrees homebase2 homebase1 ptr meetingrm parm toplaygarden cherrytrees las & sho

head

I a Diagram b planofinfants & nursery schoolopenedin 1979for240 P 5—7years with nurseryunitfor60; 3 centres, A& Beachforupto70 Pwith2 teachers,Cforupto 100 Pwith3teachers; hatchedarsharedby allPof5—7

9

key 1

2 In aWelshcountrydisrict5schoolswithinradiusabout2.51cm,withtotal newschoolforl2ochof3—11years,with enrolment99P,replacedl9l6byl 2local centreseachforupto50 P&2teachers&nurseryunit; outside:

pre-schoolgarden,play ar,footballpitch& illuminated hard-surfaced games arforyouthclubs &adults

2 3 4 5 6

mc& cia homebase3 harnebase4 ha

aerasda tanksseer sb

t

torn

9

3015 7

8 9

sb

sk sharedrm

10 cleresiory 11

12 13 14 15

toplayground ramp bins

k med

2t

22 23 24

lo

Community

121

Schools MIDDLEAGERANGE In middle age range, as curriculum becomes more diversified, workin

local centres increasinglysupplemented byworkinofher sphared by everyone, indoors and outdoors, where scopeof workcan develop and deepen—v(1). Designs forsuchdivision ofworkshown by2 schools —*(2)(3)(4),each of which has centres grouped round common areas (hatched).

64.6%

P H H

-

H H

i

v

HI FJJ 10

H/E

fllV"I

cj

100.0% 1e4.07m'/Pat400P

[

paved

6 1

,graaaplayar

supplementary

by flahared by4centrea

8m

Lcentmj A

6.

court

.,i

24 ft

I

,j1'arsharedby

.c

jfickn14j .

centresA&B

I

planotcenste 17574rn2 1 79m2/Pat loop

tA

'In

1

i r'

nh

JIJt

bane3

ba

baae2

Middleage rangeschoolwith4centres& arofcommonuse (hafched); more detailedplan of centrearisshown

drama&pe teaching teachingsIn dining

P

HH4

[

// <

hardplayar

,

t 1[Jfl rurelscience

ODC)C'

badstudies

Diagramofarofworkrormiddleage range schools

Palo& san circulation totalar analysisofar ar/P(at420P) 5.8n91

atm2

.

b5OW1is I

'It 24

[ U]

schoolnieghbourttood

•!

ft

red.

Es

_6 l2,l8

supplementary

crafts& science

sapplementary manic

H homebsae P particolarbay 0 generalworkar E oaedmt v coveredwodran

5OOlb1d

tlP3Pm 326496

c

hollersetc circulation total ares

achoolsite

L

'ii

keyplan centred

centre

0

..,.

re2.63m2/Pet400P

un

sharedar outdoors

sharedar indoors

local centre

teaching teachingsIn Palo&san

netar-j worldngar totalar 2438 n,2( t3tOm2 shared year 1 cettr netar . workingar

I

s—

studioworlrehop

3 4 Diagramoforganisation&furnishedplan of schoolfor420 Pof9—13yearsopenedwith 4 centresforapprox105P, supervised by3teachers (otherteachersbeing also involvedintheir work)

122

Community

Schools MIDDLEAGE RANGE Local centresnotalways planned asdetined spaces. Another practiceis toprovideflexibility bymeans ofuniform spacesub-divisible byscreens and s, rather than variety of spaces fordifferent kinds ofworkand grouping of pupils. These 2 approaches, to flexibility and to variety, represent2 distinct trends in current school planning. —e(i) shows shared working areas designed inofrmforspecific subiects (as in conventional secondary school) and therefore do not imply integrated curriculum as implied in shared areas described —xp121(3)(4). —n(2) shows middle range associated with olderrange schooling insecondary school enlarged to comprehensive —eblock plan. 'Lowerschool' and 'upper school' share some areas such as pe, large scale music and drama, and dining.

blockplan extensionforlowerschool

0

30

60

9Gm

98

187

2955

analysis star

ar/P(of360P( 762m2

0 shared work

4.18w2 5315% oftotal tolalar

10

20

3Cm

32

66

986

/'t'/ shared wow

ar

workingar

totalar 2972 In2 159Gm2

42—43% shared 241 m2med— &dental

totalar

j

workingar

_ Lj27 23

IfLa_J _l t—--''?(

h5_

26 )-?. fi-t 0

6

12m

19

3911

plant

2 stageupperpart 3 gymspperpart 4 centre 120p7—9year

282.12m2,235 m2/P, 20P6—7year434t -n2. 2.17 m2/P

5 hlms 6 studentcoanol rm 7 510 8 lib 9 sIx 10 s

11

12 13 14

do & wc11—13 year centre 120P9—11 year 28058 m2. 2.34 m'/P do & wc7—9year

lb clo&wc6—7year clo&wcg—llyear changing& shu stage tO gym 19 k 20 humecralts 21 wuod/metal/cluy 16 17

22 23 24 2b 26 27 28 29 30

r

L

med dental wsrkrm staff

—

:

E

mssic mum entrance

28

books resources

—

—

—

/—

1k30

29

29

32

head

secretary off 32 meetingrm 33 sb & uheltnr 31

Norwegianschoolwith3localcentressub-dividedfordifferentacttvities by screens& s 1

Existing secondaryschool In NottlnghamshlreEngland extended in 1971 to becomecomprehensivebyadding'lowerschool'(block plan)designedwith4 centres(key plan)&sharedworkar; dining, pe & other arge school activities sharedwith 'upperschool' 2

'- -

i_i-c

N 1

.

-

23

0

science crafts centre 120P2ndyear centre9oP2ndyear tope, dining& upper school e med 7 head 8 qsietrm 1

2 3 4 ft

9 centrel2oPlstyear ID cenlrn9oPlstyear

3

6

9

9

19

29

it12

dr

swimmingpool 13 sk 14 ck

lb 16 17 18 19 20 21

homecrahs workshcrpcrahu

projects prep sb

biology gids

12w 39h 22 23 24 28 26 27

boys projectsincentre greenhouse court staff ueranda 28 lrsiieysIcarlul 29 sb bays 30 bookcases 31 qsietrm 32 audio-xisaalaids

Community 123

Schools OLDER AGE RANGE Deg for older age range more complex and less certain: educational policies at thisstage increasinglyaffected by political attitudes, exam policies and demands ot higher education and of adult society generally. Because of large numbers in schools and diversity and choices within curriculum, social organisation has to be considered more specifically within complicated pattern of time-tabling and accn. —n(1) attempts bring into focus 3 essential elements: numbers, work and socialorganisation, taking asexample 1 specific enrolment of 1 035 pupils aged 11—18 years, with annual entry of 180 pupils and 135 students of 16—18 staying on after mm school leaving age. Characteristic principle affecfing planning ot schools for this olderage range: work areas likely to be shared byall or most pupils, who move from 1 partof school to anofher according to their particularcourses of work. Number of subjects and relative provision madeforeach depend

on objectives of individual schools: some have predominance of academic provision, othersof provision for scientific and engineering work, and so on. But many schools hope achieve certain balance, with wide range ofchoices—.x(2): usually common curriculum in loweryears; preparation for examinations in middle years; diversification into many differentcourses inlast few. —x(3) presents organisation of3schools, with 7years age span horizontally, and numbers, work and social organisation vertically. Different stages also reflected in social organisation:in examples 1 and 3 some accn for workand forsocial bases exclusively forfirst and second year pupils; someplanned mainly for third toseventh yearpupils; and some (eg library)tobeshared by wholeschool. In example2 (largest enrolment) organisation, and consequently planning, divides school into3separate entities, except for workshop crafts and pe for whichaccnshared by everyone.

workar shared by all

examples:grouping ofworkar associationxl cioselyreiatedsubjects

religiouseducation history geography

art&crafts

maths sciences

hornecralts

workshopcrafts

lib

diversilying curricuia

languages homecrafts music

engiish reiigious education ianguages sociuistudies

drama music religious education

drama

english

1 530P11—l8yrs

workshopcrafts

subiectsgroupedin centresotmixedinterest

sciences

arts &crafts

science art& crafts homecrafts books& study

pa

science art&crafts

maths

sports gym

theatre drama enghnll music art& crafts

maths

subjects grouped & modified in many differentways

1

2

Older age range: schoolorganisation years

= 360P

ti—l3yr -

1

ining

—J— reteduc history geography

MOP 13—16yr

I

I

=lOOP 16—18yr

Ssociaibases 1 dining

= =

commonSn snacks

1

numbers

-J

sociai

history geography lib

engiish homecratts

iariguages

sciences

ii

Ill

workshopcrafts

maths I

music

dining

567 1

sociaibase dining

560P

15—.lByr

I sociaibase dining I

numbers

-J

social

-J

F

languages homecrafts

21

music drama

4

english sciences

5

maths arilcrafts

ll

720P

5socialbases dining I

I

617 240P 16—l8yr

13—lSyr

maths articralt workshop crafts

ye

sorsal

II

'

music enghsh

english sciences

numbers

ii—

study iariguages enghsh

repeal wc

-J

dub

reieduc history maths geography history

draTia

repeat

pie

3 Older range: examples ofschoolorgartisation

socialbasel

geography

drama

example1

480P 11—13yr

history

I

1 OOP11—l8yr

1 400P 11—lByr

IJ 2 i__-L4 mleduc

geography Sb

art& crafts maths

sociai base

= 720P 13—l5yr

engiish ianguages booksS study

economics reiigious educatrsr commerce books&study

years

history

WI

english

720P 11—l3yr

socialstudies

Olderage: rangeofchoices

rei educ

study

reteduc

years

books& study

study

'

study

211

drama art&crafts

workshop sciences

crafts maths

wCrk 1

hornecrafts sciences artJcraftu

lib& pubhC Sb PC

2000P 11—l8yi example2

1440P11—l8yr example3

124 Community

Schools OLDER AGE RANGE —.(1 )(2) illustrate diagrammaticgrouping ofsubjects in centres ofmixed interests —p123(2)(3).

15-18 yrclub(1st) k,Sr. youth (ground) -

drama,music english art& craft

csf'

hb & un(ground)

staff, teachers centre(1 science homeeconorniuca art& craft tawerschool )11—l3yr)

5t)i11

[]

english& languages )grcund) humanites (1st) ha &pe

physics, maths&

Li

WdmShO)

crafts

0 2040 60 80 m (1

3 9

6

1

61126 ft

9 m 27

ft

MixedcentreforhumanitiesinBerkshireEnglandcomprehensive schoolfor2l2Pof13—18years,designedto provideworkingarfor allPinthis groupforhistory, geography, religion &philosophy, economic&socialsciences; alsoprovisionforsome to workonEnglish,mathematics & commercial subjects 1

orchestrami mur mur 6practicerm

0

3

6

9

18

2'7

sf0 sharedlistening stu

13.0 13.37

327

2 CentreinsameBerkshireEngland schoolformusic,drama, art&lightcrafts, needlework &associated studiesin English,with practicerm,listeningbooths&otherarforindividual work;designed forabout158Pto workthereat1 time &for80of16—18years to have social basethere

Community

125

Schools may retain sense ofidentityin largecommunity. —(i)(2) showsolution with school in 8 independent blocks, 7 of which (Ic excluding largest, namely sports hall) planned as street community'. These, with 1 and 2 floors, linked byagated wall and by sharing similar bldg materials but retain independence byshape, size and detail.

OLDER AGE RANGE

to this problem

1 aim in design of most schoolsforolderage range mitigate institutional

influences

of size by finding ways in whichindividual and small group

1\

4%J geog$

-ra

'

I

/

cIass/'5g

.c'bUs\ parking

visual •

tib

,Iaudio/

hardplayc. pitch

7I

k 0

30 60 90 120 m 90180270360 ft

-

social

sportsha hardplay pitch

'?% c;/

I

-

.

tSetTDndart

fZ7 fi1/

/ 'ami

analysisofar

spodsha

teaching 65.2% teachingsto 5.8 34 dining k Psto&san 7.5 6.2

ie7.2m/pal6OOP

23

heating

1.3

circulation 6.3 totalar 100.0%

chemistry

-mar sem'tutor

thology

languages

social

ssocia)/ classr

do

void

jd

/ 9 30

16

f0

27

36 m

maths

I

/

90 1205

1 &2 High schoolinLancashire Englandopened1978for600 Pfrom 11—16years: designedbygrouping subjectstolessenpressureofsize on individual& smallgroup

126 Community

Schools SYSTEMBUILDING analysisofar teaching 63.0% sf0 2.9 33 airing k 27

teing

Psto&san

7.1

athrin 6.1 circufation 12.9 totalar 1000%

or 9_ ft

ie7.9 ma/Patggp

120

—xBib200

REGIONALINSTITUTIONS

—13

I22 4-

design/scienCe 11

'—' 30

tower school 540P 11—l3yr

28 —

J

2

1

l39

JI

I

85

Industrialsystems used buildmany schools: best offer sufficientflexibility in both plan and section meeteducational needsalltypesschools, with qualitythat rates them first class permanent bldg. —s(1)(2) show school huilt using such system (CLASP), also used —upl2O(1)(2).Financial contribution from non-educational sources made possible extended provision forsportavailable both toschool andtocommunity —epi 20(2).

.,,,,,,,,,

37

Increasing diversity educational needs in 16—19 year age range encourages development separateinstitutions serve several schools in region.Some sited in association with 11—16 yearschool; somewith college of further education —.y(3); some independent. At St Austell England —v(3) provision ofpeavailable in nearby borough sports centre. 6th form college and nearby college of further education share some teaching accn for linked courses. Generous provision for individual study both in library and elsewhere; this, together with small rm for seminars and tutorial work, of considerable importance for this age group.

TTs I_-._l

L_.musichal5balwo 0 5 1015m

01530458

.

j38

J

key 1

sports,pe school&

2 3 4 5 6

community theatre

fib design! science liberal

studies

7 music

school

sto 12 activities space 13 up 14 squash 15 sportsha 16 gyro, 11

bton

17 18 19 20

meters el lau

fuel

8 lowerschool 21 boilers 9 warden 22 foyer

10 teachers centre

23 changing 24 yard

25 k 26 off 27 pottery 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

39 40

optics preparation

41 seminar

42 lectures engineenng 43 stu crafts 44 classr kiln 45 history head 46 practical scalpture 47 lounge prolects 48 gallery 49 dr forge metal 50 needlework wood

advanced

science 38 general science

51 fabrics

52 social 53 void 54 homecrafts

55 technical 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

drawing med

mothercare textiles painting printing languages

english horn

do

65 staff 66 careers

adenn 10.6%

drcutafion kdchen 12.2% 05%

P less,coats,-.

67 libwork rm 68 geography

ajEn°ar n

21

28

ng

234

8 1415

21

30

9

6

12m

20

40ff

3

St AustellEngland6thformcollege,opened 1973for460 P 16—19years, hasdept forhumanities(including drama),music,science& mathematics, socialstudies,&art&designcentre,allrelatedto ha,dramastudio, lib&social centre key privatestu gallery 3 4

5

1 2 In this NottinghamshireEnglandschoolbuiltonanindustrial system lowerschool(blockplanonly) isfor540Pof11—13years,mainschoolopened 1973for990 Pof13—18years;centralcorefor,dining, theatre, libleads to3main 2-floor blocks; arts, crafts&sciences (design/science separate 1-floor bldg)

lib careers seminar social

studies 6 geography 7 geology 8 9 10 11 12

history

control restrm deputyhead gallery

13 prolection 14 privatestu 15 religious 16 17 18 19

20 21

22 23 24

25 26 27 education 28 ha 29 off 30 head 31 headseminar 32 33 dept balance rm 34 lab 35 work rio 36 staff common 37 tel rm 38

wc computer divisionrm preparation

chemistry mathematics

boilers designoff timber art&design do el seminaroff english

39 40

tutorials humanities

41 languages 42 seminars& headsof dept

43 forge 44 studio 45 wOod 46 textiles 47 metal 48 pottery 49 science prolects

50 51 52 53 54

lecturerm ha

drarnastudio optics science preparation

55 biology 56 physics 57

students

socialar 58 music 59 tutor 60 k

Community

127

Boarding schools Size varies from50 to over 1 000 boarding pupils. Proportionof day to boarding pupilsalso varies; many schools take only boarders.Few new boarding schools built recently but many extended, with new uses found forexistingbldg.Asschool will be home' for two-thirds year aim for homely and relaxing ambience, allowing pupils develop own personalities and community spirit.

SITE LAYOUT Requirementsdiffer according to various factors: size of school, age groups to be provided for, integration or separation of living quarters fromother school bldg, location,climate,inclusionof day pupils,education programme to beprovided. Design easy, quickaccess between bldg (in hostile climates protected); living, dining, recreationalareasclose together. In larger schoolsseparate living quarters preferred, with communal dining. Integratedaccn more suited to small schoolswith niulti-use rm. Urban sites generally call for higher densities and multi-storey bldg, sharing amenities with community and using town services. On ruralsite school usually has to be self-sufficient, onlyclassr and living quarters being multi-storey. Boarding schoolswith many daypupils have living quarters integrated with other bldg. Larger schools require and canafford more and better provision for recreation, hobbies and cultural pursuits.

6m2, preferably9m2; USA mm 8.4 m2,preferred

10.2 m2. Beds should not be arranged in tiers. Sto for each pupil's personal belongings and clothes beside each bed. Spaces to be adequately ventilated. Stu/bedr—*p140.

Sanitary To bedispersed throughout bldg, accessible fromsleeping quarters. 1 sho orbuGP(50%baths) 1 hb/3 Pup to 60pupils then 1 hb/4 Pfornext 40 and 1 hb/each further 5: space 1 m2/P 1

wc/5 P

Ifday pupils'lay nearby requirements may be reduced. USA:fordetails referapplicable codes and standards.

Sick rooms

In small schoolsplaced near matron next togeneral sleeping quarters. In large schools can be in separate bldg with doctors and nurses quarters and dental suite. Provide separately forboysand girls.1 sick rm/20 P. Allow 7.4 ma/bed with 1 800 between any 2 beds. Provide adequate rm ventilation. Provide adequate separate sanitary accn for sick rm; separate isolation rm where pupils exceed 40; sufficient accn for nursing staff. USA: for details refer applicablecodes and standards.

Staff

ACCOMMODATION Sleeping

Preferable face E; separate rm for each sex over age 8; preferred same age groupto each dormitory. Open dormitory more usual in preparatory and juniorschools (not in 5 m for first 2 beds, 4.2 m2 each USA), uncommon in senior. additional bed; 900 between beds. 6—12 beds normal but up to20 can be accepted. Dormitory cubicles each to have window 5 m.

a

Separatebedroom

Degree of supervision of pupils by staff depends on system adopted. Many schools divide pupils into houses, each with resident house master (often married), junior teacher(s) and matron; ancillary staff sometimes also accommodated.Some staff live inseparate quarters. Married teachers need living rm and bedr each 18 m2, 3—4 smaller rm and kitchen each 11 m2, larder, wc, bathr, sto. Total each approx 80 m2. Larger areas normal in USA. Junior teachers needstudy 12 m2 neartodayrmspace, bedr 10m2near topupils' sleeping accn, preferably bathr and sto.

b

894

el

I

staff

C)jl c

c)

(81 0.1

9

I

CarmelCollegeWallingfordEngland:120pupilsaged13—18,integrated accnagroundfloor plan,

bsite plan

hockey

hockeypitch

____ _____ ,—-----

9

120m

iàooooo

it

Arch HancockHawkes

N

128 Community

Boarding schools 9

ACCOMMODATION(cont) Day room

2,5 50 7,5100

8

160240 320

than 2.3 m2/P, preferably 4.5 m2. Should consist of common rm, library—spi29, hobbies rm, quiet rm, games rm, radioand tv rm.

Provide

Dining

Centralised dining normal: 1, 2 or 3 sittings, depending on school policy. Space can be sub-divided to be more intimate and to Identify groups of pupils. In small schools spacecan be used forschoolassembly, concerts, drama productions. Allow 1 m2/P and adequate airspace.

Kitchen

Allow0.5 m2/P withcafeteria servery, unitserveries forgroupsofpupils or mobile serveries totables.

b

Ancillary

Adequate sto for pupils' luggage, bedding, clothes and eqp; laundry, ironing rm, airing rm, sewing rm.

Recreation

Depends on size of school and nearnessto sports grounds, baths etc. Provide access to grassed areas for ball games, swimming pool, gymnasium, running track etc; suitable space and eqp for drama, art, music, films,lectures, crafts, religious worship.

Services

Provide adequate and suitable air space and heat orcool and ventilate according to climate. Services may be centralised or individual to bldg —vp383—97.

'--

a

4;

.j

b

stu

I domiitOry bedr

1/ !

m

ft

RiverThames

servorboarding

matron bedr

dr

stu bedr

stu'

I

bedr head

H

I

prefect stu Stu bedr I dormitory

C junior boarders

senerrboarders

UULI HEJ

CharterhouseSchoolGodalming England: separateaccnfor462 pupilsin7houseseachwith house master& familylivingin asite plan bdining block (7drround centralk) Chouseground &firstfloor plans d housesection; 1 dr 2wash-up 3k 4lob 5lay 6off 7gas meters 8bins 9 refrigeration 10saladpreparation 11 lift 12 potwash l3staffdr l4sto l5pooI l6towerblock l7house7 l8house6 19 housemaster'sk 20housemaster'sdr 21 housemaster'sliv 22 housemaster'sstu 23lift 24 servicear 25stairwell 26commonrm 27 monitors'common rm 28 entrance ha 29hobbies rm 30bedr 31 bathr 32 liv 33k 34bedr 35tearm 36 bootrm 37gamesrm 38gar 39boys' lay 40 hobbiesrm 41 ter 42 day nursery 43 bedr 44stu/bedr 45bedr 46 press 47elevator 48stairwell 49flat roof 50washr 51 washr Arch SirGilesScottSon & Partner

E J]IU1I11ffl _________________

servery

IJiliLJJEI

1

Jfl1

I4

boys

k

r-'-1 LstodrylJ _i_ sto meati &hshl

_L

J J—

goods

peparason

1m iiiiIOJt--' ]fltuckshop l men

staff

coveredway

staffrm

staff

itchenstaffI

2 StPaulsSchool London England: 700pupils,60junior& 122senior boardingpupilsin separateaccn aaxonometricview bseniorboarding housefirstfloor plan cdining/kblock plan: 500seatsserve 1200 2-courselunchesin3-queuecafeteriasystem Arch Fielden &Mawson

Community

129

Schools MEDIA CENTRES —•

Lb 1

r]rno7LI

-[arts 1

=

{1

industrial -I

at

Growth in useof instructional materialsotherthan thoseoftraditional lib coupledwith new emphasis on individual study has promoted concept of media or resource centre. Such aids as microfilm, audio cassettes and film needviewing rm and study carrels wired for special technical eqp.Addedto libservicespace needs become larger; staffing and work areas needed give effective forclassr teaching needs. Student use suggests variety working and study options. Mutli-purpose spaces equippedwith movable or stacking chairs. Such centres include many of following: chairsof several types, including cushions or carpet risers tables carrels, manywired foreqp—.p177(3) staffdesks &chairs special furniture: circulationdesk, files, stocabinets,display, photocopy reading, browsing, listening, viewing openaccess materials & stacks smallgroup listening & viewing conference areas groupworkprojects & instruction &workspace

=

sociIr I -r l—sciene F

•ii:i::Jti I==/' 0011 I— zjooo ___ I

I

,J1_,

•

eqpsto

maintenance & repair dark rm professional collection forteaching staff magazine & newspaper sto including microfilm In larger schoolsystems radioand tvstudios and computerisedlearning resources may be included in centre. In some systems material may be distributed toseveral schools from 1 audio-visual sto centre.

N 1

Sincesuchcentres designed inresponse studentinput, localcommunity needs and state guidelines variety of solutions found. Typical plan

Middle schoolWestfieldUSAwith mediacentre Arch McGuire &Shook

relationships toteaching areas indicated—(1 )—(3).

Corp

T

.

—

.

E

kindergarten I

0 6

12m

20 40ft

§ .

I

.

.

-1

P I : T' ____r 1

ii

.

T1 .

]

I

I

l1rl11

multi-purpose . .

.

I

r

L

min— . I

servlce

chdd cJU .1 = 1 L] i

4 #

speech

dr .

-I iangJa I

.

.

.

.

activity

media centre

k

ElementaryschoolTampaFloridaUSA:mediacentrenearlanguagedept Arch Rowe HolmesAssociates

3

1

Elementaryschoolon2floorsNeolaIowaUSAhasresourcecentreateachlevel ArchDanaLarsonRoubal& Associates

I

FH*

TEE

130

Community

Schools somefeatureswhichlimit useoftables

FURNITURE

proportionoftop

Generalfactors

preventsneat grouping

railpresents sdtingplace — atendoftable

Furniture governed bytype otteaching torwhich provided and bysize ot pupils. In recentyears learning and teaching involved greater variety ot group sizes and wider range ot activities. More mobility in schools and closerassociation ot book workand practicalwork; both theseattect design and distribution ot turniture. —*(1) shows common features whichinhibit flexible useoftables and featureswhich encourageefficient grouping and versatile use. Where tables required strictly for formal reading and writing work—v(2) gives relevant data; but increasingly these proportions giving way to double square shown for grouping purposes —v(1). Modern UK furniture range will consist of sitting and standing height working surfaces in closeassociation and of many forms of mobile sto and display. (—nBlbl97207 208).

rç

bevellededges preventflatbutt

5t0& legframe restrictsflsrigto 1sideoftable

spacingoflegs lessdianw ofchair

sanefeatureswfticfiallow maxuse oftables

—n

clearance for

2chaim

II

betweenlegs

'\,,clearancefor tchair

ü

II

betweenlegs

In USAtypical worksurface heights foreducational usevary from560— 790, although lower tables used for very young. Recommended work depth variesfrom330 for youngest children to 460 for 15 year olds or older. Width ofwork area varies from530 for youngest children to 760 for 15 yearoldsorolder—e(3).

sane eaarnples oftablegroups

e

1rrD

trapezoidal

3basicshapes

dimensionedto groupfor generalwork

n

\2iY

Ihil

Sto underworksurface not recommended unless atsideofknee space orworksurface increased indepth. Toespace mm 610 torolderchildren, who needvarying work heights depending on task: typing tables 670, work tables 735, sewing tables 790. Work height for handicapped in wheelchairs mustbe adaptedtotheir needs—up86. Standing worksurfaces for school age children should vary from520— 915atage 15. Older childrenmayfind range 860—965 desirabledepending on height and task to be done. Sinks set lower, high counters higher

EJEIJ

(1015—1120).

conddionsintioingtrials

desirable J

sodc 100%

1Th4 1067

single double esercise

%

120

*514

610 trapezoidal

100%

610 610*610* 1220

book

satisfied

762 ii 1524

sizet

260—520

squaretable

rectangular tables

'ff0'

55:

t

14

I

15241530

hail round

table

'60

120

tablefr 560.565,610,635,660, 675,740& 762 availablewith adlustable legsrange 56010762in 25 increments

100% tOO% single double

%

300 300/520

satished

" size

dc

'

130

100%

100% double

cingle

480

of:

subiects

"7 yr

size2

'65'

3 USAtable sizes a

2 3

m

mean

stature shoulder

'jj 10 L L2. 7 6

1280

...JfIt......J

%satished

340—580

size 3

'65'

$erf

130

D

100% 100% single double 620 380-640

b %

satistied

size 4

140

r70

-

100% 100% single double 620—

420—700

2 UKtable plansizes

%

satisfied

bze 5

USAchairs &desks astacker bdoubleentrystudy ctabletarmchair dliftlidtable &chair eclassrunit fdeskwith chair gclassrtypingtable 4

Iidesk jstudy carrels

Community

131

Schools FURNITURE

Staturedata & distribution offurniture sizes

Mobilityofpupilsin schools and high degree to whichworkingaccn shared make increasingly

impracticalassign chair and table tosingle pupil. Furnitureshared bymany:each chairand related tablesize must therefore be designed suitmax stature range rather than for individual pupils. This in principle means simultaneous satisfaction of 7 fitting criteria shown —'(1), with clearance between top ofchair seat and underside of table top.

A B C D

E

Though stodecreasinglyprovidedatwork place, if sited at any sifting working plane adequate leg room can only be ensuredifzonesindicated for ISOsizes 1—5—s(2) free fromobstruction.

F

3

UK view is that distribution of furniture should be basedon pupils' stature ratherthan onpupils' ages—'(3). Conversion ofstature to agefor UK school population in 1971 —'Bib207. Revised

British standard specifications forpupils' chairs

shod feetflat onfloor clearancebetween backoflegs& front edge of seat nopress at frontofseat between seating surface & thighs clearancebetween thigh &undersideof table forfreedom of movement elbows approxlevel withtabletop whenupperarmvertical firmforbackinlumber region &below shoulderblades adequateclearance betweenback rest&seat to ensurefree movement of buttocks

G

A

P adoptmanysitting posturesbutassessmentofgood fitis simultaneoussatisfactionof above 7criteria 1

Fitof Pto chair &table: UKdata

and tables (—'Bib134) comply with ISO stan-

dards (—'Bib407),sizes ofwhich havetherefore beenshown.

size 1

size2

ISO standards do notapply in USA: viewheld thatstudentsizesvary somuch1 rm may need more than 1 chair/table height. Dimensions based on USA research (—vBibS49)—v(4).

IT cv

IIHS Jr.

HS

4th

2nd

tow reach legh reach eye reach distreach radite level

ages ldgh reach A 2085 15 1915 1765 1880 12 1705 1545 1645 9 1510 1345 1505

7

a

anceco

E

815

1440 1374 1313

660 610 570

1215 1160

665

735 685 635

705 630 560

665 620 565

1320 1250 1185

600 555 510

1100 1040 890

605 555 510

600 550 485

1175 1120 1040

535 495 435

975 925 880

550

1080 1015 960

500 445 395

890 850 815

970 915 865

430 385 345

815 770 720

730

1370

545 510

1245 1330 1210 1085

485 500 485 425

495 445 480 435 390

KOG

5

upto ages

hat

hH

work topJ

work

ahe9

15

760

915

480

685

795

420

9 7 5

1675 1485 1320 1220 1090

635

695

380

585

635

485

ages

seat h

seatto back-

back-

restO

resthP

405 370

150

175

445

145

160

420

9

325

135

140

355

7

290

130

330

5

265

130 120

125

305

12

15 12

hO

N

hb

dK

-

table

hL

F

370

355

570

330

445

250

into

armrestseatw spacing A

mm

380 370 330 305 280

size 3

seat IM

550 590 525 480

0

sizes

1108

340 300

300 400

2

Mm

3

StaturesofUKschoolpopulation

4

USAdimensionsrelevanttoschooltumiture;HS=high school KDA = Kindergarten

leg clearancezones:UKdata

275

basic tablew

5 760 710 610 610 535

armrest

I

132 Community

Schools FURNITURE

max reach(for96%ofagerange)

3—5 yr

Dimensional data: sizesof pupils &

stature

teve

1155

eye sittinghi eye lend 885

\ 68O

()j77s so

Dimensional data derived fromanthropometric survey of UK school age populatIon in 1971 by Furniture Industry Research Association—n(1) Sittingplanes those proposed in ISO Standard (—rBib4O7). Figures refer to ISO stzes 1—5.

1825

780

610

iso size I

155o—fI

165 145

standing working

1245

size

furniture

poptiteus

taneJ

I 10—t2yr

etbowS

5-8yr

max reach((or96%ofagerange)

iso

size

ethowS

180

an 150 size

2

manreach(for96% ofagerange)

8—10 yr

elbow h

s iso195 155

maxreach)for96% ofagerange) stature I eyeievet—, t 525

9—11 yr

ii

425---*1 440 eye tenet

-isittingh 1025

I 11 135

't005 so size 3

elbowI 210

l-

l60 mze_

410±

an

poptiteus —

Ii 14511245 1850_

750J standing

wing plane

UK dimensionsforpupils'furniture

max reach(for96%ofagerange)

133

Community

Schools FURNITURE

Storageofpupils' belongings

Inschoolsforyounger children with less movement about school trays and individual con-

tainers at workplace suitable. Coats and small bags can be hungon pegslocally. But greatermovement of pupils in middle and olderage ranges encourages widespread use ofvarious kindsof bags in which books can be carried from1 place ofworkto another.Central provision of lockers therefore of decreasing value sincetheir dimensions and their location likelyto beinconvenient. Provisionofpegs and racks forbags associatedwitheach workspace becoming more convenient and more secure. Forthisdimensionaldata given—(1)(2) relevant. Data prepared by Furniture Industry Research Association as part of survey of sto of pupils' personal belongings. In USA lockers —*(3) still standard for older children, ifonlyfor security. In-rm stoprovided for children up to 12 years old. Basket racks also used —n(4). Schools references —+Bibliography entries134 191192193194195

196197198199200201 202203204205207 208209210211 212213214215265267275 314446451 476 484 526530 575581 607652

_

w 1 1—l6yeazs 150

20, 250 34,.350450450

h

50 150.20, 250

weigft(kg)

20,250

w

16—18yealx 1

350

distitution otbagtype

li

230—610

II

230or305

II

305—460

40,450

weight(kg)

Size,weight&distributionofpupils'bags

3 USA lockers a1-tier b3-tier c6-tier dcombinationunits max 1605 = 5 305baskets max x230baskets

x 14806 min965=3x305baskets

m1n740= 3x23obasketj 23000 330

305

ioderbasket

mld calllengthcoats (forcoats hungfromhoodsallowance of200-300 shouldbe made)

2

Lengthsofpupils' coats

basketrack

only5%ofcoatswill be longerthan shown

4

Basketrack;canbesinglerow(d305—335) or back-to-back

134 Community

Colleges I2

key concourse cocr

3 courtyard 4 lecturetheatre 1 5 projectionrm 6 plantrm 7 etevator 8 lecturetheatre2 9 soundproduction&

vision 10 upperstudio 11 lecturetheatre3 12 lecturetheatre4

LECTURE ROOMS& THEATRES Utilisaflon oflecturerm and theatres traditionally lowin relationtospace

requirements and capital cost; therefore consider deg flexibility to accommodate various functions. Such spaces could suit lectures, stage productions, demonstrations and cinema. Large theatre could be divisible toaccommodatedifferent audience sizes; similarly,with retractable seating system —spi 35, largelecture rm can be convertedintoassembly hall orgymnasium.Number andextentofsuchactivitieswillalso determine needforading ancillary spaces suchas preparationrm, proiector rm, workshops, changing rm, studios and sto.

Ifpolicytohirelecture theatre tooutside organisations during vacations I Lecture hacomplexpre-clinicalsciences bldg Southampton University England Arch John SBonningtonPartnership

consider improved space standards and environmental conditions to satisfy more sophisticated requirements of business world. Mm

ar/P: 0.46 m2 (based on moveable seats, armless 450 centre to

centre)

0.6 m2 (fixed seats witharmsat500 centre to centre)

Basic shape

Shape of lecture theatre becomes more important as size and volume increase. Square flexible but fan shape preferred for larger theatres whereplan formrelates to adequate sightlines foraudio-visual presentations, cinema etc —vp136. Consider rear projection —v(3); tv data pl36(l)—(3). Small capacity lecture rm up to approx 80 persons quite satisfactory with flat floor: larger halls require either rampedfloor (max 1: 10) orstepped floor,dependent uponachievingadequate sightlines. Uniform change of eye level should beachieved ateach seat row, mm being60and median 125. Theatre auditorium —vp35O

a

;c:::-

g. L

b

2

Physicslecturetheatrewithdoublewallingtoreducesound&vibration TechnicalUniversityDarmstadt aplan bsection

Rearprojectionofimages forlectureha: notsoclearasfrontprojectionforlargehabutmoreconvenientfor lecturer &allowshigherlight level inhafornote-taking

3

Community

135

Colleges LECTUREROOMS: SEATING

SEATINGARRANGEMENTS

Seating types

Relate to function of hail ortheatre:

Categories: individual chairs capable of being linked together in rows, stacked and stored away, with or without arms,with orwithout writing tablets fixedseating ofvarious degrees ofcomfort with orwithout tip-up seats, with orwithoutarms—(1)—(3) retractableseating systems capableoffolding down onto tiered staging (which usually includes aisles), whole arrangement being retractable and storedin relatively small area flat auditorium floor capableof being used for otherpurposes —*(4). Flexible seating —p351

Lecture: audience should be able to see and hear lecturer. Where

Seating mm dimensions Backto backdistance between rows ofseats (withtip-up seats)

Width ofseats, linked, without arms Width ofseats with arms Unobstructed vertical space between seats

750 460 500 300

chalkboard or screens needed desirable viewing requirements affect seating plan. Increasing trend towards audience participation: implies students should be close as possible to lecturer. Can be achieved by U-shaped seating arrangementwhich reduces numberofrowsrequired and also givesaving in total area.

Cinema: criteria forgoodviewing: max horizontal viewing angle max vertical viewing angle critical angle of projector max viewing distance mm viewing distance

30°

35° 12°

6 x wof screen 2 x wofscreen

Demonstration:will usually require steeply raked floortoensure good viewing totop ofdemonstration benches. Relativecos ofsuch auditoria with heavily serviced demonstration benches, preparation rm and like should be compared with costs of normal lecture rm equipped with closedcircuit tv—*p136(1)—(3). Seating canbe set round demonstration area insemi-circular formation ifno requirement for chalkboardsorscreens, as with anatomydemonstration theatres. Sightlines —*pl36349 Cinemas —p354—8

840 min—f

In

25Oi1

2

5

Sectionthroughorthodox lecture theatre

hof screen

Fixed seatingwithtip-up seats& writing shelf

6w

6 Preferredviewingdistancesforcinemaprojection

3

Fixedseatingwith tip-upseats& retractable shelving

4

Basirincipleofrectractable seating

7 Lecturetheatrewithdemonstration table (surgical clinic)

136 Community

Colleges LECTURE ROOMS: FIREREGULATIONS Design of lecture rm ortheatre must conform tosafety reg, in particular fire and means ofescape. Number ofseats permissible inanyrow—.(4) dependent uponcleardistance apart of rows (back to backdimension

a

mm

seatway (measured between perpendiculars) E

A), resultantclearsection (dimensionEmeasuredbetweenperpendiculars) anddistance ofseats fromgangway (0 = w ofseat).

300 330 360 390 420

In turn clearwidthof gangwaysand number within hall must be related to numberof persons to be accommodated.

max distanceof

max number of 500 wide seats/row

seat from gangway (500seats) F

gangway gangway both sides 1 side

3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

7 8 9

14 16

18 20 22

10 11

ACOUSTICS—*pl 8395—7 Just as Important hear distinctly as see clearly; lecture hall must be

tE

acoustically isolated from other noise sources.

No internal acoustic treatment should benecessary forrmless than300 m2 butas size and volume increasesshapeof hallbecomes increasingly important. Design of ceiling as reflector of sound from original source important factor in achieving even distribution throughout hall. Design of wall surfaces and finishes alsoimportant consideration ineitherreflecting or absorbing sound according to theirrelationship to stage ordais.

sizeof tvtube

seat row spacing

425 475 520 570 595

1

900

1 300

1 550

650 675

425 450

850

562 575 620

350 375 462 475 520

875 962

hoftv imagein relationtosizeoftube &seat rowspacing

size of Ivtube

seatrow spacing

425

475 520

570 595

900

1 300

1 550

1650 1700 2125 2150 2400

1250 1300 1625 1650 1825

1125 1150 1459 1475 1625

d

2

Mm

viewing distancefromtvtube

I I

I

/,

,,

—

/,

,/

\ ——

numberofP accommodatedon each tierorfloor 200 300 400

S.

—

,..

500

av24m2

\

750

1000

—— —

Shape& squarefrontageofviewing arfor520 receiver

mm

number

ofexits1 2 2 2 2 3 4

mm

w

10502

1200 1350 1500 1500 1500

1 plus 1 additional exit of not lessthan 1 500 for each extra250 P orpartthereof 2wouldnot normallyapplyto exit corrorstaircases serving auditoriumof theatre

t

' 3

4 a distanceofseatsfromgangways bplanofseating withoutarms Cseatingwith backs& arms dpartofauditorium

5

Exit requirements

Community

137

Colleges SCHOOLSOFART, DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC Scope and intensity ofstudy in specialistart, design and drama subjects vary from college to college. Facultieslikely include selection of: drawing &painting: fine art ceramics sculpture industrial design: engineering furniture & interiordesign theatre & television design graphics & related visual arts including photography silver&jewelry textile design both print &weave stained glass drama music

key 1 scuplture

2 artgaflery 3 groupmusic 4 pool 5 office 6 toye 7 painting

8&9 music 10 worlshop 11 greenrrn 12513 chorus 14 stagelift 15 dressingrm 16 sculpturestudio 17 switchm, 18 bars 19 do

Schedule ofaccn foreachwillgenerally include design studio, workand practice rm, technical workshops and off. Communal lecture theatre or assembly hall usable also as exhibition centre oftenrequired but display areas for both 2 and 3 dimensional work should also be provided throughout college.

20&21 toilets 22 storear

Designstudios

GardnerCentreforthe ArtsUniversityofSussex England ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership, formerly SirBasilSpenceBonnington&Collins 1

Should be next to appropriateworkrorworkshop; consider exclusion of noiseand dust. Stospace forplan sheets,wardrobes orclotheslockers, referencebooksand models should be included together with eqp for copying drawings and documents, although suchmay be certtralised. Goodlightingessential, both naturaland artificial. Drawing studios —p139

Fine art studios age

assistance

Studiosfor painting and sculpture require largeareas; must have good natural daylight with high level windows, equal floor area, with N orE aspect.

to at least 25—33%Of

Rooflights may provide ancillary light; all windows should be fitted with someform ofdaylight control. All surfaces should bedurable and easy to clean.

Workshops

I—

4000—5000

Siting will depend on type of work being done. Light workallied with graphics, silverand jewelry, photography and fashion may beplaced on higherfloor;metal,woodand plastics workshops where largemachines maybe installed best sitedon ground orbasement level.

—i

2 Tiersinlifestudio:seat ar/student0.65 m2

Good workshop layout must conformtoworkflow and safety-+p1 38(1 )(2). Provideamplespace round machinesandforgangwaystoallownecessary movement without incursion on work space. Non-slip floor finishes should bespecified; workshop technician should beable survey whole area frompartially glazed off.

1•

If each studentprovided with sets of toolsspace for individual lockers needed in workshop area.

I—

Workshop eqp spaces —*p288

Practicerooms

900—1200 1000—1300

May be for individual study or group practice. Should be well insulated against age ofsound fromone to another.

Stores

Methods of storing wide range of goods and materials needed each activity should be closely studied, asshould areas required house completed works before exhibition ordisposal. All sto should be sited next to appropriate workshop; consider proper conditions of heat and humidity where these may be detrimental to materials being stored if not held within reasonable limits, eg timber, clay, plaster. Special racking needed for paintings and large canvasses; timberand timber-based board materials, plastics sheets, metal sections, rolls of textiles,glassand paper. Allsuchsto will require element of control and security.

Ancillary accommodation

Will include offforteaching staff, common rm, lay andpossibly showers.

5 Sequenceofoperations: claymodelling &pottery

138 Community

Colleges SCHOOLSOF ART,DESIGN, DRAMA& MUSIC brazinghearth sk bench

'wall

n122n 1370P]

-a

915—

-y

1830

bench ______

benchl

[

ELi

metallathe

LI

drill

:'ifl U

sb

I-Fit1

forge grinder

41220111

1220

[5 soldering bench

L

I

+ fromdrawing rm

d

fools circular saw

{J

#jj-j [1 ['.

U woodlathe

eqp chalkboard&display

4

1 370

9

4

19 32

2pm

64ft

Layoutforcombinedwood&metalshop

eqp _________

Clearancesforlayoutof metalshops

1

metalwork

translucentrootedar

woodwork

0

rindstone

3

6

lafhefftfl arleft blank

o ggcm2 £ operating position

41-run out

2

Workingspacesround woodwork machinery

Fi 3

I

2134

/

painting studio

3

Variousforms of sto racking

5 Arts centrelayoutforcollege

drawing rm

9

12m

Community 139

Colleges DRAWINGSTUDIOS

Reterence may not be confined to intormation contained on drawings; ottenneedhave comprehensive set reference books or manualsclose at hand for draughtsman: may be housed communally or at each work station.

Space requirements related totype of drawing and allied work, itany, to be undertaken —(1).

Further category of drawing studio that allied to workshops where tull-sized setting-out drawings (USAshop drawings) (or workshop'rods') prepared. Usually allied to construction industry, in particular ery shops; such drawings prepared on rolls of paper set down at long benches. Draughtsmen workstanding up at drafting surtace which is horizontal and 900 fromFFL. Original drawingsstored in roll form rather than sheet asin other studios, torwhich housing maybeeither horizontal (plan chests with drawers) orvertical (plan file cabinets). Layout ofany studio therefore conditioned bytypeofworkbeing undertaken and type ofsupervision required. In all studios good lighting essential,both daylight and artiticial;windows should have N to Easpect. Ifthis notpossible windows should be fitted with blinds to screen directsunlight and prevent glare. Ancillary areas may include printing and reprographiceqp; this may be housed in studio or, it sophisticated or large scale, sited in separate area. Archive sf0 tor original drawings which may have to be kept tor indefinite period should be properly conditioned tor sf0 of paper and housings must be fire and flood proot. Present trend increased use of computerprocesses tor production of working drawings; use at such eqp may influence spatial requirements offuturedrawing studios.

Work station sizes in part conditioned by eqp needed to accommodate drawing format to be adopted. Except in USA most offices committedto 'A' series of international paper sizes: smaller formats obtained by halving larger dimensions in each instance—*p3—5. For most industrial, engineering and design consultants drawing requirements can be accommodated by AD format; drawing boards and drafting machines sizedaccordingly. Simplest form of work station: drawing board, eqp trolley (cart) and draughtsman's stool; where dratting workrequiresreterence contained on other drawings either reference tables or vertical screens may be used carry this information. Screens have advantage of keeping floor area needed tomm butat expense ofcontrolled supervision. Reterence tables, which may also provide plan chest drawing sf0 below work surface, either to side ofdraughstmanin parallelwith drawingboard orat right angles to it. Further possibility available with 'back reference' where reference table also for drawing board behind. Where drafting function only part ofjob requirement and workalso to be done reference area may double as off deskor, if space allows, desk may formadditional element within workstation.

t.

920 1 —-. 300

,92O 300÷

460k

920

90 1300 1300 1300

1

-t

i---

_______

1300

utihsation4.2 m2/P

F

utiiiisation5.01 m2/P

utilisation6.03m2/P

utilisation5.01 m2/P

utihsation6.03 m2/P

I13001300

¶

screenwith pin board

ji*atLofl42m/P

—

1300

———'————

9

)300300q1300

920

1

920

I utilisation5

1

m2/P

-1 300

______ ---.

90

1300

920V ¶

-

L

F

...

.:

reference table under drawing board

18

j__

——J

300 920

920 utilisation 4.23 m2/P

90__________ utiisation 5.9 m2/P

trolley drawingboard -

LI

utiiisation

3.45rn/P

reference table chair

1

Variousplanningarrangements

I 210 1 750

2 Drawingsbestkept intrcabinets

3

Steelchest forplans

4

Drawingtable: standardsizes 1000 x 1500&1250x 2000;h 2050(USA941 x 1092—1067x 2390; h 940)

Typicalsmall photocopying machineused in drawingofffor reproducingplans 5

140 Community

Colleges Hostel (USA dormitories) bldg usuallyfinanced by universityorcollege fromown funds, government grants orloans,openmarket loans: annual income raised has to cover interest, amortisation, running and main-

STUDENT HOSTELS: PLANNING FACTORS

L_Ii I

Singlestu/bedrwithhb: 10m2

2

Singlestu/bedr: longershape providesmore economicaluse of space

4

4

2700

3 Single stu/bedrwithouthb

4

2-studentunit, also usedfor conferences 1 B 2desk 3wa4 bathr

tenance costs. Some governments make grants to subsidise annual income. This canbe supplementedbylettingforconferences,educational courses, holidayvisitors.In somecountries educationalestablishments and studentunions have formed businesses provide off bldg for letting sothat income can subsidise hostels. Size ofhostel rmand amenities to be provided therefore depend on usesbldg can be puttoand on annual income obtained. Single students generally need accn for 30—33 week/year. Married usually for 50—52 weeks. Accnshould caterfor children outside play spaceand be placed near shopping and social services and amenities. Trend to house students in range of accn for all categories; many students prefer small independent units sharing some variety ofaccnto institutional residential communities. Forsocial and reasons first year students usually placed in halls of residence with staff rm, area kitchen, laundry and ironing rm, toilets, sto etc, meals being taken in dining centre. Dining rm—.p142 Halls with shared diningand social services normally planned as large number of study bedr with central bathr and small kitchen: may also be rm orflatforstaff member provide supervision. In recent residential bldg provision made forstudents prepare and take allmeals independently in ownsocial groups. Smallgroupsupto4 students needbeself-selected; groupof6—8socially largeenough divide intosub-groups without being too big share cooking eqp successfully; 12ormore donotformcohesive group: shared kitchen with dining rm used forother activities could lead toproblems. Conference use requires mm washbasin in each rm with goodaccess car parking, lecture and dining rm: alternative accn forfew students in residence during vacations and sto for possessions needed. Independent housing or hostel units favoured by final year and postgraduate; can be in purpose-built groups, located in urban community orconverted houses. Shared accn also —p99

ACCOMMODATIONREQUIREMENTS

5 Doublestu/bedr 1 divanB 2curtain 3deskwith drawerunit 4easychair 5 heatingconvector 6book shelfover 7table with bookshelves8built-in wa

ji

liR' stu/bedr

7

dOue siu/bedr hb

Typicalcompositeaccess(corr accesssimilarbutcontinuous betweenstaircase):noteposition ofdr/kar& sharedwashr&toilet

6

1-bed/studyspace 9—15 m2; 2-bed/study space 13—19 m2 (unpopular with UK students; liked in USA); self-catering unittotal area 16—20 m2: areas may be slightly reduced in family' flats to allow more room for Typicalstaircaseaccess

stul Stu/ SIU/ stui Stu/Stu/

dJ '

rbedrbedr s,o wcd skrbedrbjbedr ________ stu/ FtL?rrT bedr

Irr-'

ty

lI1-ILll WCW sk sho

stul bedr

JfstuI stu/Istu/ siu/sStU/ ebedrbedbedr drbedbedr 8 Corr access round service core;e = elevator

amenity space. Rm to befurnished with bed/divan, deskand chair, shelves and hanging for clothes 0.8—1 m2, open adlustable shelving and pin board, easy chair, small table, bedside table, mirror, bin, rm lightand desk/bed lamp, 2 power points, rm heater, carpet, dense curtains/blinds. If wash basin included providetowel rail, mirror, cupboard or shelf, shaver point. Rm showersand wc sometimes included on individual orshared basis. Some rm should be larger toprovide forentertainingand meetings. Provide proportion of rmsuitable forphysically handicapped. Married student accn should comply with normal housing space standards —p4448: somewill have families Provide background heating supplemented by rm heater controlled by occupant. Ensure goodsound insulation, especially round service pipes. Shared accn —.p99

Sanitary

wc/6 students; 1 bath/6students, or 1 shower/12 students (preferably 50% baths); 1 washbasin/3 students if not provided in rm. Space standard 1.2—1.6 m2 USA:checkapplicable codesand standardsforthese details. Prefabricated sanitary units—.p65 Hot waterheating local or centralised. 1

r 10 Typicalamenityar

i

-r

Community

141

Colleges STUDENTHOSTELS:ACCOMMODATION (cont)

Amenityspace

Dining kitchens not intended forCull meal service with utility space allow 1.2—1.6 m2/student.WithCull meal service allow 1.7—2 m2/student (less for more than 6 students). Where hostel close to other university bldg and communal service used, dining kitchen may be only shared social space. Cooking and dining areas should be separated with dining rm located where all students it. Newaccnmore likely provide self-catering. Eqpself-catering shared by 6: cooker and refrigerator, single bowl double-drainer sink, 2000— 3000 worktop with cupboards under and over (include individual food lockers), refuse with capacity 1 day's use. Provide eqp for washing, drying and ironing for each groupof rm. NB: above not normal practice in USA. Residences on campus use communal amenities; where accn some distance fromother university bldg allow withinhostel m2/student: large common rm lib/reading rm indoorgames hobby rm

0.9—1.2 0.4—1.8 0.2—0.4 0.2—0.4

Within theseareas also coffee bar/shop, ante-rm/coffee lounge, place for debates and society meetings, television, music practice, lay for visitors asappropriate in accordancewith local reg.

Offices Large residences away from campus need some off with approx areas (m2): warden/supervisor 20, secretary/archives 20, management committee/consult mi 30, housekeeper* 9, cleaner's changing rm* 9 porter* (next toentrance) 9, students' union 20.

* also needed when residence on campus.

Staff

03

6m

9 18 ft

I

StudentresidenceGuildford England asecond,first&groundfloor plansoftypical unit bsectionsAA&BB croofplanofcourt Arch RobertMaguire& Keith Murray __________________________________________________________

Design tosuitsingle, married and marriedwith familycategories. Some accnwithin residence provides supervision. Separateaccnin housesor flats most economical. Wardenneeds (m2)67—93; single academicstaff and housekeeper each 56—67; single supervisory staff 46—56; single domestic staff asfor students.

Ancillary

Allow baggage sto 0.3 m2/student. Provide adequate central sto for household and cleaning eqp, linen, furniture and refuse; on each floor sto for cleaners and eqp with sink and watersupply. Provide laundry chuteif appropriate. Circulation areas and ducts for 2—5.7 m2/student. Ensure ages adequate for trolleys (carts) and carrying suitcases. Provide entrance hall supervised by porter with space for notices, telephone kiosks and milk and mail delivery. Bell system orloudspeaker willserve to transmit messages inconjunction with sometelephone points.

Finishes Materials should be durable, hard and needlittle maintenance.

Layout&building form

036m 9 18 ft

2

HaIlofresidencenextcampus Southampton England typicalfloor plan ArchJ SBonningtonPartnership a

Single row arrangement: widthof bldg 5500, rm 3500, corridor 1500; doublerow arrangement: width 10 m, 2 rm each 3500, corridor 2000; triple row arrangement: width14000,2rm each 3500,2 corridors each 1 500 with artificially lit and ventilated centre blockforwashr etc.Typeof access available: bystairs to rm, by stairs and shortcorridors, bystairs to central corridors. Adequate means ofescape in case of fire must be provided —*p44 91. With 4 floorsand more elevators required: more economical build up to3storeys. Car parking: mm ratio 1 space/3 students; sto for bicycles and motor cyclesalso. Site footpaths away fromground floor windows and maintainprivacy.

2 WJ_LLJL'.U

IFTTrTTTTrf.-4 b

010, ______Om 326496 ft __________________________________________________________

3 QuincyHouseHarvardUniversityUSAprovidesintegrated

communalservices asecondfloorplan 1 singlebedr 24-man duplex suiteliv, bedraboveorbelow 3tutorliv 4stu 5bedr b firstfloorplan 1 k 2servery 3dr 4janitor 54-bedrsuites 6liv 7bedr 8listening rm 9workr 10 3-bedrunit 11 reading nn cground floorplan 1 lowerlob 2grillrrn 3seniorcommons4juniorcommons 5tutorialcentre 6superintendent 7service&gar 8entrance lob 9 house off 10tutor suite 11 guest suite ArchShepleyBulfinchRichardson &Abbot

142

Community

Colleges REFECTORIES/DININGHALLS Can be provided in separate bldg within hostel (dormitory), within community activities bldg or as separate bldg. Space requirements depend on type ofservice(self-service fromcounter, self-service from disheson table,waiter service) and seating arrangement but generally allow 1.2 m2/student, allowing for number ofsittings. Longtables with benches —(1) preferable (not USA) to small with chairs: cheaper, durable, space-saving, easyclean and clear. Width ofseat 600; width oftable600—(preferably)700. Space for cross ages: (500 x 1050/3 seats = 0.18 m2); add extraspace forside agesand space in front of servery (service) and entrance. Benches should stand 80—100away fromthis table;need be only300 wide and 400—450high (easy tostepover). Benches nearwall 400 wide, including 120 distancefromwalltogive access.More convenient enterfrom side but thismeans 4 students on wall bench.

For more elaborate furnishing —(2); where chairs and more comfortable tablesdesireddimensions are: widthofseat 650; widthoftable 700—800.Space required (access frombehind —hatched portion): 650 x 1150 = 0.75 m2. Share of cross ages (550 x 1150)/3 = 0.21 m2. Floor area/student with appropriate extra space as above: 1.1—1.2m2.

Ifspacealongwallbehind chairs used asmain agewidthincreased

to

800.

Tables with seats at either end —(3) uneconomical, spoil communal feeling and equality among students. Space needed fortables in corners (—hatching): 5900 x 2550)/12 = 1.25 m2. Space/student required

Seating also —p202—4; snack bars —p205 206 Circulation ofdiners should be1-wayonly: can beachieved bycorrect disposition oftablesand sitingof columns atcorners oftables toavoid waste ofseating space —*(4).

Kitchen, servery(service) and stoarea between 40—50%of refectory; food preparation 20% ofkitchen. Servery areaforcafeteria service upto 20% kitchen area. Desirable design on 1 level with convenient stores delivery:avoid staircases and elevators if possible. Kitchen should be big enough for work in uninterrupted sequence withoutopposing traffic flows fromstotoservery. Stoatstart of circulation followed by food preparation tables, sinks and eqp including area for pastry making, thence to cookers, ovens and boilers, then to warm cupboards and servery. Provide pot-wash nearto cooking area. Off for chief chef should be positioned to provide supervision of stores and deliverypoints and alsowhole kitchen area. Crockery should bestored in serveryarea and after use go by trolleys (carts), dishwashers and drying cabinets backtoservery. Good ventilating system required to draw air from dining areas and kitchen and avoiding flow ofairfromkitchen to dining area. Restaurant kitchens —'p213--.Bib217 Sanitary (USA: check applicable codesand standards):depending on location and proximity to other bldg should be provided next to dining rm; if alreadyavailable nearby suggested provision: 1 wc/100 males, plus 1/250 males, 1 urinal/25 males; 2 wc/100female plus 1/100; 1

washbasin/50P. Finishes: materials should be durable and require little maintenance.

4501 40O1

________

ILl ?It' L______J

[TT ________

I

30)1

3600 1

with allages and appropriate extraspace asabove: 1.2—1 .3 m2.

;ood

Colleges references; —Bibliographyentries039040041 063096097113114147168176 200217226261 377413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652

2400—f

Longtableswith freestandingbenches 500

12300 -

l5ool u5

2

Longtableswith chairs 450 150—200,.

Jo[

3650 •..

450 ,-..___t

50200o70 .1

3

Tablewith chairsatend

goodarrangement of swithout loss of space fordining halls 4400—4600

4 Space savingarrangementof s

5

Integratedrefectory services St Catherine CollegeCambridgeEngland ArchArrte Jacobsen

Community 143

Youth hostels Oftenconversions ofexisting bldg both because ofshortage ofmoney and because often in aesthetically sensitive surroundings; therefore Youth Hostels Association (YHA) reluctant lay down definitive plans for

arm2

place

Comment

typical hostels. Nevertheless specifications and requirements particular and detailed, specially sincetightening offire reg —a(1). In UK DES has also requirements for hostels forwhich itprovides funds: more onerous on questions ofspace.

entrance hall off/reception/shop

14

drying rm

14

Bed spaces

luggage rm

14

3.1 m2 floor ar/Pin dormitories 1 wc/1O bed spaces 1 hb/6 bed spaces 1 b orsho/20bedspaces

common rm dining rm member's k warden's k

For purpose ofcomputing floorarea DES disallows any partoffloorover whichceilings less than 2100high.

11

18.5—23

46.5 16 16—23

9.3

Ia Wash-up

11

wardenssitr

14

YHA has lower standards, depending on grade of hostel: simple or standard. Simple (need not have resident warden) mm 2.04 m2/bed space; standard (must have resident warden living within curtilage of hostel at all times when open to ) for dormitories mm 2.32 m2/bed space, recommended 2.78m2.Asdouble bunksnormally used thismeans6.31 m2/bunk if DES standardsto be met.

bedr Warden,s wardens2nd bedr warden's 3rd bedr 7.5 wardens bathr 3.25 dormitories 158—167 wc washing accn

Dormitories

YHA, ruling body for hostels in England and Wales (Scottish YHA has similarstandards), lays down allhostels must haveseparatedormitories formenandwomen, with separate access. Layoutofdormitories should be suchthatcan beusedbyeither sexasbookings demand: meansthat either sex must be able to reach appropriate lavatory. Most compact solution blockof intercommunicating rm with appropriate door locked between sexes. YHAaimstoswitch to arrangementin many continental hostels with4-beddormitories,with sanitaryaccnreachedfrom common corridor, motel style. DES pressing for degree of privacy in washing arrangements for women, satisfied by arranging washbasins in own cubicle with curtain at entrance.

1

airing d blanket sto cycle sto

3.75 28

with bench & shoe rack hatchto entranceha, reasonablyclose to warden'sk preferablyaccessiblefromentranceha withoutingthrough principalrm: with racks orhangersheated ifcombinedwith drying rm, laundries& wc 14—1 8.5 m2 each

or0.7—0.9 m2/P with directaccess aspossibleto dr ifpossible with hatch&door combined fordirect serviceto dr: skinkpreferred to separatesd; accessto dustbtns each

with 1 or2 sk; tablespace fordirty crockery; easy accessfromdr; if possiblereasonableaccess to warden's kforreturn of crockery layout ofthese will depend usually upon balanceof convenience,privacy, as ect ,e3.16/P forhosfellersnotlessthan 5,forwarden1 foreach sex 1 washrmwith b(separated bypartitions)orsho, 1 footbath,basins to DES standards forwarden's use warmed forabout30cycles, preferablyin racks: 1 machine/305

note: floor arintendedasrtiin desirablebutinalterationsmuchwill depend on existing bldg

YHA scheduleofaccnfor50-B hostel

1

Hosteller'samenities

As hostels closed during day arriving need luggage rm to leave gear withouthaving access to rest of hostel; may be combined with drying rm, where hostellers take off outer clothing before booking in at reception desk. Toallowto cookown meals ' kitchen provided inall hostels, in addition to kitchen of wardenwhowill also cookforhostellers. ' kitchens have combined double cooking rings and burners and grill units, fuelled bypropane gaswhere mains services notavailable.Locker space also required, and also washing up space, in addition to that intended forthosehostellers whotake warden's meals who are required towashup.

dustbins

solidtuel

cycles

r wardens

blanket

dryingrm Ihotwater boilerl

bathr

L

.1

,

wadens bedr

a

,

drysto

reception

ofl&shop

2

Imen s

- wardens k

I

dOnniitorylleSl

I

mess waslrn,

I common/

-

dui,

dormitoryliesi

,

I wardens

worishop

'

entranceha

11

Warden'squarters

Hostels with more than 40beds usuallyisteredbymarriedcouples, possibly with children whowill needliving quarters. Largest hostels will have assistant wardens, provided with own sitting rm, staff dining rm, kitchens and recreation rm.

Sb

gar&

lightingplant & tuei

it .

ro'

'

doflTiitorylieS)

womens k

I wash-up

Schematiclayoutfor 1-storeyyouth hostel

In larger hostels chief warden's quarters should be in form of selfcontained house orflat, with 3 bedr, bathr, kitchen, dining rm and sitting rm. In these circumstances hostellers' accn should never be over or underwarden's.

Fire safety

YHA increasingly concerned with applicationofmore stringent standards of fire safetyto both new and existing hostels. Sources of danger have beenidentified asprimarily: interference with stoves orheaters,particularly indrying rm; el orgas faults; smoking; misuse ofcooking stoves in ' kitchens. Provisionof meansofescape inoldbldg difficult. Fr required for protected staircases difficult provide in bldg with timber floors. In smaller hostels, akin to domestic houses, distancestravelled on fire escape routes not normally long enough to contravene reg. Generally 18 m traveldistancetoplace ofsafety considered max where floors timber, or 30 m where non-combustible. Mm of 2 staircases normally required, in such positions that no person on anyfloor has to go furtherthan max travel distance to reach staircasesorotherpoint of accessto place ofsafety.

3 YouthhostelconvertedfromexistinghousebyYHA: a ground floor b 1st floor

J

144 Community

Youth hostels GERMANSTANDARDS Small hostelwithdormitory 30—50 beds Standard size40—i 00beds Large 100—250beds Very large 250—600beds Optimum 120—180 beds,with 400 upper limit. Relate number ot beds to av numbervisitors; design sleeping lager to cope with peak holiday demand.

a

Siting: open, sheltered from wind, main rm facing SE,S. Spacerequirement: forstandard hostel: indormitory 2.2—2.8 m2/bed; for 2-tier bunks 1 8—2.0 m2; 1—2 large rm with 20—30 beds, orsmaller with 4—12 beds; 8-bedrm much valued. Also rm forsick and accidents

d

1—2 beds.

Av occupation approx 40% girls 6O% boys; sexes either on separate floorsor segregated by partitions: some rm arrangedto meetdifferent balance upto 50/50.Av rm height 2800, not less than 2500. Dormitoryfloorarea 1.5 m2/bed. Plankbeds: single tier 1.2—1.5 m2/bed, 2-tier 1.1 m2/bed. Common rm 1.0—i.5 m2/bed. Meeting/discussion rm sound-proofed and located away fromotherday rm. Wallspreferred wood lined, with rucksack stands and tip-up benches.

8600 — 3800 —f- -——t T

__________

______

3800

—

r..s—..-. __________ ______

______ ______ ________

\v C,

ot o. 0 10

I —

F—

4750

5000

crockery washed by s Larder next kitchen, long narrow and cool

—I

—H

0 C,

f00 00 — 2800

J 0 U,

—4

Typicalsleepingrm; mm ar between skirtings,4-bed 16 m2 (1 bed 4m'), 8-bed 16m2(1 bed 2 m2), 10-bed30m2 (1 bed3m2), 20-bed30m2 (1 bed 1.5m2);inlargedormitories32 beds32.7m'(1 bed 1.02m2) 2

Kitchens: Both visitors' and warden's kitchens nearentrance,preferably with light from2 sides. Visitors' kitchen fitted for self-catering; in smaller hostels can be in common rm, otherwise separated, also apart from warden's kitchen. Generous provision of cooking eqp; 100-I boiler and sk. Rambler's kitchen big enough for group eat and also sit in winter. Warden's kitchen: glass door or window allows supervision of coming and going; food hatch tocommon rm. Equippeddouble sk, lowslop sk, 600 deep dresser under windows, lockable draw for money, power pointsfor kitchen appliances; if gas-fitted, low rings for large pans. Sk and crockery cupboards next food hatch and apart frommain kitchen:

Warden's quarters: mm 3 rm each approx 16 m2 including kitchen, whichmay beon same floor or separate, in which case onground floor nextto reception and with sitting rm, upstairs being 1—2bedr next girls' sectionand bathr. Assistants 7 m2/P Entrance sheltered from wind or with porch; convenient approach, sheltercanopy, easyforwarden watch over. Focusofhostel hall and day rm, divided into noisy (workrm, table tennis, games, dancing), normal (common rm, dining rm), quiet (writing, reading, discussion, office, sleeping):noise control by separation ondifferent floors. Washrooms: area 0.35—0.4 m2/bed; 1 washbasin/4—6beds; 1 footbath/15 beds, 1 shower/20—40beds. Showers can be in basement, betternext bedr. Ground floorwashr for arrivals. Lavatories: 0.3—0.35 m2/bed; 1 wc/i urinal/8—iO boys; 1 wc/6—8 girls: lower proportion in larger hostels Laundry ifpossible related bathr, showers and heating; in large hostels machines and spin driers. Ancillaryrooms: sto for packs, bicycles, sports gear; drying rm; shoe cleaning; utility rmforhostel eqp, first-aid box; dark rm in larger hostels; warden'sworkshop. Construction: suiting environment; resistant rough treatment; stone and timbermainly, mm plaster. 3

Large hostel in ArchLauterbach

Community

145

Libraries INTRODUCTION

allocation

percentageof total ar

Essential that close rapport be established between librarian and architect; for largest schemes libraryconsultant should beemployed.

adultlending

27 (up to 40 in small units)

Types

Community: primarily lending books to adults and children and with general reference section. Current trend in UK towards larger central libraries with branch satellites; rural areasoftenserved by mobile units. Specialised: primarily used for reference,with small loan section. Nationaluniversity: used forreferenceand research;continuallygrowing collections. See alsoschoolmedia centres —*pl29, hospital libraries—*pl77. Increasing literacy and leisure timeplus information explosion' make it important to plan for max flexibility and for future expansion. New techniques arechanging methods ofcontrol/indexing/retrieval.

PATTERN

3 main elements, materials, readers, staff, are related in varying ways

depending on organisation policy: eg community, school and hospital libraries require predominantly 'open access', ie readers have direct access to books; catalogue a necessaryadjunct.At times largenumbers of people circulate among spread-out shelving unitsand are attractedto browse. Larger libraries including universities and colleges concentrate sto in 'open stack' and put readingspacesnearbyratherthan amongstshelving. Formal arrangement ofthisoften used in USA. Alternative 'closed 'allows no between readersand books except through staff via catalogue. This method used for major sto in national, largecity and county referencecollections, forrare and valuable booksand as 'back-up'sto in any library: 'closed stack'. Specialised/large libraries may have separate subject dept each with enquiryservice; catalogue should remain centralised unless computer based. Reference and loan section catalogues may bedivided.

reference children circulation/ services! ancillaries

20 13 (maxar 150m2) 40 (about halfforstaff rm)

in small librarieschildren's % arshould increase & reference decrease

Adult lending population served

3000 5000 10000

20000 40000 60000 60000 80000 100000

total vol

4000 4000 6000 12000 24000 24000 36000 44000 50000

floorarin m2 100 100 100 180

360 360 540 660 750

open access accn; 15 m2/

l000vol(butminar 100 m2);includes local circulation, catalogues,staff counters, informalseats tor browsing at 1/1000 population,some display eqp

Children Floor ar 75—100 m2 for populations up to 10000, and 100—105 m2 for 10000to 20000people. Basis as for adults (seeabove); but does not include space for study/talks/storyhours'. Separate entrance sometimesprovided:but control becomes difficult.

Reference Allow 10 m2!1000 vol as less need for generous circulation. 1 study space of2.32 m2/1000population,with somedegree ofprivacytoavoid distraction; these figures willcoveranystaff desks required. None of the adult, children or reference figures include provision for periodicals, sf0 ofaudio-visual materials.

SPACE STANDARDS Appreciable differences to be found among national and international authorities. Following generally basedon IFLA standards:

Communitylibraries population served

allowance per 1 000 population

'10000 to 20000

42 m2total floorar

20000to 35000 35000to 65000 65000to 100000 over 100000

1

39 35 31

28

Figuresbasedonsurveys, butcan beuseful check; include all general but not indirect services (meeting rrn, lecture&exhibition spacesl

2 Relationships

Smallbranch lib,WorcesterEngland, 98m2 5500 vol ArchTLewis

146 Community

Libraries ENTRANCE

vision. Function: to new readers, issue and receive loan books, deal with reservations and fines. In small librariesalsohandles reader's enquiries—(1 )—(3).

P4,,

'I

<'1'I ,,'

TuII

CONTROLAREA Close to or within sightof bldg entrance, and with space to absorb congestion at peak hours, but located toallow max visibility for super-

out

returned

Community libraries should clearly declare bldg function, and be welcoming. Lobby should reduce entryof noise/draughts. Provide visual stimulation here. Adequate control needed to prevent high losses of booksetc throughexit: some have had to use turnstiles or electronic detectors. needs of disabled people (ramps/elevator! escalator —.p85—7 407 408 412). Should lead to control/guide area —*below, with display en route.

I

I

1'ir, Small lib, staffof1; snag: cross circulation 1

I

returned boOks

GUIDE AREA

Islandcontrol,1 staff at off-peak; snag: separationfromotherstaffar 2

out

I

Card index/book sheaves/computerprint-out books, located near control orenquiry, en route toalldeptserved, also closetocatalogueworkarea. If card index, allow say 12 m2 covering 36000vol.

)1r1

//

TJ

ENQUIRYDESK

'

II

I

I I

(i__i

Near catalogue guide and bibliographies.Can help to share supervision with control.

MATERIALS

3

Large lib,canadotherstaff work ar; snag: mm 2staff alltimes

Books are, and will continue to be, primary material.Space may also be required for: newspapersand periodicals,discs, tapes and musicscores, microfilms, maps and pictures; there may be more to add in future: flexibility of layout necessary.

Shelvingunits

Most widely usedtype is metal shelving, individually adjustable, single sided (along walls) and double sided (island). Unit height 2000 (loan area), 1 500 (children's area), 2300 (bookstack areas). Shelf depth

200—300 (children's books), 200 (fiction, literature, history, politics, economics, law), 300 (scientific, technical,med). Width of unit generally 900 in UK and USA. Main routes in open access' areas 1 800 clear width, and minorroutes 1 200.

Bookstacks

Optimum length ofshelving 6 units(5400) to max 8 units(7200) but 4 units(3600)whereaccessible onlyfrom1 end. Centres ofislands where openstack' are 1 280—1 520 (gives about 164 vol/rn2); where 'closed stack' centres are 1 060—1 280 (gives 200—215 vol/rn2). Choice between these limits depends on selection of shelf depthsand aisle widths. Derivations from stack centre figures will give choice of economic structural grid dimensions atcentres of5400,6000,6850,7310,7620, 7750and 8350. Sub-divisions ofthesefigures will relate-windows,roof lights, fixedelements, ventilation and lighting. Optimum column sizes should be contained within 450 x 450 less finishes and tolerances, clear ceiling height approx 2400. Load-bearing stackunits nolonger favoured. Multi-floor 'closed stacks' inhibit flexibility and require book hoistwith staff captive on each floor. Large area stackmore flexible; max horizontal distancefrombookshelf toexit or book elevator approx 33m: may need mech conveyors. Variation for 'closed stack' sto: compact moveable shelving, of which most common is 'right angle roller' type. Saves 5O% of floor space compared with static unitsbut expensiveand creates extrafloorloading. Space saving of 40% if aisles in static shelving were reduced from900 to 550 wide. Consider dividing into fr compartments of about 450 m2. Use tempor smoke detectors, not sprinkler system (causesmore damagethan fire).

Reading/study

Work table of 900 x 600/reader who should sit facing low screen possiblywith built-in light. Student should have 2.32 m2 (which includes circulation space), screened on 3 sides(open carrel); research worker

4

MetropolitanTorontolib, largestpublicinCanada,housesover 1.25 million books, one thirdondisplay; spaceforover800readersto studymostly in arwith some naturallight key services 1 information 2gailery 3 synthesis 4eritendedhoursreading 5metroinformation 6newspapers7snacics 8rneeflng 9sto 10 audiovisualservices 11 generalreference& information centre l2circuiation 13 himstack l4graphics lsbibhographicaicentre16 senidEng&receiving

3.0m2 ormore screened on 4 sides (enclosed carrel).Aimgivesufficient privacy for mental concentration yet open enough to know if space occupied and not misused. Lockable cupboardswhere books reserved there for periods.

In community librariestrend away from formal reading rmtowards small scattered alcoves and nooks. In university libraries either large reading rm separated from books stacks or, more commonly in UK, reading areas round perimeter of stack areas, with further seatingwithin stacks.

Community

147

Libraries WORKAREAS Unpacking and despatch, accessions and cataloguing, binding and repairs, photocopying and typing Offices Staff rest rm, lockers, lavatories Mobile lending service: weather protected off loading,vehicle garaging, sto for book stock

ANCILLARIES Studyrmfor reference materials Typing/photoy rm Projection for slides, cine film, microfilm Exhibition space, chairsf0, rm forgroup meetings Theatre (film, lecture, music)

Junioractivityareas, groupprojects, story telling Cloakrooms Lavatories (locate toavoid use by general public) Telephones

FLEXIBILITY Larger the library greater the need for freedom of futurechange with interchangeability of major stack areas, reading areas, staffareas. Fixed elements (lavatories,staircases,major services etc) should begrouped. Best if floors can carry stack loadinganywhere. Consider future expansion and possible effect on primary bldg. Partitionsshould beremovable. In medium and small community libraries some flexibility desirable (avoid built-in' fittings); but designer should beware lack of acoustic separation and loss of identify forareas of different function and mood. Consider changes oflevel.

FINISHES& SERVICES Carpet general floor areas except stack and work areas; carpet or resilient flooring staff side of control; carpet all steps and stairs in quiet areas; sound absorbent ceilings toallareas. Palecolour floor in stack to reflectlight tobookson lowest shelves. Book spines highly decorative: forwallsand columns consider naturalwood/fabric/quiet paint colours. Underfloor coil orducted warm air heating; at least3airchanges/hr. For older books and manuscripts hum controlled to 55%. In reading areas give temp of 20—22°C,USA: 18°C winter 26°C summer; but lending dept can belowerasmost people wear outdoor clothes (add local heat in controland otherworkareas).

In larger bldg

provide air conditioning at outset; or at least plan for futureinstallation, especiallyforrare orvaluable collections (contents of libraries often cost more than bldg itself). Air conditioning standard in USA.Avoidentryofdirectsunlight; minimise solar heatgain (unlesscan be used for heating). Lighting by fluorescent tubesgenerally butadditional tungsten lighting to indicate changes of function/environment and to add sparkle and interest. Emergency lighting also required —Bib1 12. Artificial lighting en lux—°p225: control/enquiry600lx, reading tables400 Ix in lending, but 600 lx in reference, book stacks 100 Ix on vertical surfaces, cataloguing and workrrn 400 Ix.

Shelfunitsin lending areas needspecial measures:consider illuminated canopy projecting about 500 from top of unit with sockets served by underfloor ductdistribution. Mm DF—p1 727—9 10% with reflectanceof 80% (wallsand ceilings)and 30% (floors and furniture). 1

Citybranchlib, DurhamEngland,496 m2 17000vol ArchA W Gelson

2

Universitylib en USA Arch Curtis& Davis

148

Community

Libraries EXAMPLES

a

r key 1 entrance 2 cIa 3 wc 4 elevator 5 photocopy 6 catalogue 7 issuedesk 8 carrels 9 seminars 10 reference inquiries 11 courtyard 12 cataloguing 13 subject inquiries 14 off 15 librarian 16 deputy librsrian 17 despatch 18 machine rrn 19 stsffrm 20 bookstacks 21 escape fromfloor above 22 escape stair

if I

p.

ft,,

=

ct

4+4P

==

23void

ite

13

—42

jfl

1sLllhI1LJ ...HTr\.l

0

10

20

30 m

do

ro

don

PolytechniclibPortsmouth England provides sto formorethan 320000 volumes&3000currentjournalsonopenaccesswith reading accnfor500 students asecond floor bfirstfloor cgroundfloor Arch AhrendsBurton & Koralek 2

NathanMarshPuseylibCambridgeMassachusetts USA, an undergroundsub-dMsionwhichaddsover8000m2 to HarvardCollege lib, appearsfromoutsideasslantinggrass-covered embankment; lawn, trees, shrubsgrowinstone-rimmedearthplatform whichformsroof alevel 1 blevel 2 clevel3 ArchHughStubbins &Associates 1

Libraries references —*Bibliographyentries 065 073314 323 353 399 437 455471 472 474 476622625641 652

Community

149

Hospitals HEALTH SERVICESSTRUCTURE Role and relationship to clientof architect in deg for health care services affected by nationaldifferences in healthcare structure: wholly state organised, provided by private resources or organisations or community, or mixed.

In UK, though some hospitals, homes and clinics practice) still private, by far greater part, forming

(and local family bulk of medicoarchitectural practice, now crown property istered by National Health Service (NHS). Under direction Dept ofHealth & Social Service (DHSS) or Scottish Home & Health Deptservice organised into 3tiers; regional, area and healthdistricts. Broad planning,design and construction new bldg falls to regional authorities (RHA: in Scotland area health boards) while health districts (HD) serving 100000—500000population have immediate control individual hospitals, clinics and health centres (HC). NHS in England to be restructured 1982to only 2 tiers: existing RHAs and new DistrictHealth Authorities (DHA). Traditionally in USA health care industry much more varied with health services provided by private, educationaland religious sources, community, state and federal bodies. More recently position modified by National Health Planning & Resources Development Act 1974 which greatly increased influence of federal agencies, providing for national guidelines for health planning and for setting up in each state Health Service Areas and Health System Agencies: asresult architects's client more likelybe state agency than individualinstitution.

Despitethesedifferences, and with variations of emphasis, structure of health services inindustrialcountries essentiallysimilar. Majorelements: Ambulant patient care: exemplified by group practice or medical officebldg, local orcommunity clinics, health centres (HC), forming first between medical care and patient.

Small hospitals: range from10—15 beds (UK 'cottage hospitals') upto 100beds,offering basic inpatient services. In UKmost private hospitals fall within this class. Community hospitals (UK District General Hospitals(DGH)): mediumsizedto largewith 200—600 inpatientbeds and most orallmajordiagnostic

In USA broad range of material, less organised, available. Sources: Robert Wood Johnson Foundation(Princeton NJ), sponsors studies on ambulatory care; Assistant Secretary for Health, Dept of Health & Human Services (WashingtonDC) for enquiries on all aspects ofhealth services planning; Kellog Foundation (Battle Creek Mich); American Hospital Association (Chicago Ill) has extensive reference services; National Technical Information Services (Springfield Va).

PLANNING& DESIGN Hospitals an amalgam of components, some simple, some extremely

complex: each has time scale whichcovers useful design life, iebefore it needs eithermajor alterationsorreplacement. Bycarefulplanning and design components with similar characteristicscan begrouped together so as to be adjacent to both thosethey serveand thosewith similar structural and service characteristicsand lifespans.

Largeor medium hospital complex includes not only patient accnand medical/technical installations but large section —p179—80, electro-mech plant and engineeringservices, laboratoriesand pharmacy —p1 76 177, library p177, industrial installations for food services and laundry—p180, supply, service and disposal (sometimes in separate complex), lecturehalls, staff hostels and restaurants,carparks. Hospital essentiallydivided into2 main units: inpatientcare and outpatient care; further essential units; diagnosis and treatment, ; frequent additional unit: education and research. In early planning relationship between thesesignificant; diagnosis and treatment appearsas linking function—(1)(2). Ideally these would all occuron 1 plane; however muchsite and other organisational factors impose multi-storey design easeof lateral movement remains prime consideration. Before designer puts pen to paperbrief must be prepared explaining operational policies ofhospital, with description ofactivities tobecarried out and resources required to do this efficiently. Successful design relies on effective and detailed brief: preparation must be t venture between hospital sand architect with hisdesign team.

and treatment specialties. Also provide some teaching for med, nursingand para-medstaff.Also providespecialist forHC—4p181.

Tertiary or teaching hospitals: usually have 600—1 000 beds, house not only all basic services but sophisticated specialties. Most provide

teaching formed students, nursingand para-medstaffand post-graduate training and research.

Longstay: for elderly, chronically sick, children, psychiatric patients and some otherspecial purposes p158 162—3 164.

In relation to all these, continuing change of emphasis; general trend now shorter stay in hospitals, increase in specialist dept and services, greaterstress on outpatienttreatmentandambulantcare,anddevelopment ofsuchlocal services as health centres and clinics. In manydeveloping countries pattern and orderofpriority different, with greater stress on provisionoflocal unitsforessentialpreventivemedicine campaigns and techniques.

Building regulations

Whereas in UK nationalbldg reg apply tonewand upgraded healthbldg inUSAfederal, state and local codesand standardsmust beconsulted.

1

Hospitalsectors: diagram of relationships

INFORMATIONSOURCES In UK DHSS provides design information on specific areas, services and eqp: published as DesignGuides; BuildingNotes (HBN), Equipment Notes (HEN) and Technical Memoranda (HTM); tendency now to provide more comprehensive and detailed information on Activity Data Sheets (ADB). Known as 'Red Pack', as yet incomplete, ADB sheets contained in 8 volumes divided into categories: 'A' describe activity space and list eqp required, together with appropriate physical and environmental standards; 'B' contain diagrams of individual pieces of eqp. 'A' sheets offer choice: decision rests with planningteam. Sheets not computerised, have tobe collated manually. Other material is available fromsuch sources as King EdwardVII Fund for Hospitals in London, Nuffield Foundation, and SHHD and Central Services Agency (CSA); former Scottish Hospital Centre (SHC) produced small practical information sheets based on full-sized mockups of hospital rm. RHA, Welsh Technical Service and DHSS(NI) also produce guidance material.

2 Hospitalsectorsdiagramimposed onoutlineofNewYorkUSA Hospital: d&t = diagnosis&treatment

150 Community

Hospita/s MODULARDESIGN

•SS...

Both in USA and UK pressure to contain costs encourages use of modular systems design —(1 )—(4). DHHS in UK sponsored range of standard designs for whole hospital:

'Harness'method

Range of dept based on common design module of 15 m selected as required to meetoperational needs and grouped in correctfunctional relationship to Harnesszone'of communicationsand services.

'Nucleus'

Evolved from Harness, Nucleus provides initial 300-bed serviced unit withinphased development. Typical harness'developmentplanforDGH

1

'Best buy'

Standard hospital design providing complete packagefor600-bed DGH.

TIME SCALES FORHOSPITALPLANNING Multi-professional project teams make lengthy briefing, feasibility and sketchdesign stages inevitable; inception of project tocommissioning can take 10—20 years: as resultmany new hospitals considered by s outdated. To shorten pre-contract stage as much as possible architect should produce carefully preparedtime-scale networks and have theseagreed byteam before workstarted. Once bldg handed over s should be given complete commissioning manual containing description of how bldg intended be used. Instructions should be given for use and maintenance; where possible full manufacturers' information should be included. Manual should be compiled asworkproceeds; this cando much toaccelerateprogramme and reducecriticisms made by s.

2 a& bTypicalDGH:York England DistrictHospital 800-B

Arch Uewellyn-DaviesWeeksForestier-Walker &Bor +YRHA

rn LJJJ 1

El

ground floor

phase 1 (nucleus)

754

16

6

3

Typical'nucleus' DGH:MaidstoneEnglandDistrictHospital Arch Powell,Moya &partners+ SETRHA

2 3: 1 main entrance 2 industrial residentstaff 6geriatricdayP 7 physical med 8psychiatric dayP 9mortuary 10k 11 residences12 parking l3wards l4acbi,in 15x-ray 16outpatients 17operatingtheatres 18isolation Key to 1

3 A & E 4 pharmacy5 non-

4 aDiagramof 16modularunitswithairducts&el/mechserviceshafts for ArmstrongHospital Kittaning PaUSA b 1 modular unitwith el/rnechservice shaft

Community

6 sub-compartments

exit

I 750m2 I

I I

0

Ii

ff1

II

750m2 I 0

1

Hospitals MEANS OF ESCAPE, FIRE PROTECTION, HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

exit

750m2

I

II

Compartments&sub-compartments

ments; system makes possiblemovepatientsshortdistances,ifnecessary in beds,to section sealed offbyfire door from smoke orfire in ading section.

f

-

'

Most bldg reg contain clauses on mm allowable distances between adjacent bldg and type ofconstruction acceptable to resist fire for given periodsoftime; some statedistances andconditions forescaperoutes.

Up to 2 hours needed evacuate 600 patients from 2-storey, 4 hours from 11-storey bldg: exhausting exercise for rescuers. All health bldg whichcontain high proportionof bedfast,disabledand confused patients should below rise, preferably withpatients restrictedto ground and first floors. High rise bldg should be confined to sites where no other solution possible. Because of theirspecial problems health bldg in UK nowhave own more stringent fire safety measuresbasedonfrcompart-

2 compartments 1

151

protected route

32m

1

32m

=

,-= =-, dual direction

0

—

single direction

s— d in

m L64 ——

Design guidance on size offire compartments and sub-compartments, togetherwith max acceptable lengthsofescaperoutes in wards, operatingtheatres, lab etc,canbefound inofficial literature(—Bib216218219). As general guidefollowing apply:

Are compartments—.(1)(2)(3)(4) UK reg (USA —p152): 1-storey bldg must notexceed 3000 m2 Multi-storey bldg mustnot exceed 2000m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 64 m Horizontal distance in single direction to exit must not exceed 15 m Travel distance within escape stairway must not exceed 45 m along going

Pposition

Firesub-compartments (patient areas) 2

l

wards 3 m others 1 m

I

handrail

3

Floor area must not exceed 750m2 Horizontal distance toalternative routes must notexceed 32 m Horizontal distance tosingle directional exit must notexceed 15 m Max occupancy 40patients

Traveldistancesforwards

T

Hazardous materials Some eqp and substances used in examining, diagnosing and treating patients radioactive, explosive or highly inflammable.Take everycare checkthatwhere thesesubstances used design,construction, detailing and service installationscomply with specific statutes and reg.

doors to openin

Onfiresafelyandhazardousmaterialsconsult official publications andhealth authority concernedbefore makingany decisions.

j 950mm1

j

'1 95omin'T'

protectedlo tostoreys above18m

Escapestair dimensions

45m max travel

'

.
-- --

726

4

1

i

Verticaltravel distanceon escapestairs

dl:fordouble carbanks

•Ild2:forsinglecarbank

Belevators dl = 5/2—3 x liftcardepth d2=3/2 x lift car depth

6

forO—25P

for26—60P too Lfor61_2o0P

800

-

Bed elevators&P elevators

sao Jfor2oi+P& perlOOP Tdoloors

—

5

Size ofescapedoors

u jI

!

Pelevators

d3 =determinedbytraffieak

I 7

2670 cardeptti

Bedelevator:detail

I

'I' 1'

dlord2

152

Community

Hospita/s MEANS OF ESCAPE (cont) Typical USA requirements given —(1)—(4). For each design project necessary consult details of relevant state and local codes.

Traveldistancetoexits *these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldg codes &canfrequentlybe 1

lengthenedin bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishingsystems

2 Corrwalls:corrshall beseparatedfromallotherarbypartitionswhich shall extendfull Ii fromfloortounderside ofrooforfloor slab above;vision s incorrwallspermittedwithwire glass:sizeofs limited unless wholebldg protectedbyautomaticextinguishingsystem; interiorstud partitionsmust befirestoppedtopreventfirespreadboth horizontally & vertically

4

Subdivisionoffloors:floorsusedforsleepingortreatmentofmorethan50 patientsmust besub-dMdedbysmokepartitions andshall bedividedinto compartmentsnotmorethan2090m2 inar;maxIorwofcompartments 45.7 m*; corr doorsinsmokepartititions shallbeoppositeswinging pair;doorsshall havewire glass vision s; ductswhich penetrate smokebarriersshall mustbefirestoppedto preventfirespreadbothhorizontally&vertically have dampers *these distancesorarmayvary indifferent bldg codes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthened in bldgequippedwithautomaticfireextinguishing systems

—corrmust provide

access to at least 2 exits

largerrm morethan 92m2* require 2exits

notmore than 9000*

3 Arrangementofexits:allpatientsleepingrmshallhaveexit doorleading directlytoexit corrwhich shallbeat least2440 win hospitals;rmlargerthan 93 shall haveat least2remoteexits; exitcorrshall leadtoatleast2

m

exits;deadend corrshall notexceed9000 *approved these distancesorarmayvary indifferentbldgcodes; traveldistancescan frequentlybelengthenedinbldg equippedwithautomaticfire extinguishing systems

5 Typesoffire detectorsaphotoelectricrespond tovisiblesmoke,workon obstructionprinciple(risingsmoke tendsobscurelightbeam&soundsalarm)

bthermalrespond toheat energy cinfra-redrespond toflame dionisation respondtoinvisiblecombustion products

Community

153

Hospitals DESIGN/BUILDINGCONFIGURATIONS -.

ii;)

heating&cooling

Ideal hospital design combines clear and simple traffic configuration with ability expand bed units and service base in future, growth and change withinhospital structure being continuous. Beds do not always increase in same ratio as service programmes but each must contain masterplan ofdirection. Bldg donotoccupymajorpart hospitalgrounds; parking (1 I/2_2car/B)and multiple entrycreate larger land use.

;7

Broadlyhospital bldg made up of2parts: base and bedconfigurations.

Baseconcepts

Base services fall into 2 categories: ancillary services orientated to patient care and service dept suchas sto, laundry,dietary, housekeeping. These 2elements canbecombined in 1 basestructureorbeindependent. Different fire-rated enclosures may determine approach.

Bed concepts

Design should meet nursing concept of optimum organisation and staffing. B/staffing team usually 20—30 patients. Mix of private and semi-private rm also contributes to bed design. Mm USA Health Dept standards alsohave controlling effect. Specialty and intensive care units have lower bed ratio; long term may containmore than 30 beds. Modular nature of bed design may conflict with structure of base. Concept of using long span trusses as mech-el route between hospital floorshas developed. Question of additional initial cost as against life of bldg flexibility mustbe considered foreach project. By USA standards correct ratio beds to base for community hospital approx37—46m2/B fornursing unitsand 46—56 m2/B forbase. Teaching hospital may range up to 140 m2/B, with university programmes and children'shospitals high as 185 m2/B.

datprncessirig

.i auxiiiary

N

0 100 200ft 30 6o m

personneil

"'-'J LI \J (I..

nursingunits diagnostic& treatmentservices (includingciincs,etc)

[J [j

it,& pubiican services

Relationshipsbetweenmajordept at proposedmedicalcentreTucson USA Arch Perkins& Will 1

0

7 14 21 28m 25 50 75 lOOft

2

Master planTempleUniversityHospital PhiladelphiaUSA Arch Perkins&Will

3

Relationshipsbetweenpatientcare & services&betweenbldg &site

154 Community

Hospitals WARD DESIGN: GENERAL Outlooks on ward sizes subjectrapid change. Main recent trend away fromclassical ward types(eg 'Nightingale': 12-Bopenward withnurses desk at 1 end; 'Rigs': 24-B with nursing rm outside ward, beds set in clusters); preference nowfor2—4 B. Despite this strong preference still controversial: very small wards giveprivacy and in theory more personal attention but can also be lonely, less often visited; ie society and staff supervision possibly better in larger ward. Patients need audio and visual privacy during med visits. Background noise and bed curtains provide some in large ward but lights disturb at night; small wards peaceful for resting patient butdo notprovide audio-privacy. In USAmostcodesnow give max 4-B/rmand design standards usually followed maintain mixof2-Band 1-B. In UK small rm also common; but wardsmay consist ofmixofdifferent size rm—acute wards below. Avstayinhospital foracute med orsurgery hasfallen, eg: major surgery 10—12 days, minor2—3 days, max 6 weeks (mainly orthopedic). Wards forthesepurposes therefore designed formax efficiencyofstaffworking. Forphysically and mentally handicappedand elderly —'longstay' —ward design moredomestic and social —pl58 162 163. Key problem ofdesign for efficient ward system: relationship of nurse workingrmtopatientrm.Basic concept—3(1).

WARD DESIGN:ACUTE Acute wards contain 24—30 beds; where possible should be linked togetherto form unit of 2 or 4 wards, whichalso enables such serviceasdayareas,doctors rm, disposal rm, stoetcbeshared between 2 wards; but check against fire reg before design decision made. Possible breakdown of bed areasfor28-bed mixed sex wards include:

3 x 8-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm 4 x 6-B rm + 4 x 1-B rm

2x 12-Brm+4x1-Brm Mostacutemed and surgical wards can be mixed-sex, argumentbeing

that itincreases bed occupancy. 1-B wards needed maintainoccupancy atmax of85% orabove: 1-Balso required for patientsliable toinfection, orto infect others, thoseseriously ill or dying and thoselikelyto disturb

others. Mixed-sex ward may not be acceptable to all s: check before deg onthis basis. Walking distance: keep walking distancesshortas possible for nurses and ambulant patient. Maxdistance frombed towc12mand fromnurse workingrmto furthest bedapprox 20 m. Observation: continuous observation of patient by staff essential part of nursingcare:during day achieved mainly in course ofwalking from 1 duty to another, at nightfromnurses station.Good design aim: 50% of beds to be visiblefrom nurses station. Patients gain confidence from seeing staff at work, dead-leg wards not popular forthis reason; if staff have no duty perform less likelyvisit ward. Control: patients, particularlychildren, adolescents and confused, need to be controlled; dayr must not be too isolated from rest of ward. Mixed-sexwards have own control problems. Staff need to control visitorsandcheckthat theydo not overtire patients. Noise: problem in large open areas; telephones and other eland mech eqp can be noisier than acceptable. Design for40—45 dB by day and 35—40dB at night inmulti-B wards; 1-B wards should be35—40 dBatall times. Courtyard designs can create problems of noise fromadjacent windowstodifferent rm. Daylight &glarewindows —p4O3—6 should notcause glare—p32 398 in bedfastpatients' eyes; beds should be parallelto windows unless brise-soleil, external or between-glass blinds or similar devices fitted. Windows design important:confused patientsmay try getout; allopening lightsshould have device restricting accessible opening to 100. Ventilation: mech ventilation often noisyand unsatisfactory, full airconditioning expensive install and run. Normal sites away from air or trafficnoiseshould relyonnatural ventilation; 3 beds deepfromwindow max before mech ventilation required. Central work rm require mech ventilation and sufferfromheat build-up insummer. Nurse call systems, closed circuit television (CCTV): Devices of various gradesofsophistication; all liable to abuseorfailure. Seriously ill patients cannot operate call systems therefore unwise rely on these rather than personal observation; acceptable asauxiliary system.

ACUTEWARD: SUGGESTED AREAS 1-Brm

I® r• •

I_

option nursing sub-station

A control access&egress to unit B access&visualobsefvationtoP

C Convenientaccessto activities 1

Diagramofnursing/Prmrelationship

I

:•

B

lOOm2

multi-Bbay (per B) dayr (perB)

9.3—10.0 m2 0.75m2

lockersetc (per B)

0.5—1.0 m2

nurse station clean utility dirtyutility& sluice

10.2—18.0 m2 14.0—16.0 m2

treatmentrm

14.0—16.0 m2

assisted bathr sistersrm doctorsrm bathr washing & sho compartment wc with handrinse basin

10.25—12.0 m2 7.0—9.0 m2 7.0—9.0m2

ptr ward k

flowerbay cleaner

sto (inclargeeqp) interview rm & overnightstay circulation ar

4.0—10.0m2

7.0m2

2.75 m2 2.0—3.0m2 4.0—6.0m2 20.0 m2 2.0—2.5m2 5.0—8.0m2 12.0—20.0m2

excluding wc& sho depending on amount of day space provided in wards orasseparateday space: separate 10.0 m2 extra space forlockers etc depending on position ofdrug, linenbaysetc ifseparatear = 9 +

7m

m

depending onsto provided

forambulant patients forambulant P max for wheelchair P beverage &snack point only for ward k service mm

may be shared with another ward

10.0—12.0 m2

25%—40%

depends onward layout

Community

155

Hospitals BASICWARD TYPES

Linearward—(1)

In past wardsdesigned on linear form: large single space, 20—30 beds ed by nurse working rm at one end, sluices and wc at other, quite often largework table middle of ward. Main ward or wards and majority of spaces naturally lit and ventilated. Observation of patients good; patients had little or nochance offeeling neglected. Background noise problem butto someextent this gave greater privacy than in4-or 6-Bwards. Since 1950's different shapes have been used (also modifications oflinearasat Guy's HospitalLondon).

Deep wardor race track—(2)

1

Guy's HospitalLondon typicalwardfloor,2 x 27 B ArchWatkinsGray

International centre

Design concept developed in late 1950's, complete contrast to linear: patients share nothing larger than 4-bed ward. Observation goodso long asenough nurses tomove round ward. Racetrack design prevents dead-legs where patients could feel neglected. Background noise reduced but as resultaudio-privacy for consultations not so goodas in largelinear. Wards placed on outside walls, naturally litand ventilated; nurse working rm form central core, need artificial light and mech ventilation.

Courtyardplan—(3)(4)

Courtyard plan (harness, nucleus —pi50) attempts reduce internal working rm and providegoodpatient observation. Success of this type depends on amount ofdaylight available and degree ofprivacy obtainable. All wardshave somedaylight but some mech ventilation may be necessary.

Falkirk ward;experimental, resulting fromstudiescarriedout bySHHD; built mid-i950's,2 x 30B; first& second floors 2

4 Typical 'nucleus'ward,2 x 28B

0

5

10

15

15

30

45

20m 60 ft

-v

hr

14

11

H

I L1J2

___ iEJ L Sm

9

20ft 5 Typical nursingfloor (48-B)AnneArundelGeneralHospital Annapolis USA Arch Metcalf&Associates 10

3

Typical'harness'ward; 72-Bunitwith 3staffbases 1 wc 2sho 34-B 4 5-B 5b 6treatment 7basecleanutility 8dirtyutility 9sister 101-B 11 day/dining 12 3-B

l3sto 14visitors 15supplies

156 Community

Hospita/s NURSEWORKINGROOMS p156—7 show layout, dimensions and eqp required for main nurse working rm in standard ward. Variationsin size and shape ofrm may be dictated byward plan, butworkpattern and critical clearworking spaces round beds and othereqpshould be maintained.

800mm

7200 (6-BI T

4800 (4-B)

I

for4-Bwaid

1 4-or6-B ward, 8.4m2&8m2/B: optimumprivacy,eachP having wallon one side; Bparalleltowindowto reduceglare;curtainsgive eachBvisual privacybutcentreBhasless;max 3-B depthbeforeartificiallighting& ventilationrequired

I4

Dirtyutilityrm, 14m°,equippedfordisposablebedpans: ifnon-disposable used washerreplaces destructor,nodisposable sto needed 1 rackfor bedpancradles 2slop sk&drainer 3bedpandestructor 4spacefor disposablebedpan box 5disposal bag 6hbunit 7spacefordisposable bedpan &urinal boxes 8spacefordisposal bags 9wastedisposalbag 10urinetest cabinet 11 sk&worktop,d under 12sanichair

dangerous drugs

a

[thj

slidingdoor external

LJ-

Dbctier

:f::f:f:.:.J Dtha 1

ce

=

1

observation

externalwet

railfor

1-BwardssuitableforPliabletoinfection ortoinfectothers: a13m2with sho &wc, also suitableforotherPneedingspecialattention 12.34m2 with we, orcouldbewithoutweforbedfastPdying, needing specialattentionor likelytodisturbothers;NB 1-Bwardsforsenouslyillmustbeclosetonurses

b

Sb

with drainers paper

towels disposalbin

T-

L:I •

3 .—,

b

1

window

J

el

:

T;ine poene

MJ'3

5400

5 Cleanutilityorpreparationrm, 24.3m2; small dressing trolleys(carts)

2560 T

replacetraditionalfixedworktops,considered superfluous;linenstoredon adjustableshelving&toppedupto agreed level; no linentrolleyrequiredfor clean linen

c,,l

3

Id1!

positionofdisposalarading

Iii

3200

station

E[i I I 450x450

L

2

i

depenserwithdrawer towel

& scheduin

Smallward pantry,5.5m:forbeverages & snacks only

6

Medicinetrolley (cart)chainedto

wallwhennotin use

Community 157

Hospitals NURSEWORKINGROOMS

2x900 leaves

rnanoeuvnngfrom straighf corrthroughdoorway

1

Doors&screensinwardcorr

r -

-L I

I

-i

.

I_ solidorgiazed sifrequired

sohdorglazed

sifrequired

t

——

jIeoo j

I

700

900

2=

500

4

Mm

corrwfor manoeuvring B

-

T

900

double-leaf

single-leaf

2 Standarddoor sizes forhospitals: wherehigh/lowB used standard 2050 doorsIi enoughtoallowthroughBwith balkan beams;mm doorwfor wheelchair800, preferred900

clock nursecall indicalor

fire alarmbell

Princess Grace Hospital London

Small 136-bed hospital for private patients, majority from overseas. Visiting consultants and surgeons diagnose and treat patients; permanently employed nursesand staff.Added needtoattractpatients by providing 1-B wards of domestic character and comfortable proportions (17 m2)with integral bathr, but as with NHS hospitals, prime importance to design best possible environment for diagnosing and treating patients.

9

3

Fittingsinward corr

5

5

P 3b

1

5

m

6Toft

PrincessGraceHospital22-Bwardunit: privatehospital Arch RSeifert

& Partners

158 Community

Hospitals 2 types;forassessment ofelderly, for long term care. For assessment patients normally housed in adaptation of standard acute ward withinDGH, because accesstofulldiagnostic and treatment

DATA FOR DEGWARDS:GERIATRIC

services needed.

For long-term patients (assessed and found to be in needoflong-term care) aim to provide homely environment in which basic nursing care can take place;emphasis on earlyambulationand rehabilitation—vpl 62. Oftenin separate bldg on hospital campus, within easyreach ofdiagnostic and treatmentservices.

curtainrail curtainon3 sidesofbed

ht

Dedhead

1700

In UK shortage ofgeriatric beds partially overcome byupgrading some wards inolderhospitals (upgradingwards—vpl 65). Fordetailsofgeriatric

bedhead

bectiesdunit

thermometer

oo

14801

1000min

—

med gas outlets

-

bathrandwc—vp163.

1300

Bboilers 700h

v——i

I

ingsFunc I B

2x200 w

4-500-

1A

ti 95Owide

1?

200

01.I

1650

dotheshooh B

—B

Phclst980X880

2050+550forbedstripper

shelf

a

1

1100 towefraji

Multi-Bward: eqp & fittingsinBar

D 1500

.hb c--i_papertoweldispenser

suapdispenser

4

grabriel

-

100

geriatricb

——

685

•

j:

230clearanceundertap

C

Ba hr

1300 I I I

854

clotheshook

865 i7tlsforchildrenor

1300LT#J__ —

—-

duct 190v60

:

—

papersack

——

—

1100 adjustable light

Staff hb unit inwards, nurseworkingaretc shed

bedpanred unnetestcanet

1111111

3

-i

med

x330 bedpanwasher

gases2400

'T

1650

diet

l

1800

1200

droppedfrontsuitableforwtteelchanP

5 Shoar

7

x-rayviewer noticeboard

6 receiver

notetakuigdesk 300

4lousIooe

80 x300 1

1300

IllOOforseated 1000 viewer

Dirtyulilityar

6 Pwa unit (notstandard)

7 Nursesstation

syringedispenser

B Cleanutilityorpreparationar(dda= Dangerous

Drugs Acts)

I

grabrid

I1

nursecalletc 1

1549

Community

159

Hospitals DATA FOR DEGWARDS(cont) 580

350..

typicalbedside lockers 3

KingsFundB:2080x910x380—810h

high/low B withpull-Outbedstripper

/

I _______

IL

'.

'4

t

4 Orthopedicfractureframe: B maybemovedthroughdoors

x558+230space overbedtableforhigh/low B

completewith frame

Clinimaticdisposablebedpandestructor: dryweight110 kgmax capacity 1351

Childrenscot: 1 370 x 760 x 610 + 69ohsides

5

drip stand attachment

DHSSstandard controlled drug d 1

Typicalward eqp

6

7

Typicalincubator

Bassinetteforinfants

2 Geriatricassessment ward (upgradedNightingaleward);one problemofelderlyistoremain continent:exampleshowshow walking distancefromfurthestB reducedfrom30m to8m &dayarfor rehabilitation,dining &quiet pursuitsprovided;B reduced from 28to22&wc increasedfrom4to8; dayar2.252P 11-B2multiB rm 3disposal 5b (freestanding) 6preparationrm 7hb 8sluice 9wc 10k 11 staff clo/wc&hb 12 specialbathr/cleansingar

l4eqpsto l5dayar l6quietar 17dining ar 18 nursesstation 19 DSR 22linen sto 23wheelchair sto 24sanichairsto 26sister 27staff rm 29 switchgear! calorifiersetc 31 Pclothingsto 33 lecturerm 38sho 39special couch 42doctor 44stainless steel skwith layingshelf 45lalptr 46free-standingbidet/wc

10

3

20 60

3Dm

90ft

160

Community

Hospitals MATERNITY

DV1F

Units normally attached to DGH or community hospital. Allow 0.5 B/ 1 000 total population; 75bedscater for2700deliveries/year, 100 beds for 3600 and 125 for 4500. Maternity clinics include ante-natal, postnatal, baby follow-up and family planning. Most units require normal backup for reception, , including records, and provision for education. In USAtrend toset delivery suitealongside surgery suiteor

L

risi I

Combinedfirststage&deliveryrm, 14.46m2 1 caps&masks 2baby cot 3tray 4trolley(cart) 5singlebowlstand 6scrub—uphb 7sack&stand 8heating 9obstetricB 10chair 11 slidingdoor 12writingshelf 13 bedsidelocker 14 timeelapseclock 15oxygen suction, child 16sto rack 17dispensers 18curtain 19 coathook 20spotlight21 drip poleon wallhook 22wallthermometer 23clock 24observation 25sphygniomanometer 26oxygensuction, mother 27bedhead 28cup& flask 29overbedtray 30towel rail 31 footstool 32 analgesia trolley 33 overbedlight 1

integrate with it. Deliverysuite includes: theatre, abnormal and normal delivery rm and assessment area. For 125 beds allow 17 normal first stage delivery rm, 10 observation beds, 4 abnormal delivery rm and 1 operating theatre. Obstetric theatre suite: theatre (28 m2)with full mech ventilation, hum and coolingcontrol and antistatic flooring, oxygen and nitrous oxide and 2 vacuum points for mother, vacuum and oxygen for baby; scruband gowningareas (9.5 ml, anaesthetic rm (16.5 m2),recovery bedsfor 2 patients (25 ml and clean utility (8.5 ml. All delivery rm require pleasant daylit environment with privacy (blinds to windows), good lighting for suturing, sound attenuation, anti-static precautions, med gas, oxygen and vacuum outlets, and mech ventilation with hum and cooling installations. Abnormal delivery rm (24 m2 plus scrubarea 1 .5 m2). Normal delivery rm (15 ml: 2 of these should be quiet with blackout eqp. Combined first stage/delivery rm —+(1) enables patient stay in 1 place throughout labour, herfirstmove being topost-natalward afternormal recovery period: provide 1 oftheserm to 5 post-natalbeds. Assessment area: 20% beds should be in 1-bedwards (13 m2)with oxygen outletat bedhead, remaining 80% in multi-bed bays (9.5 m2/ bed) with oxygen outletto each pair of beds. Ancillary accn: sto, milk kitchen (14 ml and flyingsquad sto (7.5 ml — whichmay be in accident &emergency dept(A&E).

30-cotspecial care baby unit (SCBU) attached tothis number ofbeds requires 22 multi-cot bays (4 m2/cot), 7 single-cot rm (5.5 ml and 1 special-cot rm ((7.5 ml; 20 cots considered mm size for viable unit. Entrance to SCBU must include gowning and handwash areas for visitors, and changing accn for staff: female, 11—14 m2 male 7.5 m2. Bedsitting rm for mothers with sho and wc—(2).

25

L1716

Mother&child rm, 16.32m2 1 wa 2visitorchair 3window(curtainsor blind) 4mother's bedlamp 5cantilevertable 6drawerunitunder 7mother'sB8curtaintrack gchild'scot looverbedceilinglight 11 twin socketoutlet 12oxygen&suction 13locker 14childchair 15toybox 16wastesack 17hb 18toweldispenser 19towel rail 20shelves 21 wc 22baby bath 23mirror 24glazed (withblindorcurtains) 25sliding door 26sho 2

1365m2

w__ _____

2671712

21

9 9

18

16

1

96

9

10

20

64

30 96

4pm 1286

3 Obstetricdept Easthourne EnglandDGH: Adelivery suite Bmatemityward 1 wr 2seminar 3staff changing: afemale bmale 4dayr 5first stage rm 6multi-purpose 7wc 8b 9 lab 10 abnormaldelivery 11 trolley(cart) &wheelchairs 12 ovemightstay 13dirty utility l4exam l5ptr l6doctor 17 nursesstation 18chargenurse 19 cleansupply 20anaesthetic510 21 dirtyutility 22transferar 234-B 241-B 256-cot 26assistedb 27dirtylinen 286incubators29k 30 centralmilk k 31 demonstration 32 obstetrictutor 33nurse 34 reception 35sb 36mobile x-ray 37 1-B toxaemia Arch SETRHA

Community

161

Hospitals PAEDIATRIC& CHILDRENSWARDS o

1

20-Bchildrensward Arch NuffleldFoundation

3 6 9 12 ,1 ,1rn 9 18 27 36 ft

division forarchitectural

studies

3

Diagnosiscentreforschoolagechildren,convertedfromoutmodedarof olderhospitalinJerseyCityUSA; existingcourtyard used asplay rrn & receptionar;sequenceofrmprovidesboth range ofhealthtests&educational programme Arch HillierGroup

a

WestMiddlesexHospital

b

2 West MiddlesexHospital England apaediatric/infantsward bpaediatric/children'sward A4-B/4-cot ward Al 4-B —staff B 1-B/i-cot ward Cwash/wc Dbathr Enursesstation Fcleanutility Gtreatmentrm H dirty utility/sluice Idisposallift Jptr Ktrolley(cart)bay Lsto M 2-B/mother& babyrm Ml clinicalmi—staff Nsistersrm 0doctorsrm Pconsult rm 0secretariesoff A playground P1 milkk 01 mothers si R1 relativesrm Sstaffdo clinicalrm Uelevators Vpaternosterelevators & stairs Wplay ar Xcleanersrm Yclassr Zission rm Arch Robert

I

MatthewJohnson-Marshall

Both wards—(2a,b) adaptedfrom standard,partof5-storey high system bldg. Paediatric/children's ward—(2b)contains2 x 4-Bwards, 6 x 1-B wards, 2 with wc and bath attached, and 3 x 2-B wards which can be used eitherfor mother and child orfor2 patients. Classr forchildren in hospital for several weeks but fit enough attend classes, eg child with brokenlimb.Away fromward, areawith adjacenttoysto where boisterous childrenencouraged play. Protected openair play area also provided. Paediatric/infants' ward —+(2a) has 8 x 1-cotwards each fitted with babybath and 4mother and baby rmeach capableoftaking full-size bed and child's bed ifnecessary. Playspace provided togetherwith protected open air area. Milk kitchen provides for heated baby feeds and baby bottlewashing: dailythroughput 240 x 0.25 I milk, of which two-thirds kept under refrigeration; extrasto required to keep milk over public holidayperiods.

162

Community

Hospita/s LONG STAYWARDS Long staywards forelderly and infirm mustbesited near publictransport for easyvisitingby relatives, often elderly themselves: need accessto diagnostic and treatment services, sowherever possible should be built on samedevelopment as DGH (community hospital) or be grouped togetherto beable to own services. Patients could easilybecome institutionalised in wrong environment:

Mentally handicapped often also physically handicapped may also be noisy, aggressive, overactive and selfdestructive. Particularlyimportant that furnishings besoft, spongeable and durable forthese patients, and that ceilings have sound absorbent finish.

Importantprovide variety ofspaces for social meetings betweenpatients andvisitorsandbetween patients, and forsmall group chats orgames or largergroupactivities (corralcoves, small separate rm). Dining arrangements also important forproviding social and domestic atmosphere.

1

accent on self-help and rehabilitationin setting aslikehome environment as possible withoutimpairing quality of nursing care. Patients require sleeping areas whichcan identify as own, and must have ready access to personal belongings. Wc and washing places must be near to both sleeping and dayareas. Design ofdayareas should allow patientsfollow therapeutic routine enabling themcare for themselves and if possible return home to receive necessary community care either atday centre orbydomiciliary visits.

Clear marking

of rm, corr, elevators essential;

colour coding helps

Psychiatric wards —p164

Longstay patients highlydependenton staffin cases of emergency: vital fire escaperoutes be easily identified, fire stopdoors have automatic doorclosersconnectedalarmsystem and fabrics andfinishesfr.

Elevatorlevel coding system usingcolours& numbers;helpfultoP with sensorydefects; raisednumeralsaid near-sightedorblind

Nowfew completely bedfast patients needing bedpans and bed baths during day: majority will be taken to wc and bathr even if incapable of

attending tothemselves —*pl63(2)—(7). Becauseincontinenceprevalent extrawc required aidtraining (maxdistance fromfurthest bed orcorner ofday area: 10m). Where space limited omit treatment rmand replace by cleansing rm with bath or wc each with thermostatically controlled sho handset —*pl63(2). Wc,sluices and cleansingrmmust have efficient mech extractventilation. Small utility rm with washing machine and clothesdrier needed forpatients' clothes. Provide extrasto space for wheelchairs, walking aids and sanichairs, and for greatersupply of linen, incontinence pads and, where used, disposable bedpans and urinals.dalso requiredforpatients' suitcases and clothesnot in current use, and foroccupationaltherapy eqp.

All floorfinishesshould be soft, non-slip and washable: plastics flooring with welded ts suitable for wc, bathr and all nurse working areas. Carpetsmay be used in wards and dayr where number of incontinent patients limited. Patients can be confused and if allowed go outside more easilycontrolled in courtyards than in open hospital grounds. All doors wide enough for wheelchairs —*p86; fire stop doors should be held in openposition byautomatic fail-safe devices foreasymovement of patients in wheelchairs or using walking aids. Termgeriatric —p158 generally used to describe those over 65 years who developseveral med problems at once and who may also suffer impaired mobility and be incontinent.

2

3 GenatricDay Hospital WaltononThamesEngland: 35 Ponbasisof5-day week;includesessment, med,para-rned,nursingprocedures, occupational&physiotherapy, traininginaids fordisabled&domestic routines 1 mainentrance 2reception 3do 4 interview 5speech, dentist, optician, 6 hair,chiropodist 7 sto 8off 9 individual therapy; physiotherapy

4 HostelaccnforP returning to hospital forrehabilitation courses(amputees &other physicallyhandicappedP) 1 group dayr 2fireescape stair 3 bathr 4sh 5wc 6wheelchairbay 7ptr 8sto 9doctorsrm 10sister

duties 10grouptherapy;physical exercisesar 11 occupational therapy dr l2court l3dr l4dr&wr l5wr 16k&servery l7dailylMngunitbedr 18rest 19b 20assistedb 21 treatment22dirtyutility 23 consult/exam 24staff rest 25boilers&tanks Arch Derek Stow& Partners

Mentallyhandicappedunit,planoftypical villa,CraigPhadngHospital InvernessScotland 1 sister 2visitors 3 Pdo 4sto 5domestic service rm 66-B 74-B 81-B 9wc l0bathr 11 staffwc l2preparation l3linen l4uty l5disposal l6hobbies l7dutyrm 18TV lgdayspace 2Odr 21k

4ft 11 dr 12duty mi 13nursesstation 14 preparation 15treatmentrm

16assistedbathr 17dirtyutility rm 18sluice rm 19staffwc 20wr 21 reception 22off 23porter 24 domestic servicerm 251-B 26 large 1-B 274-B

Community

163

Hospitals: long stay LIBERTONHOSPITAL—*(1) Geriatric hospital in grounds of existing hospital; has both in and day

patients with total 184 beds mainly in 24-B units. Day patients can be examined in 1 of 2 consult/exam rm and have midday meal in dr; share physiotherapy, occupationaltherapy, dental and hairdressing services withinpatients. Wards contain dining areaand 3 separatedayspaces, 1 forexercising and 2 for sitting in.

Wardblock

50

4-storeyward block: 3 floors48 beds each, 1 of40 beds on first floor used for hemiplegic patients. 48-B floorsdivided into 2 x 24 nursing units, each comprising 3 x 6-B bays, 1 x 4-B bay, 2 x 1-B. Bedside fittings include nurse call, radio and tvcontrols, bed light and curtains. Each 24-Bunithas2 bathr, 4wc,clean preparationrm, dirty disposal rm, shares exercise/drfor ambulant patients, and 2 small dayr. Each floor

I!:J!iJ H-i

83Vij

56

entrance

has ward kitchen, med officer's rm and sister's rm.

j• 0

Groundfloor Entrance hall with reception counter and general waiting area. Lift hall with nursingand offices, hairdressing rm, porter and shop.

a

63

5

10

1

b

16 32

-

6J 66 15

2am

I 48 64 1

It

LibertonHospitalScotland afirstfloor geriatricinpatients bgroundfloor geriatricday P 49commonrm 50physiotherapy 51 dentist 52chiropody 53MD clinic 54therapist 55almoner 56wr 57hairdressing 58 darkrm 59consult/exam 60seminarinterview rm 61 medstaff 62lounge 63canteen 64dining ar 65servery 66trolley(cart)wash 67potwash 69cold sto 70reception 71 porter 72 &nursingstaff 73generaloff 74shop 82bathr 83occuptional therapy 84wardar 85treatment 86exercise& dayr 87doctor 88sluice 1

Occupational and physiotherapy, med social worker, dentist and chiropodist share patient waiting area. Day patients and dr for midday meals served from kitchen which also provides staff meals in small canteen. Consult/exam rm separatedfromtherapeutic/social areas.

EQUIPMENT cutacle partition

imperviouswall tinish

sho curtains

sho handset

Tc!_

t

floorchannel

-,

L1

Ddspos11 hoolrs'

'

ptatform 1 980x550

___

-,

fl

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4—1800---4250

1710

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164 Community

Hospitals PSYCHIATRICCENTRES

a

Present trend away fromisolated sitesforpsychiatrichospitals in favour ofplaces allowing easy accessfordaypatientsand visitors and enabling inpatients maintainclosetieswith theircommunity. Community involvement often encouraged in USA both by making appropriate parts of centre available to public, eg gymnasium, children's play rm or craft studio, andby incorporating suchamenitiesasartgallery or public lib. Association with med centredesirable but important psychologically psychiatric centre maintain own identity and character. Environment contributes essentially to therapeutic process. Centre should be noninstitutionalaspossible consistentwith type of patient,need forsecurity, protection from self-injury and vandalism; range from 'open door' to forensicinstitution for criminally insane. Great size to be avoided; patients should be grouped into units(max 30 P), smallenough facilitate development of community spirit(atmospherenearercollege dormitory than hospital). Where climate allows common practice provide residential units inform ofcottages in landscapedgrounds. Evenwhere restricted site imposes compact bldg formessential individual units be identifiableasseparate entities.

Bedrshould afford opportunity retreat and privacy: if 2-B, plan so that each patient hasclearly defined individual area.

b

Conversely design and furnishing of public areas should encourage sociability, supplementingformal treatmentwith therapeuticallybeneficial, informal patient/patient and patient/staffmeetings. Placenurse/security stations so that staff engaged in routine activities can observe patients casually. Unobstructive nature of suchsurveillance important psychologically in alleviating persecution complex. Hierarchical arrangement of staff and patients in group therapy rm inhibitspatient involvement. Square orcircular seating space affording mm distraction, with circular seatingarrangement, probably ideal. Mentally disturbed persons commonly showsymptoms disorientation with regard to time and space. Views and s with outdoors and living plants aid patient's comprehension oftime and season; directand clearlydefinedcirculation patterns, ed by such aidsas graphics and colour coding, inculcate sense of security. Colour playsimportant role in therapeutic process: egyellowand orange help dispel lethargy amonggeriatric patients.

Hospitalpsychiatricunits

Similarconsiderations apply psychiatric unitswithin general hospitals. Since patients generally ambulatory,day rm and therapeutic activity rm assumespecial significance. Although exigencies of hospital planning

seldom allow direct access outdoorareasatgroundlevel from psychiatric unit sunnyoutdoor roofterrace should formintegral part, particularlyfor geriatric patients.

2

1

C

2

CapitalDistrictPsychiatricCenterAlbanyNewYork USAaccommodates

400inpatientsin 16residentialunitseachofwhichalso serves25day

patients:upper of2superimposed unitsset backfromlowercreatesoutdoor terwhile lowerhasdirect accessto landscapedsite;treatment,educational, recreational,,research &servicedept housedin4-storeychevronshaped structure,ed toresidential unitsbysky-lighted,brick-paved, indoormall which hascolourfulbanners, informal seating groups,beauty& barbershop, chapel, music&gamesrm, laundromat; planat mall level 1 geriatric unit 2adult unit 3pediatricunits 4psychiatric outpatientclinics 5consult 6volunteers 7dining 8issions9medrecords 10emergencyclinics 11 business 12free-standingcolour-codedstairsin mall each serve4residential units,supplemented byelevatorsfor handicapped ArchToddWheeler& Perkins &Will Partnership.

Hospitalformentallydisturbedpatientsfounded 1844in Providence RI USA, whichhasbeenupgradedandexpanded, stands inbeautifulgroundsby Seekonkriver afirstlevel bsecond level cthird level key 1 lob 2 3ission&testing 4emergency 5med records 6activitytherapy 7dayhospital 8 interiorcourtyard 9inpatientunits 10food services&cafeteria 11 existing 12intensivetreatmentunit 13interiorgardenbelow 14professional off 15 diagnostic/treatment Arch HillierGroup 2

Community 165

Hospitals WARD UPGRADING Although wards have always been designed for care of sick those built before 1940were often intended forbedfastpatients.Sincethen advance in technical nursing has allowed quicker throughput of patients most of whom fully ambulant for 2/3 of stay; thus demand increased for nurse working rmand patient dayareas, washing and sanitary services. Older wards, structurally sound but ill equipped for present day standards, therefore suitable for upgrading, particularly those with useful lifeof at least 15 years. Moreover, taking factors below into , can be worthconsidering upgrading bldg scheduled tolast only 5 years.

existing

900900

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no

Factors Number of patients to be cared for under sub-standard conditions if

ward not upgraded, eq28-bed ward with 80% occupancy and 5-day av stay has throughput of approx 1 600 P/yr and 8100in 5 years Number of nurses to be trained in sub-standard accn, eq28-bed ward with 6 students on duty during day and 2 at night for 6-weekperiod equals 70students/year or350 in 5years Proximifyto ancillary ing accn Change of usefromacute folong stay wards Amount of money available

3

existing Reallocation &divisionofspaces, noextension to existingward:existing 29-B, upgraded25-B 2small sanitary annexeadded:existing 29-B, upgraded28-B 3corr& groupof nurseworkingrm&wcadded:existing 26-B, upgraded30-B 4extension addedtolongwallof ward: existing 31-B, upgraded28-B 52wardsed withcoreotnurseworkingrrn:existing 29-B each, upgraded52-Btotal

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166 Community

Hospitals

0

Standarddhnics

special clinics

ante-natal generai med generalsurgery fracture dermatology Orthopaedrc gynaecology psychiatric

opiliahiokigy ant dental

radioragnosbc endoscopymi chiropody

mainwaiting reonrds

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ENTRANCESFOR NON-AMBULANT CASUALTIES & OUTPATIENTS All patient entrances must be suitable for those disabled or in wheel-

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OUTPATIENTS

I Relationshipofclinics to other hospitalfunctions beacon+aerial_______

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standardLondon England ambulance:turning circle14.17m, turning clearancecircle 15.25m barriersdowntotal length

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After consultation patients may be sent directly or by appointment for furtherdiagnosis and/ortreatment to unitswithin OPD, eg plaster rm, physiotherapy, operating theatre or endoscopy rm. Endoscopy rm — p167(2) requires accnavailable forpatients under sedation and perhaps ante-rm forpre-medicationand holding(NBfibre-opticcoldlightsources must not be used in conjunction with inflammable anaestheticgases). Units may servewhole hospital;theatres and ancillary rmmay be partof

sFediafo

Clinics which can use standard accn: general med, general surgery, dermatology, gynaecology, paediatrics, ante-natal, fracture, orthopaedic, psychiatry. Clinics which require special accn: opthalmology, ear, nose & throat, dental. Clinics should have own reception pointand waiting area 36 m2 (based on 1.4 m2/P).

I

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canopy

Outpatients dept (OPD) provide consultation, investigation, diagnosis and treatmentfor patients who require little or no recovery services afterwards and are not itted toacutewards. Most patients referred attend session at specific clinic byappointment: receiveinitial diagnosis and treatment, eg injections. Sessions approx 3 hr long (10per week) and held 0900—1 200 & 1400—1 700. Each doctor may use either 2 combinedconsult/exam rmor1 consult with adjacent exam rm—n(5)(7) p168(3) during 1 session. Am useapprox 9sessions/week: formula for numberof rm required: rmsessions/week = number of rm

main hospital theatre suite.

:1I

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chair —*p86and must provide dirt control zone. Doors to A& E—÷pl 68 must allow accident trolleys —*pl66(11) easy entry. In A & E and to lesser extent OPD standard practice to provide automatic opening doors—*(4). Although thesecan beexpensive and unreliableusefulness outweighs disadvantages in areas where wheeled access required. Two main types:both actuated bypressure mats orelectronic devices. Some manufacturerssupplyoutwardopening swing operatedmechanism tooverridenormal operation inemergency. Design area between 2 sets of doors to take trolley pushed by staff member, without obstructionfrom door swings etc (2700 clear), Integrate 3 dirt controlzonesinto design. Provide canopy or recess doorway to shelterdoors. If ambulance required to back up to door allow 3200 to underside of canopy—(2).

canopy

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4 AutomaticdoorstoP entranceslayouts: Aforsetof900swingdoors with safetybarrierbetweeneachdirectionoftrafficflow; Bforset of sliding doors with parkingspace fordoorsinopenposition:max recommended size foreach leaf900 C3cleaningzonesfordirtcontrol:externalzone should haveopengrid typemattingsuitableforwheelchair,intermediate, mattingwithbuilt-in scraperaction, inner,non-slipdustcontrolmatting 13

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6 OPD FalkirkScotlandRoyal Infirmary 1 wr 2porter 3trolleys 4prams 5hearingaid 6wc 7consult 8do 9staff 10sto 11 audio 12treatment 13 preparation 14disposal 15CSSDsto 16eqpsto 17optician 18eye 19workr 20 dental 21 off 22dark mi 23orthoptist24ECG 25studio 26technician Arch Wilson&Wilson& Scottish Development Dept

wall a

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5 Exam&treatmentrm 10.4m2, forambulantorwheelchairP 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3toweldispenser 4sk 5trolley 6dispenserwithdrawer 7sheMng 8writingsurface 9swivelstool lox-rayviewer 11 wheeledcouch

fl®

16

l2chair l3examlamp l4twin 13-amppoint

15emergencycallbutton 16light switch 17x-rayfilm rack 18coat hooks

7 Combinedconsult/examrm, 15.48m2 1 chair 2couch 3 scales 4steps 5hooks 6couch-cover dispenser 7 disposal 8exam lamp 9wpb 10desk 11 hb 12worktop, sto under 13eqptrolley(cart) 14curtain 15sphygomanorneter bracket 16writingshelf

2

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Community

167

Hospitals:out patients 5

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key 1 basinwith shelf 2papertowels 3waste 4wc 5toiletpaper 6mirror 7 hook(s) 8sk 9gulley 10P trolley

2children 3Pwc 4sister 5exam 6lecturerm&mothercraft7tutor 8study rm 9consult 10staffwcfemale 11 lecturerm 12do 13elevators 14work ar 15staff wcmale 16typists 17healthvisitor 18nurse 19 reception 20urinetesting 21 waitingar Arch George Trew Dunn& Partners

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12

9

with drawers 12surgeonsbasin 13warninglight 14shelfwithlight 1510w pressuresuction 16 highpressuresuction 17triplex-rayviewer 18 pin board 19telephone 20coat hook 21 shelvesforpresettrays 22towel dispenser 23d 24drawers 25shelving 26alimentarytrolley 27 bin 28Ptrolley 29DDAd hooksbrmachinetools cleaningmachines

dryerI(( )LJLJU buckets undersk

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Suction unit

10 Plasterapplicationrm, 33.5 m2, servesOPD& A& E notsuitablefor general anaesthesiabecausemorethan 1 Pspace key 1 oven ontrolley 2doublex-rayviewer 3sto shelves 4plinth 5 chair 6plaster-sawmounting 7clotheshook& mirror 8trolley 9curtain lOsk& drainerwith plastertrap 11 steps 12ceiling hook 13 plastercastdisposal 14waste 15sk&drainer 16plasterdust extractor 17wallhook(s)

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2150

5 Clinette& urinetestrm, 2.7m2 + 6.45m2 1 urinespecimenscollector 2 reagentstore 3worktop, sto under 4 slophopper&drainer 5disposal 6 basin 7hatch 8shelf 9handrinse

11

Tiltingaccidenttrolley

168 Community

Hospita/s ACCIDENT& EMERGENCY Accident & emergency dept(A&E) provide 24-hr365-day/year service for accidents and med emergencies occurring in home, at work, at sports ortravelling. Patientsnormallytakento DGH(community hospital) with A&E resources. Deptprovides resuscitation, reception and first stageexam; patients can then be discharged, sent to another part of hospital for further investigation and treatment, itted as inpatients, orsentbyambulance to hospital containing regional specialty,eg burns unit, neurosurgery —p173--5. Patients dead on arrival taken to small rm near entrance before beingremoved to hospital mortuary. For dept close to potential sources of accidents (airports, motorways) extra provision for resuscitation needed. A&E need to be on good access roads with drive-in entrances for ambulances, sheltered fromwind and rain by covered ways and battle walls. Entrances should have 2 sets of automatic fail-safe doors to prevent draughts, with enough space to manoeuver stretchers and trolleys—4p166(4). Deptmust havedirectaccess forpatients on trolleys to all parts of hospital, particularly radiology .—pl69 170, plaster rm —*pl67(9)(lO), surgical (OPD) —pl7l 172 and short stay wards. Resuscitation rm must befullyequipped with med gases andbe close to entrances. Doctors, often on duty for long periods, require comfortable duty rm. Relativesofpatients needaccessto publictelephone. Interview rm required by doctors for interviewing relatives and by police for interviewing witnesses. Generous sto required for stretchers, blankets and trolleys. Forbenefit of patients,relativesand escorts, whomay bein severe state ofshock, allwaiting spaces as wellas clinicalareas should be heated tomm 21°C.

Full snackbar can be provided ifshared byOPD —*pl66. Patientswho return for further dressings or treatment given appointments outside morning and evening rush hour for casualties so can use same accn. Exam and treatment rm preferable to cubicles for patients requiring audioand visualprivacy (can undress and be seen in comfort); casualty doctorwill worksetof rm. Cubicles suitable for small cuts and abrasions which do not require patient to undress. Separate provision may be requested for cleansing patients and dealing with infected wounds. Peak periodsfor both A&E and Casualty dept invariablycoincide with weekends and public holidays: essential that sufficient stores and nursing eqp be available either by providing extra sf0 at point-of-use or by giving staff access tocentral sto during holidays and off-peak periods.

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A& E FalkirkScotland Royal Infirmary 1 ambulance2ambulantP 3prams 4eqp 5trolleys 6treatment 7interview 8sister 9duty 10wc 2

11

totheatres 12disposal 13 preparation 14to sharedx-ray

16exam 17resuscitation 18reception 19plaster 20sto Arch Wilson& Wilson

Patients come withoutappointment and may have to wait sometime before being examined and treated; provide generous waiting space, with beverage point and at least 4 wc, 2 suitable for wheelchair s p167(6). 9

ij

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——J

CASUALTYDEPARTMENT Casualty dept provide 24-hr365-day/year service forcasual attenders and patientsreferred byGPfor immediate examinationand treatment; generally linked to A&E; can share some nurse working rm and staff services. But combined only for convenience: specific functions very different. Patients arrive on foot or by car, usually accompanied by relativeorescort.Casualtydept should haveseparateentrance,preferably with double setofautomatic fail-safe doors —pl66(4).

I

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Exam &treatmentrm orbay, 10.15m2, designedto allowfortrolley exchangesystem;P onemergencytrolleycan takeplaceoftrolleyinrm 1 sliding door 2wastesack 3towel dispenser 4sk 5trolley (cart) 6dispenserwithdrawer 7shelving 8writingsurface 9swivelstool 10x-ray viewer 11 emergency trolley 12 chair 13trolley 14exam lamp 15twin 13-amppoint 16emergencycallswitch 17light switch 18x-rayfilm rack 19coat hooks

j A&EEastboumeEnglandOGH 1 ambulanceentrance 2casualty entrance 3trolleys,wheelchairs4porter 5flying squad 6trolleys 7staft do 8rest rm 9 1-B 10nursesstation 11 cleansupply 12dutydoctor 1

l3cleaner l4reception l5doctorsstation 26chargenurse l7wc 18assistedb 196-B 20interview 21 dirtyutility 22resuscitation ar 23 disposalrm 24k 25surgeonschanging 26sto 27dayr 28pchanging male 29Pchangingfemale 30doctor 31 nurse 32 housekeeper 33anaestheticmi 34 minoroperating 35crutchsto 36plastermi 37ear,nose &throat (ENT), eyes, noisychildren 38 septictreatment 39trealmentar 40fracture&orthopaedic clinic 41 waiting 42clinic reception43P lay 44 appliance fitting 45canopyover Arch SETRHA

4

Resuscitation rm, 24.36m2 1worktop 2suctionunit 3 stool 4trolley (cart) 5surgeonssk 6linensack 7wastesack 8worktopwith sk 9writing surface,shelvesover 10mobilex-ray 11 anaesthetictrolley 12drip stand 13oxygensuctiongas

Community

169

Hospitals RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS —p170 X-ray or radiology has 3 major sub-divisions:

diagnostic, which may

include ultra-sonics, fluoroscopy etc; radiation; nuclear medicine. Depending on patternoronphysical/functional relationshipswith otherdept thesemay bearranged contiguously orseparately.

Diagnosticradiology

Provides internal images of patient either on film (radiography) or on cathode ray tube(CR1—fluoroscopy). Must beprovided foroutpatients and inpatients both forroutine examinationsand foremergencies. Dept therefore has relationship to OPD, medical, intensive careand surgical units. Separation ofinpatient, typically ontrolley, stretcher orwheelchair,from outpatient in street clothes and often bloody, should be maintainedlong as possible, certainly through entrance, reception and waiting: if dept largeenough alsothrough radiographic procedureand exit. Arrange x-ray procedure rm sothatpatient's travel path does not cross that of radiology technician until they meet in procedure rm. Easy trolley/stretcheraccesstox-raytable essential.Plan dept sothattechnician traveltime kept mm particularly between rm and filmprocessing.

Diagramofrelationships between radiology &other deptinrepresentative USAhospital 1

Simplex-rays tolocate fracturesorposition ofcathetertake lessthan 10 minutes; more complex or intermittent procedures involving barium swallowsor radio-opaque injections may take up to 3 hr to complete while patientwaits in or near dept. Design forfollowing requirements: separate rm for ultrasonography and for thermography; bench with drinking water, bottle-trapped sink with sto d over exclusively for bariumpreparations and wcfor patients whohave had barium enemas both next to 2 x-ray rm; rm and viewing bay to process and check accuracy offilms (normallycompletedwithin 15minutesof being taken): automatic plumbed-in processors needspecial drainage; forward waiting area on basis of 1.3 m2/P plus 1.02 for relative or escort; extra screenedspace for 2 patients' trolleys; 2 wc suitable for patient in wheelchairs —+pl 67(6). Each x-ray rm must be screened from other parts of bldg either by barium plaster orbylead sheeting, both very dense heavy materials.All glazingshould be in lead glass. X-ray eqp heavy and requires ceiling heights between 3100 and 4000, extra moveable structural beams suspended fromceiling will be required. Design floorsand ceilings to takeextraheavyloads. Entrancedoors tox-rayrmshould be 1 400wide in 2 leaves 900 + 500. In addition to above mentioned areas spaces for film sorting, film reading by radiologistsandfiling necessary,also spacesfortranscribing reports, sto foreqp and supplies, off and oftenconference rm.

2 EasthoumeEngland DGHx-raydept 1 lavage&disposal 2wc 3sto 4cleansupply 5 recovery 6x-rayrrnspecial 7x-raymibarium 8 bed holding 9waiting lox-raymigeneral purpose 11 dark rm 12sorting& viewing 13x-raymiA& E 14cleaner 15 reporting rm 16film sto

X-raybeam carriesinherentdangertoliving cells: propershielding of all procedure rmessentIal; must bedesigned and supervised by raditlonspecialist. In UK complywIth Code of Practice for Protection ofPersonsexposedtolonisingRadiation.

17disposal 18superintendentradiographer 19staffrm

Eg

131211

I

1312 11 13

1100

1

[ [a

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p 7200

1700

4

Radiodiagnosticmi/changingcubicles, 28.8 m2 1 transformer2eqp trolley 3 chestx-ray 4steps 5buckytable 6safety screen 7controlunit 8cassettehatch 9 clock 10stounit 11 bench seat 12shelf&mirror

13hooks

5000

3

Diagnosticx-raymidesignedbyAmericanHealthFacilities/Medical PlanningAssociatesMalibuUSA 1 dispenserunit 2step-onwaste receptacle 3surgical/instrument dressing cabinet 4apron &gloverack 5to daylightprocessingar 6intercom 7leadglass vision 8partition 2100 h 9x-raycontrolunit 10ceilingtube mount 11 generator 12tube carriage 133-size film dispenser 14 radiographic tablewithtomographic attachment 15fluorescentlight fixtureswallmounted 16footstool with handrail 17 side chair 18warninglight 19tolay 20 mirror 21 corr

3500 closed

I

*15004

5

I

open

5 Viewing&processing rm,open&closedlayouts 1 tanks&water nstallation 2cassettehatch(from radiodiagnostic rm) 3 darkrm 4processor 5sorting&viewing

170 Community

Hospita/s RADIOLOGYDEPARTMENTS (cont)

Radiationtherapy

Technique whereby radiation used reduce or eliminate carcinogenic cells: generated either bynatural source suchasradioactivecobalt orby man-made as in linear accelerator. Because of massive quantities of radiation used extremely heavy shielding required contain it: so heavy thatsomereg require thisdeptbe placed atground level. Whole unit constructed ofdense concrete:walls, ceiling,floor pitthickest (approx 1 200) within 3600arc ofeqp, remainderapprox 600. Design all steelwork, conduit, piping to prevent radiationleakage.Viewing porthole double-skinned with highly corrosive fluid infill (zincbromide solution); door locks controlled fromconsole in ading rm. Procedure rmwiththeir shielding mazes must be largeenough accommodate eqp plus access forpatienton stretcher/trolley.Spaces required forpatient receptionand waiting, examination,treatmentplanning,mould making forshielding needed for patient during treatment, off and work spaceforstaff. Offand lab space also needed forphysicist forcalibration and radiation safetyofeqp. Patients taken into rm containing eqp and so positioned that all 3 sources of radiation converge on diseased partof body; attendant then retiresto control rm fromwhich patient can beobserved through heavy lead glass porthole or by tv. Procedure can be very frightening for patient: ventilation, temp and general environment control of utmost importance. Pastoral photomural or fresco on wallsand ceiling within viewofpatient during treatment,together with falsewindow with pastoral view' opposite entrance, will help alleviate fears.

Nuclearmedicine

2

Buckytable: rm h required with floor/ceilingtubestand mm 3000max 4000

Diagnostic procedure involving ingestion by or injection into patient of radioactive materials whichthen traced by scanning eqp. Am used for scanning require some shielding; must be large enough accommodate eqp, patient on stretcher/trolley, console and technician. In contrast to diagnostic ortherapy procedure rm level ofradiationlowenough allow 2 or more patients scanned simultaneouslyin same space. spaces include reception and waiting, off, sto, well shielded 'hotlab' beside procedure rmfor sto and preparationof radioactive materials.

CATscanning

Relatively new method of non-invasive imaging of internal organs; although diagnostirocedure,often in separatesuitewith own procedure rm, control rm, computer eqp space and areas.

NB new diagnostic procedures continually developed; design shouldallowaddition of mi/services when needed.

600concrete

400concrete

1JJE[ L1—light1

I

duct under

dttlaii

p6Inccobaitund 290001 800x500

3

CobattunitforradiotherapyPembury England ArchSEThamesRHR

5 X-ray film cabinet;willhold

approx 10000envelopes(360 kg), 26000 x-ray films(1040 kg):total floor loading1 728 kg/rn2

6

Standardx-rayfilm very heavy (155 kg/rnrun): max uned w ofshelf900; eachradiodiagnostic rm producesapprox625envelopes/ month

QJ -t

4

Typical cyclotron

7

Transformer:weight380 kg

8

Radiodiagnostic controlunit

Community

171

Hospitals OPERATINGTHEATRES Surgical and delivery suites increasingly considered centresto which patients broughtforprocedures too complex for handling in physician's off ortreatment area. Unlike traditionalsuite with different rmfordifferent services (eg, ENT, orthopedic) suites now collection of multi-purpose rm. In largeinstitutions more than 1 suitelikelybe provided, based on usage: short (1—3 hr) procedures, such as ambulatory, frequently separated from general, av length (2—4 hr) and very long (6—8 hr) procedures. Delivery suites,formerly completelyseparatedfrom surgical, todaycommonly alongside orintegrated. Typicalfloor ofsurgical&specialservicesbldg Massachusetts General HospitalUSA Arch PerryDeanStahl&Rogers 1

Designelements

Consider patient flow: entrance, control, holding pre-anaesthesia, operating, recovery. Consider staff: control, clean-up. Consider eqp, particularlyinstrumentsand other goodswhich must besterilisedbetween each use: done locally (within suite) or centrally (for hospital)? Let volumes guide. Consider sharing: like types ofprocedure rmcanshare supplies, cleaning etc. Consider testing functions: 'quick' lab tests, x-rayetc: howwill theybe done?

Space needs

Space suites need per inpatient bed varies greatly, depending on whether ambulatory surgery offered, whether hospital has teaching programmeand other suchfactors: generally28—46 m2foreachoperating theatre.Space forcirculation,nursingand medicalstaffand non-functional bldg elements such as air-conditioning eqp usually high ratio in this setting, perhaps 80% above individual rm needs. Ifreprocessinggoods donewithinsuite 28—37 m2/operating theatre or delivery rm must be added. Locker rm, showers and rest rm for staff should be provided based on numberstaff expected.

Circulation Crucial to design of high technology operating and delivery suites; 2

JH p

0

123m 5 lOft

2

St JosephHospital TacomaUSAhasellipticoperrmarranged round centralcontrolrm Arch Bertrand GoldbergAssociates

?

1P

Cleanliness Also critical in operating/delivery suite. All materials,surfaces, ts etc must be easilycleanable and durable for repeated washings: sealed ts to prevent infection. Anti-static materials should be used where patients likelybe connected anaestheticmachines. Check requirements with technical literature.

3p

6

6

171615141312 1110

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3 Stobliill opertheatresuite:8standardtheatres withclean&dirtycorr 1 consultanaesthetistoff 2anaesthetistsecretary's off 3dutyanaesthetist 4studentlecturerm 5wc 6malechanging 7femalechanging 8 9cleaner 10 workshop 11 theatresuperintendent 12receptionarporter l3dirty utility l4transfer l5cleanutility l6recoveryar l7darkrm 18 nursesrestrm 19 surgeonsrest rm 20techniciansrest rm 21 teak 22eqpsto 23theatresister 24 lab 25endoscopy 26calorifiers 27 refrigeration plant 28preparationrm 29opertheatre 30exit lob 31 anaestheticrm 32scrub-upar 33monitorrm 34plastermi 35plaster sto 36disposalbay 37disposallob 38elgear 39med gases 40 stairto air-conditioningplant 41 TSSU 42staff restrm Arch Cullen Lochhead & Brown

basictypes: single corridorand double corridor or 'racetrack'. Single has 1 corridorleading to all operating/delivery rm, used for patients, staff and eqp: sterility maintained in each of corridor and within theatreitself; each rm preceded by scrub-up ar and has provision for sterilisation withinitorbetween 2 rm. 'Racetrack'arranges rmin 'circular' fashion with outside corridor orrm for staff and eqp, presumed sterile; locker rm 'bridge' corridors; staff and eqp leave with patient; staff 'bridged'backthrough locker rm and showers. Corridor forPtrolleys 2: 45mw; others1.5mw.

I I 1; 4

Vedestasystemmodularoper theatreusesbasicstandard octagonalto formseriesofunitsforuseinnew hospitalsorforupgrading; 10sizes available,arfrom23.22m2 —436 m2 1 domesticstaffchange 2disposal 3sluice 4inspection/sto 5generators/batteries6air-conditioning 7emergencycorr 8theatre 9sterilemi 10P in 11 Pout 12surgeons nursesorderlies in 13surgeonsnursesorderliesout 14sterilesupply 15soiled instruments/disposal 16cleanedinstruments 17access to services 18 sterilesupply 19 anaesthetic rm 20exit 21 gowning 22scrub-up 23med gas 24instrument sto 25nursestaffrm 26surgeon staff rm 27 orderliesstaff rm 28recovery 29mobile eqp 30transfer 31 sister 32change—NBservicingoflightingeqp completed outside theatre

172 Community

Hospita/s OPERATINGTHEATRES(cont)

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OpertheatresuitesNinewellsHospital Dundee Scotland, designedfor teaching servicecorr 2opertheatre 3x-ray 4TSSIJ 5accesscor 6femalesurgeons 7malesurgeons 9 nurses 10students 11 anaesthetic dept l2surgeonsrest l3sto l4nursesrest l5nurseworkrm l6lecture rm 17junior staff 18 recoveryward 19receptionward 20seniorstaff Arch RobertMatthewJohnsonMarshall 1

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1 isolatedpower

6700

2gas&el service 3anaesthetiststable 4monitor 5anaesthetistsstool 6anaesthesiagas machine 7x-rayfilm illuminatorsexplosion proof 8kickbucket gsurgeonsstool 10deep canily surgicalilluminator 11 eleciro-surgical and l2doubtebasin 13 mayostand 14 single lsmobdetvcamera& recorder 16 ceiling

11

118

5 Nut!ield OrthopaedicCentreOxford England: 1 conventional theatre, 2 clean-airglassenclosures'withfilteredair&special suitswith airintake& exhaustforstaff 1 ramp 2 1-B intensive care ar 3barriernursing 4cleaner 5ste 6cleanutility 7dirtyutility 8nursesstation 9fireexit 106-B intensive care 11office 12seminar/restrm 13staff 14lockerrm 15visitors 16from wards 17waiting 18B park 19changingrm asurgeons borderties c nurses 20 rest rm anurses borderlies csurgeons21 theatresister

22 plasterrm 23transferzone 24orderliesbay 25linen 26monitor eqp station 27 operdept 28exit bay 29anaesthetic rm 30opertheatre 31 gown/scrub-up 32forwardholding 33 switchrm 34sterilisers 35 batteryrm 36servicear 37med gas 38plant rm 39loadingdock 40 issu 41 preparation42scrub-up 43operrm 44disposalbay 45dark rm 46 mobilex-ray

gas& elservice

17 instrumenttable 18 casecart/trolley 18 aub-stedlisation 20 con 21 scrub-up ar OesignAxnencan HealthFacililies/ MedicalPlanning Associates

2

Generaloper rm ?

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6 Typical opertable in standard Sm

1ft

3 Anaestheticrrn,exit mi,scrub-uprm, sterilesto: eloutletpointsin anaesthetic&exit tobesparkless&hoseproof, insterilesto&exit hoseproof only 1 sterilemi 2oper theatre 3table 4B 5 hb 6sterilesto 7scrub-up rm 8anaestheticmi 9anaesthetictrolley 10anaesthetic machine llservicepoints l2exitrm l3gowning

Opertheatre,36.10m2; alleloutletpointsinanaesthetic rm&theatreto be sparkless&hoseproof 1 2dressingtrolley/cart 3 instrument trolley 4basinstand 5table 6kickbasin 7stool 8swab stand 9anaestheticmachine 10anaesthetic trolley

position: willtilt inboth directions; also designedtake variousattachments; small wheelsused putvery high rolling loadsonfloor weightapprox230 kg, mm h approx700, maxh approx1 040

7

Suspendedoperatinglamp weight8kg

8

4:

Adjustableceiling mounted exam lamp, weight4.5kg

10 Mobilesuctionunit:this type also availablewithoutcastorsorpull

4

9

Anaestheticmachine

handle;unitsforconnexiontopiped systemsdo not havelowerpartof controlbox

Community

173

Hospitals:special units INTENSIVECARE Hospitalscontain 2 basictypesbed accn: 'hotel' for patientsnotneeding continuous directvisual supervision or life-sustainingeqp; 'critical' (UK intensive) for patients whose survival depends on constant attention and/or complex life- eqp. Proportion of critical to hotel and of numberoftypesof special care units increasing. Special unitsincludecardiac, spinal injury, burn,transplant, respiratory, neurosurgical, limb fitting, physical medicine. Usuallyformpartoflarger hospitals (regional specialties in UK);verylarge hospitals may have all ofthem.

Design considerations

Will patientbeconscious,requireprivacy,toilet,constantnursingattention? Will location or configuration of unit help or hinder patient's recovery? Can staff see all patientseasily?Is ratiopatients/staffstation appropriate? Can staff get help quickly? Can they reach services (medications, uty etc) and (lab testsetc) quicklyand easily? Can they examine patient easily? What about infection control? Can specialeqp be brought quickly bedside in emergency? Can monitors, pumps, screens be

easilyread bystaff?Can eqpbe stored handilywhen not in use? Bed unit basicspace module: numberbeds related to unit, decided by usage or projected usage: 6—7 usual max. Unit must be sized for bed (larger and larger as new features added orstructured), eqp (respirators, pumps, monitors),people(manyasneeded duringresuscitation): common today11—15 m2/unit. Access fromentrance to bed unitand between critical. Spaces required include: nurse/physician for supervising monitors, charting, consult; formedication station,uty; special use,egtreatment, procedure, x-ray, based on patient plus staff/eqp 11—15 m2; amenitiessuchas rest rm, locker, wc.

Keepdistance from control station or viewpoint to patient small so that eqp can be read and patient actually seen. Bed unitmay be enclosed in rm (eg coronary care, where patient conscious, or where infection control or separation patient fromnoise necessary)or open (egfor max visibility and quickaccess where patient unconscious). Staff changing arrangementssimilar those foroperatingtheatres;visitors if allowed, may be required change shoes, wear gowns and masks.

910203Gm 3264966

N Punit intensivecare pavilionLongIslandJewish-HillsideMedicalCare CenterUSA 1

2

Masterplan Temple UniversityHospital Philadelphia USAshowing relationshipbetweenspecialtyunits Arch Perkins & Will

NEUROSURGERY Because oflengthofeach operationand itsexactingnatureneurosurgery units rely heavily on services. Ratio of population to beds

1:100000. 2 theatres shown —(3) serve 60beds. Theatresegg-shaped

to promote smooth flow fully conditioned air (21 changes/hr). Heatfiltered theatre lamps set in ceiling and 1 wall. Monitoring eqp and viewinggallery in mezzanine with viewing ports in domed ceiling. Each theatre equipped with5- x-rayviewing box, oxygen, nitrous oxide,

suction, nitrogen for pneumatic tools, electro-encephalograph (EEC) connexions, and CC1Vfortransmission ofencephalographrecordings. Anti-staticflooring and flashproof el outlets required. X-ray rm attached to theatres heavilyequipped for cranialand spinalradiography.Separate lab forelectro-encephalographyand specialeye exam.measures includephysiotherapy with hydrotherapy pool. Wards attached to neurologicaltheatres: mixed sex20beds (4 x 4-B, 4 x 1-B). Early ambulation of patients in need ofobservation reflected in size of day and sun rm; patients encouraged to have visitors who can help return normal life by using theseand adjacentflowerbay.

SPINAL INJURY Care foryoung people, who suffer fromparalysisasresult ofaccidents,

eg motorcycle. Require 100%care: nearlyalways doubly incontinent; because of shockto system can beaggressivetowardsstaff and visitors.

Occupational therapy, physiotherapy and study form vital part of rehabilitation. Patients may take months recover; care can be divided into 3 stages: patients bedfast: can only be moved for bathing and treatmentin horizontal position; patients spend partofwaking hours in wheelchair: therefore more mobile (after this stage some patients go home and return forstage 3); patients begin move round on crutches or with walking aids. Stages 1 and 2 require 20—24 beds, stage 3 28—32 beds. Provide approx 20% beds in 1-Bwards and remainderin 4- or6-B. Beds wider than normal(1 000); allow mm bed centres of 3500. Provisionof nurse working rm similar to that for physical/mental handicapped units, —*pl 62—163.

0

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NeurosurgicalopertheatresWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh Scotland elevator 7med staff 12k 17domestic service 19eqpsto 21 sterilisingannexe 25stafftoilets 26wr 29secretaries 30staff conferencemi 31 plasterrm 32eyerm 33dept/theatresister 34 EEG 35x-rayrm 36dark/work rm 37theatreha 38scrub-upar 39changing rm 40anaestheticrni 41 opertheatres 42 preparation rrn 43scientific observation 44stairtoviewing gallery 45stairtotheatreEEG 55engineeringplant

I

174

Community

Hospitals: special units CARDIACSURGICAL

of care: intensive therapy and intermediate care. Patients vulnerable infection: 2out of6018 beds should be in isolated bayswith full height walls. Patients most vulnerable at immediate post-operative stagewhen intransit and not attached to electricallyoperated ventilators or monitors. Intensive care units must therefore be close to operating theatres. 2 stages

Example illustrated —*(2) also shows area to be upgradedascoronary care unit. Requires bio-chemistry lab; some research and staff areas can be shared. Provide for relatives overnight stay close to but not in unit.

TRANSPLANT

Relationshipbetweencardiacsurgeryunit,intensivecare,coronarycare, nursing rm at St VincentMedicalCenterLosAngeles USA Arch Daniel MannJohnson&Mendenhall 1

5

10

I 16

11m

48

LIMB FITTINGCENTRE Considered advisable hold clinics in DGH (community hospital) save patients, oftenelderly and diabetic, from having travel long distances. All patients require rehabilitation for everyday living; walking training should be provided for, either in centre orwithin wheelchair distance. If centreprovides early post-operative walking training hostel type beds may be required in or closeto it. Patientscometo centre for consult, assessment,stumpcastingand limb fitting,and retumforstumpdressings, limb adjustments and walking training. Provide workshops for making limbs: if modular limbs mainly assembly process. Cosmetic covers made on vacuum-forming machines fromhighly inflammable material; special sto required for this and for paint. Forworkshops and sf0 areas referto factory legislation.

15

I

32

For replacing damaged or diseased organs (usually kidneys) by direct transplant fromdonor: needpaired operating theatres, one for donor, one recipient. Patients nursed in 1-B wards in carefully controlled environment (liable both toinfection and to infect others). When donors not available kidneys may be obtained fromcold storebank (may hold othersurgical spares required fortransplant surgery suchasskin, eyes, bonemarrow, boneand blood).

(1

2

CardiacsurgicalunitStobhillEnglandGeneralHospital; conversionof existingward tosurgical unit 1 oftforregistrars/research fellow 2k 3 sister 4wclsho 5womensward 6domesticservicerm 7eqpsto 8isolation B 9corr2000w 10intensivecare B 11 preparation rm 12nursesstation 13disposal 14sluice 15mensward 16wc/sho 17treatmentbathr 18day rm 19dining ar ArchEPhillips

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Nutfieldtransplantation surgeryunitWesternGeneralHospital Edinburgh Scotland;mechventilationto asepticar, 1-B wards, cleancorr,auxiliaryrrn, twin oper theatres, (designedforclose controlofairmovement pattern& pressunsationtomm infiltration) 1 changing 2k 3sterilesupply 4anaesthetic 5recipienttheatre 6scrub-up 7donortheatre 8decontamination9P mi 10lab 11 Pbathr 12 disposal 13eqpsto 14elevator 15entranceha/waitingar 16conference rm 17secretary 18director Arch PeterWomersley

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rm 10staff/seminarrm 11 medsocialworker 12walkway 13entryP/staff/ ambulance 14entryplant/largematerials 15entrygoods/materials 16wait 17workshop 18 sto service ArchEPhillips

5

Limb

centreconsultrm

afor4suites bfor2suites

layouts cconsultfitting rm dwalk, fittingrrn, plasterrm 1 walkway 2plasterrm

3fitting rm 4consultrm 5wc 6wr 7entrance 8 9courtyard

10from OPD 11 windowwall 12longmirror 13walkingrails 14 plaster chair 15 Pwheelchair 16sk 17hb 18desk 19chair 20couch ArchE Phillips

Community

175

Hospitals:special units BURN UNITS

PHYSICALMEDICINE

Seriouslyburntpatients arrive byambulance; nursed onspecial beds in

Provides med,domestic and oftenindustrial rehabilitationtofit patients, either return workor for active domestic life. Provide for inpatients as well as outpatients: mm population forviable unit150000. Accn related to type of population to be served; activities include physiotherapy, remedial gymnastics, hydrotherapy, occupationaltherapy, heavy and light workshops, consult and clinical resources, together withprovision for speech therapists, disablement resettlement officers and social workers. Because most attenders disabled accn should be on ground floorwith carparkingcloseby (3000 wide baysallow disabledmanoeuvre wheelchair fromcar)—p166(3). Specialprovision children uptoage 10, usually within children's ward. Some patients attend for half or whole day, othersfor 1 session/day; may be need for hostel accn for those who have totravellong distance.

carefully controlled environment. Patients liable to infections which prevent acceptance of skin grafts. Each has 1-bed ward with scrub-up and gowning lobby for staff and wc and hb for patient. Visitors not allowed enterward:viewpatientthrough fixedobservation window. Unit hasown theatre suite fortreatment and skin grafting.

Gymnasium should be 10 x 20 x 7.6 m h (forball games) withbay 1 500 deepoff one side forstacking apparatus,and changing rm and wc(1.5 m2/P). Physiotherapy also involves individual treatment cubicles, walking and otherexerciseareas,waxtreatment rm(highfire risk) and splint rm,withoffices,interview rmand linensto. Partoftreatmentarea should have suspended below ceiling, at approx 2000above floor, reinforced metal grid forconnectingslings and pulleys necessaryto patient's paralysed limb during treatment ortraining. Hydrotherapy pool —*(3) requires changing accn with clothes lockers and sho, including 1 for wheelchair s, recovery areas with couch (1 700 x 2200deep), utility area fordrying costumes and gowns, and possiblywashing machine and drier. Provide apparatus bayfor floats, cradles etc. 0 I

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Occupational therapy workshops must complyfactory regs.

t850

Bums unitQueenVictoriaHospital EGrinstead England 1 wr 21-B with wc 3nursesstation 4cleanutility 5k 6 sto 7weighing rm 8 clinical lab 9doctoroff 10visitorswc 11 sistersoff 13visitorsha&corr 14relativesrrn & wc 15 ambulancebay 16resuscitation 17assessment 18ission rm 19 staffdo 20surgeonsscrub 21 anaesthetic rm 22 opertheatre 23sluice 24treatmentrm 25theatrecorr 26nursingcorr 27rest rm 28dirty utility 29med gases 30airlock 31 disposalcorr 32interviewrm 33entrancetoplant rmunder 34courtyard Arch DonaldGoldfinch& 1

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Deptofphysicalmed SouthernGeneralHospital Govan Scotland 1 plant rm 2heavyworkshop 3timbersto 4 lightworkshop 5eqp sto 6duty rm 7utility rm 8finishedarticlessto 9bathr 10bedr 11 k 12senior occupationaltherapist 13femalestaffchanging 14 malestaffchanging 15hydrotherapypool 16gymsto 17apparatusgym 18Pchanging 19activetreatmentrm 20apparatussto 21 preparationbay 22linensto 23 paraffinwax rm 24femalestudentschanging 25femalestaffchanging 26male studentschanging 27studentscommonrm 28staffrm 29 ive treatmentmale 30ivetreatmentfemale 31 interview rm 32 reception/ records 33waitingspace 34 trolley(cart)/wheelchair bay 35consultmi 36med officer 37principal'soff 38uppergym 39 tank ml Arch Keppie Henderson&Partners

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Physiotherapy&rehabilitation, 51.6m2 1 coathooks 3wall bars 4hb 5wheelchair 6papertoweldispenser 7benchseat 11 disposal bin 13fixedbicycle 15parallelbars 16exercise steps 17mobile mirror 18 mat 19clock 20adjustableshelving 21 wall hooks 22stool 23trolley (cart)/matsto box

176

Community

Hospita/s PATHOLOGYLABORATORY, POSTMORTEM ROOMS Pathogens classified in UK in 4 categories: A, B, B2 and C Category A extremelyhazardous: includes lassa feverand smallpox. Specimens assoon asidentified must besealed intospecialcontainers and sentto regional lab assigned forpurpose. Category Bincludebrucella spp, hepatitisB, m tuberculosis: all workon thesemust becarried outin exhaustprotective cabinets.Lab should not be less than 18 m2, must have lockable door with glazed observation and also contain handbasin with bi-flow wrist operative taps, papertoweldispenser and bin near door. Other eqp includes frig, deep freeze,stofordisposable gloves, tissues, encasingjars etc, rowofpegs near door forprotective clothing. Discardedspecimens must besentfor autoclaving. Waste drainage frommostoftheseareasrequired to be in separate runs. Categories B2and C donot requirespecial accnbutadvisabledesign all lab tocategory B standard. Provision forchanging vital tosafety ofstaff: each lab mustcontainpegs forlab coats and each unitmust store6setsprotective clothing including bootsforeach staff member. Discarded clothing must be put in receptaclé for autoclaving. Each workr, off and reception area must have handbasin near exit. Staff lockers for outer clothing and personal belongingsmust bein separate cloakroom. Staff visiting wards mustwear separate lab coats forthisand thesemust bestored away fromlab. Iftea

and snacks notavailable nearby, rest rmwhere thesecan be mademust be provided. Reception area must have bench with impervious disinfection proof finish and handbasin set as in lab (above), with racks for delivered specimens and steforspare racksetc. Specificarea,notwithin reception orlab, must be provided for patients sent to give blood samples.

Note: pathology lab must not be designed withoutreferenceto pathologist incharge.

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2 a'Nuffield', 24.8 m,fixedbencheswithfixedservicespinesalong partitions:hasbeencriticised forinflexibility b 'Darwin',standard1 200

x 600tables associatedwith 150 x 2400movable servicespine: services& drainhaveflexibleconnexionsto ceiling &floor points c Edinburgh', 24.5 rn2 providesfreebenches& fixedservicespinessupplied fromverticalducts: givesgreaterflexibilityoflayout Arch Nuffield Foundation, Lab Investigation Unit, EdinburghUniversityARU 1200.005 150 —

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1 Pathologydept EastboumeEnglandDGH 1 escape stair 2fireexit 3films 4laboff 5pathologist 6 hb& particle mixing 7 coagulation &

electrophoresis8ante-natal 9grouping 10pathologist 11 manual & special 12sto 13packing 14centrifuge 15blood bank 16 reception 17wc 18wr 19exam 20 clerical 21 chieftechnicianoff 22sterilising 23outfItpreparationrm 24stacking 25mechsection 26balance rm 27chromatography&toxicology 28 chemical sto 29disposal 30workshop 31 microbiology lab 32mediapreparation 33printrm 34darkrm35studio 36records 37med photographer 38wc afemale bmale 39staff rrn 4ofluorescentmicroscopy 41 coldrm 42hotrm43 histologysto 44pathologist off 45serology lab 46cytology lab 47Specinien cutting 48histology lab 49 staining&sections 50pathologygassto 51 recovery&wr 52wash-up Arch SETRHA

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Mortuary&post mortem rm: locate loading baywherenotvisiblefrom main P orvisitorar;viewing rm notclinicalincharacter;hospitalchapel sometimesusedforthis purpose; goodventilation needed topostmortem as infectedspecimenshandled 8

177

Community

Hospitals PHARMACY

T345666 :

PharmacyEastboumeEngland DGH 1 staffentrance 2 issue ar 3dispensary 4wash-upar 5bulkpreparation ar 6 dangerous drugs& poisonssto 7bulk sto 8chargeable empties 9inflammable liquids 10incinerator 11 goodsentrance 12do afemale b male 13 asepticrm 14sterilepreparationrm 15qualitycontrol 16sterilising mi 17staffrm 18deputypharmacist 19chiefpharmacist20general off 21 reception lob Arch SETRHA 1

LIBRARY 2typesof hospital lib, professionalformed and nursing staff, lending for

patients; libraries also—api 29 145—8. Professional normally attached educational areas; medand nursing lib traditionally separate. Both requirebookstacks (16 books/rn) with space for browsing, work tables and, if requested, study carrels —a(3) and securitybarriers at entrance and exit. Area140 m2for general hospital with post-graduate med training and similar space for nurse training school lib. Hospital without these activities will require approx 46 m2 for each profession. Patients' lib will serveboth ambulantand bedfast and openfor limited periodsduring day. 600-bed hospital may have 5000booksinarea 65 m2. Provide bookstacks (26 books/rn), chairs and tables usable by elderly and disabled —a(4)(5). Bedfast patients served at bedside from book trolley (cart) —a(6). Adjustable shelving needed take large print books. Permissible floor loading in theseareas should be checked as bookscan weigh up to 30 kg/rn run of5 shelf stacks. All ib need small workr(10m2)and book sf0with shelving (5m.

Many large hospitals manufacturepharmaceuticalsaswell asdispensing them. Some hospitals serve satellite hospitals, health centres, clinics and individual outpatients: check policies before starting design. Because goods delivered can be bulky and heavy main loading dock should beused;but because can beinflammable,explosive, corrosive, fragile, require special environmentforsto: if (UK) DangerousDrug Act (DDA) drugs, poisons, or other poisons liable to misuse, must be delivered tospecially designed protected areawith accessforauthorised persons only; ODA drugs must be transported in locked containersat all times.

Stoareas should providefloorsto forlargeitems, adjustableshelving for smaller items (300 for normal, 100 for small). Inflammable sto may contain items fromother dept: must be isolated from main bldg (refer to current legislation controlling design and use). Cool sto fordrugs must be kept remote from any heat source, including sun; thesesto often within security sto: should be internal with controlled access (refer current legislation for design and use). Bulk sto: divide into liquid and dry powder areas; allow for storing heavy items on floor; pallet and fork-lift systems suitable for some items; allow ample room for manoeuvring fork-lift. Preparation areas include large floor-mounted mixers and steamheated pans for manufacture; small lab may be required for quality control. Required also: machine to reduce items to unit packs; sterile area to prepare and package material for autoclaving, which requires inspection, labellingand sf0areas.Installautoclaves(largefloormounted machines) againstwallsso can be maintainedfromoutside sterile area. Stillsformanufacturing distilled water requirepiped connexion tosterile preparation area. All sterile areas require special dust-free finishes complywithstringent requirements of med inspectorate.Wash-up area requiressink, washing eqp, drying cabinets and shelving for clean and returned containers.

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Dispensing and messenger service areawith ante-rm foremptiesshould have counter and security sto forpharmacy boxes awaiting distribution. Hospitals which dispense toindividualoutpatientsneed separatecounter and waiting area forthis.

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normallysto:oxygen,nitrousoxide, nitrous oxide/oxygen,compressed air— mustnotbeput withhydrogenoracetylene;sto must beon ground level for accessfordeliveryvehiclesfromopenair, notfromcor; singlestorey, noncombustible,1 hrfrmm, 2brickwallsorequivalent; sto normally takes manifolds&racksforsparecylinders; typicalautomatic manifold with2duty& 2reservecylinders:1630 x 6lodeep:1 extracylindereachsidegives5lo extraI;2 x manifold—3600

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LayoutofteachingcentreKnightCampusUniversityofRhode Island USA

178 Community

Hospita/s avnumberofstaff on duty atany 1 time approx 20% oftotal employed. If

NON-RESIDENTSTAFFCHANGING

hoursworked bypart-time staff reduced, egto 30 hr/week, percentages of staff on dutyslightlylower.

As proportion of part-time staff tofull-timeincreases percentageoftotal staff on dutyatany1 time tendsto decrease. In allinstancesestimate of staffonduty

%oftotalstaff

full-timestaffonly 1 full-time: 2 part-time 1 full-time: 4 part-time 1 full-time: 10 part-time

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ii.

0.72

Spacerequiredbyeachemployeeforstoring & changingclothes:only immediatecirculationar included;entrances&maincorrvalyaccording to location &numberof staffinvolved

malestaff

}

II Ii.i41j.UIIL]tft LLLL[IIIIJ

II

2

1

1

liii III

II I

111111 11111111

IlJ

0.81

ia withsmall permanently

allocated lockersadjacent hangingbasketsallocated on permanentbasis:sto ofbaskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletierhangingbaskets ii 2-tire hangingbaskets hanging basketsallocated on temporarybasis:sf0 of baskets behindcounter,changing separateoradjacent i singletier hanging basket ia with small permanently allocated lockersading ii 2-tier hanging baskets ha with small permanently allocated lockersadjacent

liii

12000

b lockersallocated ontemporary basis,changing&sto combined

i locker300 x 550 x 1800

.4ljlockers.-

I.

a lockersallocated onpermanent basis,changing&sto combined

c

.'i_i_L_L1

U)

approxtotal

--

bench

S

Max percentageofstaffonduty at any 1 time

1

-

IliIIiIi[iIWiiIHI]]iiIiilIiW

3600

7 Bulk sto forsupply&disposalbagsfrom au:

10—12disposalbagscater approx300staff/week

10 Lockerforstaff requiredto removeoutdoorclothingonly

obstruction oflockerdoors byseatedperson

8

lockerdoors

Clearancesforlockers

Smallpersonallockersnear 's workstation 11

clearancesmustallowfor

12 Hangingbasket:loadedweighs about8kg

Community

179

Hospitals codeno

spaces

totalar

OFFICES

65

1

65

11

1

11

As in other industries and services demand for space grows alarmingly. Can bethought ofashaving2components,1 which processes

untar

space

m2

business off; clerks business off: manager staff lockers staff lounge credit/collections oft creditmanager credit/collections; off ing off: comptroller ing off; secretary ing off; ants ing off; payroll ing/audit; conference cashier; office

1

2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9

10 11

12

3

1

3

7 9 7

1 1

9

11

1

7 9 9 15 9

1

7

3

28

1

9 15 9

information and 1 which usesit. Processors: such deptasmedrecords, data processing, ing; s: suchdeptashospital , med staff, financial control.issions combine both. Space requirement for each component different: for processing dept factors:volumeand typeof information and eqp used orprojected tobe used:inputchanging rapidly asdata processing advances;for dept peopledetermine spaces. Individual office spaces similar commercial offices —3235—8. People formprime design consideration:workersgenerally spend alldayattheirposts; pleasantenvironmentaccordinglyimportant. Patient and med staff interface crucial. Privacy of interviews,particularly about thingsmedand/orfinancial must be considered. Typical space allocationsfor hospital offices in USA —e(1).

7 7

1

11

1 1

netarfotal

181 90 271

grossing factor (50%) grossartotal

Offspaceallocations

1

goods

+

receiving &shipping perishables special items

lambulant P care surgery! divisions IP dept delivery I emergency

todIetary to maintenance orpharmacy

central general sto

,1\

+ bulkfoods todietary

*

from

US

deptH

to requisitioning dept to alldept

eqp

to

rinted form

,,

Supply

receiving & ismantlina

(c'1 linen

to alldepl

supplies neweqP

centralsterile

CGS

tolau

linens

.

3

leaning allitems ssembling packs sterilising toring distributing

CSSDfunctionalrelationships

volatile liquids0 pharmacy separatesf0 I

2

CGSallocations number ofBserved

commodity

2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

Sf0Sr dry provisions coldsto provisions staff uniforms Pclothing cleaning materials hardware&crockery bedding & linen printing & stationery dressings (excCSSD) CSSD dressings med&surgical sundries disposables disposablebedpans &urinals es-localauthority items

total sto ar non-Sb ar basic totalar recommended total

stoar

90 25

125 35

45 5 20 25 15 95

65 10 25 35 20 130

45 20

145 50 80

190 70 105 15 40 55 35 195

215 85 120

25 155

170 60 95 10 40 50 30 175

270

45 60 40 220

245 95 140 15 50 70 45 245

60 25

70 30

80 35

85 35

95 40

105 40

115 45

125

60 50

75 65

95 85

110

125 110

145

95

130

160 145

180 160

195 180

60

75

100

110

130

155

175

185

210

65 620 370

105

125

140

160

180

200

835 1030 1185 1330 1525 1710 1895 390 425 465 475 490 520 555 990 1225 1455 1650 1805 2015 2230 2450

90

215 2085 565 2650

1050 1310 1560 1770 1940 2170 2400 2640

2860

10

35 45

15

105 155 20 55 75 55

275

295 120 170 20 60 85 60 300

50

4

DHI-1Sguide to planning centralsf0:requiredsto ar in m2 withworkingh between6000 &6500&sto upto5palletsh permanent use bedpans &urinals

SUPPLY STORES& DISPOSAL Nearly all goods, except sometimes pharmaceuticals and oftenfood, received and disposed centrally. UK daily av weight goods handled in 600 B hospital 3000 kg, waste produced 1 200 kg. Considerations relating to central general stores (CGS). Function: receiving sto, distribution of goods, supplies and movable eqp; inventory control. Main planning options: useofdisposables orreusables?Systems for materials handling, conveying and transport; remote sto possibilities. Key space: service courtforvehicles, sizedforseparateaccessto bldg entrypointsforvarious types service traffic—e(2). Receiving dockwith levellers. Warehouse: special/secure stoareas. Main design issues: separation of incoming goods from outgoing material(supplies,eqp,perishables,trash,refuse,soiledgoods); separate receiptand handling offoodstuffs; internally segregatedstoand control ofgoods (central supply sto(CSS), pharmacy,engineering); special sf0 requirements: med gases, volatile liquids. Items classified as fragile, or needing light, moisture or dust control, needspecial arrangements. Items withhigh security risk (eg radioactive material, dangerous drugs, inflammable gases, volatile material) must be stored in accordance with legislation and reg. Guide to UK areas required —(4). Sto areas at point-of-use must allow for extraspace required during public holidayperiodswhen portering staff not available.Usual holiday (UK):72-hrperiod 4or5times/year—*(5). Conveying methods vary fromhand-pushed trolleys (carts) toautomatic conveyor systems; UK experiencesuggestsautomatedsystem, needing trainedmaintenanceengineers, cannot be justified onsavings expected in labour costs: suchsystems vulnerable to mech failure or industrial action.

CENTRALSTERILESUPPLY Whathappens: centralised receipt, cleaning, packing,sterilisation, sto and distribution ofreusable supplies (UKcentral sterilised supplydepot (CSSD)). Special sterileprocessing of goods used inpatient care dept, particularly surgery, obstetrics, emergency. Functional relationships

Main planning options: closeness of relationship to other materials handling functions: CGS, Iau against traditional ties to certain s:

surgery, obstetrics. Means of conveyance for sterile goods (dedicated orgeneral usesystems). Key spaces: decontamination, sterile processing preparation, stoand issue. Main design issues: strictseparationofdirt and cleanworkareas, use ofsteriliserbank to formseparation; location ofsterilisation function for surgical instruments. loadw

cen clearw

1200 1100

1400 1300 1100 1000

900 750 600 450 300

24hr 48hr 72hr

90) 800 600

+

5Storequirementsatpoint-of-useover72-hrholidayperiodfordisposable &permanentuse items: disposableitemsincrease spacerequired

6 wofload carriedrelatedtowof corronsf0 ar

7

Reach&space requirements for avwomancollectingsto

180 Community

Hospita/s HOUSEKEEPING What happens:regular,thorough cleaningallparts hospitalwith special emphasis on infection control in patient care areas and with respect related materials flow; refuse disposal. Option: linen handling. Relationships diagram—v(1).

Main planning options: determine effecton workload ofcleanliness standard desired, extent ofair-conditioning/airfiltration,ease ofcleaning and maintaining interiorfinishes. Manual or mech means ofconveying trash(eg pneumatic tube system)? Manner and meansoftrashdisposal (—±lau/linen services). Key spaces: housekeeping materials sto (ie maids/janitors d, eqp sto); stafftraining area/. Main design issues: size and distribution of d; centralisation of eqp/materials sto.

LAUNDRY/LINENSERVICE What happens: dirty linen collected at points of use, conveyed to

centralised sorting stations; washed,extracted, dried, mended, ironed, stored. Clean linen distributed dept according quantity and time schedules, Ifoutside commercialserviceused linencounted andweighed when sentand received; dirtycollection and clean distribution functions remain unaffected.

Main planning options:linen load: operating policies on linen use depend upondisposalsagainstreusables—epi 79(5).Dirty linen collection

DIETARYSERVICES Most space-consuming ofall service elements. What happens:meal service toseveralhospital populations:inpatients,

staff, ambulant patients, visitors. Procurement, diet planning, food preparation, distribution to inpatients by transport means, others by serving line and diningrm; dishwashing and cleaningof dirty returns.

Main planning options: form ofdistribution: bulk transportfromcentral kitchentolocal stations in patient unitsagainstcentralised tray make-up Key spaces: central kitchen: receiving and sto, preparation, cooking, dish-washing, scullery, waste, trash and garbage disposal. Dining (for staff, visitors, ambulant patients); service line, table seating; local distribution stations; nursing floor kitchens or pantries.

Maindesign issues:meansofdistribution of inpatient meals.—uFunctional

relationships food services—v(3). In UKtrend towards tray service fromkitchen asopposed bulksupplies to ward—v(5): patients can choose menu day before. Food may travel several km before reaching destination: insulated trays and plates on heated carts/trolleys essential. Diet kitchen provides both med and ethnicdiets. Machinery noise and vibration can be disturbing, particularly potato peelers, food mixers and central wash-up machinery.All ventilatorsand grilles removable and washable. Floors and walls: impervious easy clean finish; floorsnon-slip; floordrains must have grease traps.

system: handlingand accumulation at points of use, meansofconveyance to sortingstation, infection control, volume of cart/trolley traffic, overall cleanliness. Clean linen distribution: cart/trolley system to dept, sf0system in units. Inventorycontrol: preventingwasteful use,excessive wear, lossfrompilfering. Key spaces: dirty collection and holding: hamper packing,chutes and vestibules. Lau: area, shape and height forefficient handlingof material and for employee comfort. Clean linen distribution and sto: cart/trolley parking, shelf-cabinet sf0.

Main designissues: degree of decentralisationin bed unitsof nurse workareas and supplies/linen sto. Pneumaticsystem expense against general cleanliness in patientunits and corridors.Functionalrelationships

9 ..—.-—------.mainflowsofsb & food staff foodhom dayiarder

2crockerywashed 3centraiwash-up 4diningcrockerysin Sserviceeiovator towards 6eqpsto 7cartJtroiiey8diningservery 9staffdr 10conveyorDeft 11 wardservery l2barderraii l3dietk l4dietoff l5ia l6refusesto l7stuilrm l8sio lgteabar20chefoff 21 cio afemate bmaie 22 maink 23vegetabiepreparation24 vegetabiesin 25day ia 26 dry goodssto 27 plantrm 28fish preparation29 mealpreparation30 pastrypreparation 31 pot wash 32domesticsupervisor 33 corr 34 meatfresh 35 caienngofficer 36 ramp Arch Oxford 1 scrapingbench

At-IA

5

2

Lau/linenservicerelationships

Kitchen area Wycombe DGHEngland,serves650meals/sitting; individualfood platesprepared forPon conveyor belt;tilledtray takenby trolley to wardsby lift; usedtrays& crockery washedcentrally

4 Housekeepingrelationships Hennepincounty food preparation service

typIcalgaflery

3

Foodservicerelationships

cartreceiving

HennepinCountyMedical CenterMinneapolisUSAhas automateddeliveryservices includingmonorail-styletrack& chain conveyornetworkwith moving lockers&containersforcarrying files, allkinds ofmaterials,medicine &food,deliveredfrom separate food preparationbldg Arch Medical FacilitiesAssociates—General

Community

181

Hospitals 5

10

15

30

O

15

4

20 25m oh 75ft

ClydebankScotlandHC groundfloorwith wingsforlocal healthauthority, hospitalservices&GP,some amenities being shared 1 consult 2 interview 3 disposal 4waiting 5drugs 6wc 7treatment 8 lob 9test 10typist 11 sterilesto 12sto 13telephone 14switchboard 15secretary 16records&reception 17 entrance 18play centre 1

COMMUNITYHEALTHCARE Community health care inUK, alongside general practitioner (GP), now principally provided by health centre (HO). In USA 'free-standing' ambulatory unitsfall into several categories, in addition to physician's office, generally with twofold aim providing preventative medicine and making available health care atlower cost than involved in full hospital treatment. Each such unit starts with programme worked out meet marketneeds within service area, community or region. Various types unit include Health MaintenanceOrganization (HMO), founded some 40 years ago asalternative insuranceprogrammeforindustrialworkers, primary care centres in rural areas tor emergency exam and treatment (include pre-hospital beds), community healthand social centres usually founded by local or regional government. Each of these may contain some, all or more services than UK HC. Larger ones often attached hospitals. HC primary activities: consult, exam and minor treatment backed by med records, reception, waiting and sto areas. Basic amenities must include: pram and carparking, wcforpatientsand staff, changingareas, rest rm with kitchenette forstaff. Secondary activities forlargeHC may include diagnostic and treatment services — physiotherapy, chiropody, dentistry, radio diagnosis and pharmacy — and health clinics for education and assessment, off for health visitors,domiciliary nurses, social workers etc. Viable size for HC consulting resources for not less than 6 GP, but as vital to place HO near population served may be smaller and less well equippedin rural areas.

On basis 1 GP has approx 2500 patients, centre for 6 GP will serve population

of 15000 and for 12 GP 30000. Assume health visitor can

coverapprox3500 and district nurse 2500people. Sitesmust be near public transport routes; access fromroads and car parks must be designed for wheelchair—p19 43 166 and pram s.

lp

9 15

3b

15m

455

2 CrieffScotlandHC 1 consult 2dirtyuty 3urinetest 4wr 5healthvisitor 6telephone 7k 8staff 9boiler 10disposal 11 do 12toilets 13reception 14 treatment 15entrance

Entrancesshould be protected from rain and prevailing winds and have covered and well supervised pram park.Allow forprotecteddisposalarea forwaste: check with local authorityor health authorityhow tobecollected. Large centres may requireseparatestaff and service entrance; patients entrance may need canopyhigh enough take ambulance—p166(2).HO groundsshould beattractivebutsimply landscaped formm maintenance. Manyrm in HO serve same purpose as equivalent rm in OPD: same layoutcan be used with minor adaptations. Main difference: HO do not deal with suchlarge numbers of patients; nor do they deal with acute med and surgical cases needing sophisticated diagnosticand treatment eqp. Rm which can easily be adapted for HO are set out —+p166—7; most importantare: wheelchairw167(6),disposalrm, p167(8),dinette & urine test rm, p167(5), ambulance dimensions, p166(2), automatic doors, p166(4), disabled patients car parking, pl66(3).

Waiting

Provide general waiting area. Small forward waiting areas required for each group of consult rm. Assuming appointmentsystem, allow 7.0 n? waiting areaforeach suite. Seatingshould becomfortableand informal. 3200

3

Dentalsuite,2-man practice; dentalchair(165—200 kg),dentalunit (51 kg) needfirm fixingtofloor;services required: water,waste,gas, el, compressedair 1 hb 2couch 3curtain 4armchairs 5recoveryrm 6steriliser 7aspirator 8sk 9disposal 10dental chair 11 smalldental surgery 12worktop 13dentaleqpcabinet 14operating lamp 15cartltrolley 16 anaestheticcart/trolley 17desk 18largedentalsurgery 19 gasoutlet 20benchwith benchpin 21 wastehole bin below 22dustextract 23duckboard 24 dentalworkshop 25filing 26 DDAd 27dentalunit

Med records

Med records in 2 sizes: standard 175 x 125, new A4 in folders 310 x 240. Sto may bein shelves, filing cabinetsorrotaryfilingunits. Including access these methods require floor space 1 .5—2.0 m2/1000 records. Shelves cheap butoffer nosecurity; cabinetsexpensive butsecure and adaptable;rotary notsecureand expensive.Allow for increaseinnumbers

of records.

Dental clinic —(3) Dental clinicfor2-man practice consists of 2 surgeries (1 large enough for principal surgery), recovery rm with couch and basin for postanaesthesia patients, dental workshop and waiting area plus normal central records and reception area. Allow 9.5 m2 waiting area for 2 surgeries. Surgeries should have NEaspect if daylight needed buttrend towardstheatre-type operating lamps and more mobile eqp. Obscured glazingrequired for windows.

Chiropodyroom—(4)

Should be on ground floor oraccessible by elevator.

4

Hospital references: —*Bibliographyentries 013014017020022023024025054 218219 220262 294 296 303 315 336 337 341 349354 362 419 420 421 478 Chiropodyrm,11.0m2

525547551 559560576577578647

182

Commerce

Churches celebrant's chair highaltar communion CflOi,tl sidealtar

hafor orchestra vestry

sacristyflC

sacnsty

dom i_tp1p1t I

pulpit

&

hafor

baptistryIf' 4N towers

altar

communicant

choir

t

sarcophagus

DesignforBerlinerDom (Lutheran)ArchSchinkel 1

2 Typical Roman Catholicchurch layout

entrance font

ladychapel

—i

high with lantern over

pressionaI door

4

St Paul Bow Common (Anglican) LondonEnglandArch R Maguire

and Russian), Reformed,RomanCatholic,separationbetween Orthodox and Roman dating fromearliest history of Christianity, break between Reformed and RomanCatholic from 16th century. In Roman Catholic churches emphasis now placed onmass in common tongue; altar usually raised. Reformed order of service depends on whether 'high', 'low' or 'free'. Some likeness between forms of Roman Catholic, High Anglican and High Presbyterian (Scotland and USA). Free followCalvinist and Lutheran origins with emphasis on preaching and communion carried out round 'Lord's Table', usuallycentrallyplaced with nearbypulpiteither behind table orto left hand side. Baptists need large heated water tank usually under removable floor for inititiation by total immersion. Fonts used almost universally for initiation into main groups and dedication into others. Many newer religious sects have

idiosyncratic requirements related to special forms and musical performances. In USA Protestantchurches have approx70million , Roman Catholic 50million, Orthodox4million. Churches throughout world now have strong community concern; planning often relates to weekday uses; keyword flexibility. Ancillary accn, according to programme, may incorporate, eg coffee rrn, counselling rm, meeting rm, radio station. Car parking must be taken into . Centralised planpopular;but ritualistic, processionaland oblong forms also used. However, importance ofpriest, pastororleader should not belost; liturgical functions carried outbyindividualchurches of great importance in design. More recently new factors have emerged, among them security of church property, adequate acoustic design (for music and voice) and provision fordisabled.

high

sacristy communicants

altar sacristy

wc

9

side tar

congregationa chapel

font

pul

GENERALARRANGEMENT Main divisions ofChristian churches today: Orthodox (principallyGreek

erPU2 5 Circular Protestant church

Roman Catholicchurch Cologne-Rietil Arch D Bôhm 6

0

EssenArch Bartning

'Iss,y -

—

communion — —

pulpit. pulpit

•

UI

II

Lrr

sacrlstry-

7

CorpusChnsti(RomanCatholic) churchAachen Arch A Schwarz

"-i'

—altar

stage

chapel

J

10 OrthodoxchurchofSt SavaMcKeesport USA ArchPekruhn wc

k(tea)

8 Church&parishha(Reformed) 1-lanweiler Arch R Kruger

¶ii --4—

-

2

--f---FllI—i11 —

9 Notre Damedu Raincy(RomanCatholic)ParisArch A Perret key 1 sanctuary 2nave 3pulpit 4baptislry 5secondaryaltars 6confessional

11 StMichaelHatfieldHyde (Anglican) WelwynGarden City England Arch Clarke HallScorer& Bright key 1 entrance 2chapel 3vestly 4pulpit&lectern 5baptistry 6altarwith

baldachino

Community 183

Churches seatw= 500-550 hathook — eso

INTERIORS,FURNISHINGS

a = 850—950 b = 50—140

a = 800—900

Seating

Seatw= 500—550

In some churches provision for worshippers to kneel not necessary —(1); inotherssimple hassock or kneeler incorporated in bench—(2). Most important measurement for benches with kneelers: distance of outside edgeof kneeler, when foldeddown, fromperpendiculardropped fromarm rest: approx 175—200.

I

350

i50fJt 160

Area/seat required: withoutkneeling rail 0.4—0.5 m2—(1); with kneeling rail0.43—0.52m2—(2).

_________________

heating

I

2

Seatingwithout kneerail

Aisles

Seatingwith knee rail

Dimensions —*(3)—(6). Cold radiation from external walls makes side aisles advantageous. Centralaisle useful for processionalentryand exit in larger churches. In UK aisle should be provided for every 8—10 persons length of bench (benches more than 10 persons long need aisle ateach end— in USA more than 7persons). Including aisles allow 0.63—1.0 m2/P. For standing allow 0.25—0.35m2; on crowded occasionswall space and rear aisles may be used. Width of exitdoors and stairs should complywithregforplaces ofassembly—*p401.

_____ T'

_________

I2__ T

J._________

4

5

Pulpit

_____

Requirements vary from church to church —(7)(8)(10). Usually raised with steps; but growing practice also place on level of sanctuary or raised 1 step. In RomanCatholicchurches pulpit nowlikelybe replaced by2 ambos or reading desks, 1 ateach side. In 'free' churches pulpit of central importance. In all churches essential preacher be visible to whole congregation.

6

Altars—(9)

_________ _____ __________________________________________________________ 3—6 Aisle ___________________________ __________________________

Roman Catholic and some Anglican churches have sacrament houseor tabernacle (small decorated cupboardwith lockabledoors, bolteddown and immovable: —*cataloguesof church furnishers): may be in side chapel oron plinth behind main altar,some2000away. Separate side chapel sometimes desired.

pulpit)

4t lectern

altar

Sacristy

Font

pulpit

font

centrelineof aisle _________________________ 7 Pulpit&attarinsame axis

centre lineofaisle

_________________________ Pulpitsidewaystoaltar

8

—

9

Altar tableforsmall reformed churches

In Reformed churches altar usually placed close rear wall; may have age at back. Many Roman Catholic and someAnglican churches now have altar in centre ofsanctuary: priest orcelebrant stands behind to face congregation forpurpose of worship.

Used for baptism; often symbolically placed in or near entry of church, though in Protestant churches in USA sometimes placed conveniently for baptism to formpartof main service. May be 1 or2 steps lower than, and separate from, main body of church (baptistry —p182(2)(9)(1 1)), with room for up to 30 people to stand during baptism. For Baptist churches immersion tank—p182.

Confessional boxes

Best placed in aisles: separate compartments for priestand penitent —*(13).Construction mustbesound proof.

10 Pulpit(microphoneshave

madesoundingboardunnecessary)

550

550 11

Lectern

12

Font

13

Confessional box

550

184 Community

Churches GALLERIES,ORGAN Galleries

viewovershoulder

&head

Increase seating capacity for same area; also improve acoustics if suitable distance from pulpit: common in Reformed churches. Have tiered seating so that congregation at back may see and hear better. Convenient positions: opposite altar wall (for organ and choir) or sidewaysopposite pulpit. Height of gallery determined by necessary free sightofcongregation beneath itin relationto altar and pulpit. Stairs and exits from galleries must comply with reg for assembly halls. RequirementlP 0.7—1.0 m2inclusive ofgangways—(1).

viewover shoulder 100—140

Galleryseatingtiered,riserswith lighting:must be possibleseealtar oratleastpulpit over headsof occupantsofsecondrowinfront 1

Choir galleries

2

Smallorgan (Walckertype)with 15stopsforchurchha&smaller churches

1300—1600

Infrontoforgan —*(5) have 100—150 high steps (increasingfronttorear)

and are 1 000—1 200wide.Ifdesirable choiron loose chairs arranged in semi-circle infrontofconductor; if necessaryorgan console canalsobe in front ofconductor with orchestra seats built upbehind toachieve unity between organ, orchestra and choir. Next to conductor's desk and organ console largecupboard for musicsheets; outsidegallery suitable cloakrm forchoir.

Organs

3 Chamberorgan (Walcker-Jahn) with about275 pipesforha

organ

I

4

Organwith manualclosedby rollershutter

I:

/

\

\\Lorganist I steps (Or choir V,organconsole conductor 120h orchestra 5 Organ &choir: organconsolein frontofconductor,organdivided

'.W

organist

stepsforchoir rgan 120 h harmonium conductor console

6

Organ& choirwith harnionium & organ placedtoeach side, otherwiseas5

7

SectionthroughVuoksenniskachurchImatraFinland withgallery& organ Arch Aalto

1J ft

8

Each voice needs width of 2000—3000 and 250 depth. Each voice weighs 200kg therefore 10-stoporgan needsarea (if 3000—4000)hof10 (3 x 250) = 7.5 and weighs 10 x 200 = 2000kg,therefore approx 300 kg/m2. But organ specialists ask for 750 kg/m2. Height determined by length of pipes. Largest: 32 ftopenvoicepipe 11 m high with sounding board; is ed through several storeys or may be bent. Determining factor: 8ftpipe, 3000high with sounding board. Therefore storey height for smaller churches may be 3000—4000, for larger churches 4000—5000. Organ may be divided —*(5). Bellows best in separate rm if possible. Organ builder should be consulted at planning stage, also regarding appearanceofvisual pipes.

m

main organbellows I music do'— I sheets

j±4rgan

:j:

Specialist should be called in for organ installation (acoustic specialist also important). Size oforgan (number of voices and stops) notsimply relative to sizeof church asvolume variable, butgenerally: smaller churches 200—300m3/voice medium churches 300—400m3/voice largerchurches 400—500m3/voice

Romancatholiarishchurchwith organ &choirgalleryat Wend Arch Schwarz

In USAorgansoftenelectronic.

Community

185

Mosques m,hr6b wall

::;::::: :

i

i:::.:j

L±L

©

•

uL;: li

awt

flJL.

,4::::::::

entrance

1 Simple mosquearrangement: Tlemcen Mosqueofal-Mansur

2

Friday MosqueIsfahan: 8th—I 7th centuriesAD

1303—1306 AD

-

-

I..

'

-

court

1•I..i

I.. m

______

32 64 tt

gateways

3

Mosqueof az-ZãhirBaybars: 1266—9 AD

4

Mosque&courtSehzade MehmetIstanbul: 16th centuryArch Sinãn

•

5 dorne53mh mrhrab

Holy mosque at Mecca, most holy sanctuary of Islam, to which all mosques should preferably face (arrows in illustrations),houses ka'bah. Ka'bah stands inhugecourtyard surrounded byarcaded precinct which formspattern for many subsequent examples. However, mosques vary extensivey throughout Islam from square village hall types to great historical examples in Egypt, Syria, Spain, Iran, Turkeyand India. Few purpose builtexamples in W: many sects, with varying needs, adapt or rent existingbldg for Friday prayers and for the twoid celebrations,for Islamic newyearand end of Ramadan.

3 main types oftraditional mosque: early open plan, usuallyto befound

arcades, colonnades and courtyards incorporating areas of water — most important for ablutions but also for cooling. These elements often used symbolically in designs and heavily ornamented or planned as landscape features round mosques. Main architectural feature mihrab basic to allmosques: setinwallfacingMecca (k/b/a wall),oftenemphasised bywindows orby dome above. Monumentalgrandeur ofmosque came largely through need to enclose activities in harsher northern climates but also related to advances in vault construction in 11th and 12th centuries AD; thus domed mihrab area was enlarged by single vault prayer hall or 4 vaultiwansor //wans arranged symmetrically around court. Tendency usethispatternwithopenorclosed courts according to climate.

Minaret 'Call to prayer' toweroften attached to mosque: name derives from 'lighthouse'. After introduction of loudspeakers little used for calling. Types varyfromnoneto cylindrical needle minarets inglazed tile with 1

I-+4 0 lOm

Early mosques characterised by wide and shallow shape —÷(1 )(2) to enable ranked formation ofbelievers face mihrab wall.(Mihrab itself is niche resembling door: highly decorated featurein laterexamples.)

in desertregions; central court, patterned after Mohammed's house at Medina; opencourt, with 4vaulted halls (iwans) 1 oneach side ofcourt. Mosque bldg have followed climatic needs for shade through use of

domedarc,vermihrb

.•...

Mosque place of prayer forMuslims: not necessarilybldg. Term derives from masjid, meaning prostration. Prayer as community act not mentioned in Quran but derives from prophet Mohammed's Friday communal meetings. Friday sermon (khutba) set piece, made fromtop of stairs (minbar), oftenincorporated as feature.

Suleymaniyecomplexincluding mosque Istanbul; covers6000Cm2 & includesnumerousancillarybldg Arch Sinän

high gallery, common in Iran; typewith 2—3 galleriescapped with wood conesand based on polygonal plan in Turkey; often 2—6 minarets per mosque in somecountries, depending on size.

Segregation

Male worshippers only in most mosques although gallery for women oftenfound. Some sects, eg Ishmailis,fully integrated.

Ablutions

Requirement ofthefaith; modern western examples—e(7) include these with other toiletarrangements in partof bldg nextto nearby congregation hall.

Planning Because of ranked formation allow 680—1 250/standing P incongrega-

tion hall. Carpets and other floor coverings required as faithful are barefoot: sto space forshoesrequired. Axial layout common butopen courtyard forprayers useless inWclimates.

Decoration Accepted generallyshould be non-representational although notdecreed. This rigidly observed tradition, however, allows free use of calligraphic devices from Quran which forms valuablecounterpart to plain surfaces and basic architectural forms.

b,ns

sunke garden

0

5 10 15

21)

•244

makkarl rn

It

Londoncentralmosque agroundfloor b lowergroundfloor Arch Gibberd& Partners 6

_____________________

186

Community

Synagogues No formal architectural precedent forsynagogues (literally 'assembly); tend to followarchitectural styleof country in which built. Dual function ofplace ofworship and of social orcommunity meetings tendsdemand complex of bldg. 3 divisions of Jewry all require space for prayers; conservative and reform Jews use choir and organ butorthodox Jews donot use instrumental music. Liturgical furniture consists of: ark, focal pointgenerally at E containing scrolls; paroches, curtain-typecovering; candelabrumtoright;pulpit for rabbi and cantor. Furniture mounted on berna, raised platform at centre (orthodox) orendof hail (conservative,reform).

I

: 12

Second commandment proscribes 'making of graven images, so ornamentation floral or geometric.

-

9

.

0

2

3b

3pm

do

3 Beth Israel Synagogue&schoolOmahaUSA:seats650 insanctuary & extra 800in congregational assemblyha;courtyardprovides additional multiuseflexibility 1 congregational h 2synagogue 3rostrum 4stage 5k 6sto &uty 7foyer Bcantor 9rabbi 100ff 11 chapel l2court l3classrrn Arch Kivett&Myers

12

.7Ii

76 9 8 L6

2

9

1

1

0

5 45

Om

.3

don

4

14'

ic 1

0 KTISynagogueNewYork:accommodates upto 1000;noteflexiblespace forsocial andlor religioususe 1 socialha 2sanctuary 3k 4entrancefoyer Arch PhilipJohnson 1

2

JewishCentreWestOrangeUSA:allweeksocial, religious&educational use; chapelseats250—350; multi-purposerm upto750onhighholy days Arch David BrodyJuster&Wisnuewski

21

4

23 10 20

p 4 5 mft

odo9o1o

TempleBethElUSA:normalseating1000canbeextendedto 1600;bldg includesprovisionforreligiouseducation, lib& dramatiresentations 1 temple 2retiringrm 3chair sto 4classr 5supply&mimeograph rm 6off 7coveredentrance 8vestibule 9lob lotemplegarden 11 pool 12chapel 13socialha 14socialgarden 15ante-mi 16rabbioff 17women 18men 19 lib 20stage 21 k 22 dressing rm 23driveway Arch Percival Goodman

5 Planofmain floor ParkSynagogue&community centreCleveland USA Arch Erich Mendelsohn

Community 187

Mortuariesand crematoria MORTUARIES 1 3l0—, 350

Dead kept in cellsseparated by partitions (usually sheetmetal, sometimes plants) —v(3). In larger mortuariesgangwayforbearers separated from visitor's —(3b), from which relatives may see dead through airtight glass panes before funeral service. Protruding piers between cells preventinconvenience to different groupsof mourners —s(3b). Usual dimensionsof cells:

450—600

780—900

,

Urn &coffin

1

2200x 3500

750—1100

2500 x 3750 3000 x 3500

2

I C'J

i

visitors

bearers

.1

:. visitors

I

CJ

huH

LLIL!LLIL a

:.

I

I

2°to 12°C; if it fell below mm figure frost could expand corpses. This temp range maintained by central heating, air conditioning and, specially in summer, ventilation. Floorsmutbeimpervious, smooth and easyto cleanse; walls best lime washed (frequent renewal advisable). Larger mortuaries also need rm for guard and bearers 15—26 m2 inclusive oftoilets and lavatories.Stand for hearses also needed.

Tempin mortuary:

wneededbybearers

...

1 bearers 8 visitors

Mm

In city morturaries special rm may be set aside for unidentified bodies with sto for their clothing, next to which locate post-mortem rm and surgery—s(6).

bearers

(::..:.:::.i

250O

CREMATORIA Furnace room

3

Mortuarylayouts

[acnn wreaths

T wreaths

j,_,Ob,,j proiestani priest

rails

catholic priest

coffin

chapel

— Plan ofinstallationwithfurnace belowchapel 4

—

5

Furnacerm behindchapelwith interveninglob

Should beeitheron lowerfloorwith liftforcoffins —n(4)orbehindchapel, separated from it by lobby —v(5)(6). Horizontal transport with handoperated winches easiest, hydraulic lifts being necessary for vertical movement. Lobby door orfloor trap designed to shut slowly as coffin disappears through opening. In furnace rm coffin taken from transport carriage and transferred to chamotte grating infurnace. Cremation performed byspecial coke, elor gas-fired furnace consuming 45 kW per cremation. Height of 2-storey furnace 4300. Cremation completely dust freeand odourless by means of900—1 000°C dry air; no flames reachdeceased. Furnacepre-heated for2—3hrand cremation itself lasts 1—1 1/4 hrafter which ashesgathered in iron boxforsto in urn. Cremation supervised through peep-holes.

Chapel

Cremation installations should ifpossible lie atrear ofcemetery chapel, whichserves all denominations. Sizeof chapel varies: must be at least 100 seats and 100standing places; also 1—2rm forrelatives(which may be addedto chapel rm) and such ancillary rm as may prove necessary

istration

Conveniently close by chapel should be rm: 1 for director, 2—3 offices,coffin sto, flats forcemetery keeper and boilermanetc; nursery can be located nearby, with greenhouse —+pl 11, rm for gardener and landscape architect, worker's rm, stoforeqp and seeds, and toilets.

Urns & gravestones

Oftenlimitedin size by cemetery reg —(1); wall niches in columbaria usually 380—400wide and deep, and 500—600 high.

I

drive

6

Layoutofmortuarywithcrematorium andancillarymiforlargecemetery

Religious buildings references —Bibliography entries 005 070 072 160 184 311 312478579 620

188 Commerce

Shops & stores SITUATION each floor stockrm controller/buyer

Prominent sites in population centres served by convenient public and private transport. Carparking standards in UK, 3.5—5.25 car spaces per lOOm2grossretail area(3—4changesday). In USA max 150 cars/acre.

Access directors personel s advertising

1

Pedestrians, vehicles and delivery traffic should be kept separate; shopping centre best restricted to pedestrians, short connexions (covered to protectfromsun and rain) linking parking area and shops. Bus stops or underground railwaystations may be adjacenttoshopping centrewith direct access. Max distance between shopper's car orbus stop or station and principal shops should be 201 m and should be withininnerdistribution road system.

taffaccn

canteen lockers training rest rm lecture rm medical care

Plananalysisofrm& routesofcustomers &goods

Spaceallocation—*(l)

Large stores may have lecture and demonstration rm, restaurants, cafes, kindergartens, banks, post office, travel agencies, cinema and garden area.Small shops often grouped in shoppingcentre —*pl 99—201. Design begins with allocating space to units, conforming to tire and other reg, followed by subdivision into sales areas, internal service areas, tservices etc.

Sales areas Should be immediately above one another and asnear entranceflooras possible. Basement betterfor selling than additional upper storey, so stock rm and staff rm best located on upper storeys, with offices on highestfloor.

Storeyheights 2

Free standingmodularsheMng units makeupmajorpartoffurniture in modemestablishments

mainage

For largeunits, 4000—5000;forsmall units, 3000dependenton services (UK practice). Unnecessary floor to floor heights deter customers and are tiring to staff. Shop units do not rely on natural lightbut on artificial lightingwith mechventilation.

Structuralgrid

i200N mainage

EBEB1 § E

3

Aisles Recommended mm aisle width: 1 980, subsidiary aisles 990. Counter heights generally 920. Systemmodulesvary accordingto type ofshelving and bracketing used.

3 J13 —.

Column dimensions and centres determine lay-out of fittings. Recommended structural grid: large units, between 7300and 9000width on frontage and 9150depth; small unitsbetween 5300and 6000width on frontage, 18to 36m depth front to back.

mainage

20i-

40 +266 420-1

Ft I

Functionaldisplaystandsfor differenttypes of merchandisewith units running betweenequalcolumn centres

f144

. 100

4 Arrangementof furnitureunits

5

Sectionthroughshopsalesfloor withaislewwhichhaveprovedpractical inuseforpersonalservice

14 T LJ1 II 110

LI; flH _____ 11I1 - 20

—iii 41

j

Commerce 189

Shops & stores

k::m;

cable

duct

L<j from

MOVEMENTBETWEEN FLOORS

groundfloor salesar

fl

Number and widths of staircases —xp408 Bib5Ol 628 and exits prescribed by reg. In UK number of staircases relatedto travel distances, widths of staircasesand exits relatedtooccupancy,eg UK practice calculates loadas follows: ordinary consumer goods 1.9 m2 gross floor area/P; specialised shops 7 m2grossfloorarea/P.

11

1rl.dispiay diy9w4 trmii

upperfloor

window basement

Separateexitsfrom basement& upperfloors instair well 1

2 Emergencystairsin multi-storey bldg

r 3

4

Unimpededexit fromstairs

5°5 122 N

-.. 30.5

Max distancefromenclosed inUK

staircase

iii 41111111111111111111

lllllllllllll

IIIII

5 Back-to-backarrangement of elevators

6

Combination of elevators & escalators

-

Ancillaryrm onmezzanine level

Should be in groupsvisible fromentrance; in large stores in centre of bldg not more than 50 m fromanypart ofsales floor.May be arrangedin groupsback to back or incombination with escalators —x(5)(6).

Escalators—*p409

Essential when mm of approx 2000 P/hr must be transported; should run in successive series (return flights) toall sales floors, both directions. Best placed in centreof floorvisible from all entrances: pitch 30In UK may need tobeenclosed tocomply with fire reg;normally open in USA. Refreshment rm oftenon top floor with kitchen and hoist tosto.

2200

7

Elevators—xp4l 0—2

In USAelevators onlyused forcarrying goods; notcommon in new dept stores: nearly all have escalator bands, parallelorscissor.

2200

.1

Different reg governmulti-storey stores and shops, and 1-storey small shops. Except for 1-storeyunits UK reg require shop bldg to be divided into compartments notexceeding 7080m3—xtire reg. This prevents use of very largestaircases, makes use of escalators difficult and restricts features suchas open wellsbetween more than 2floors—n( 1)—(4), In USA determine total occupancy, consult national and local codes: bldg classified by use and fire ratings; open floor areas subject to sprinkler systems, fire curtains, specified exits etc. Most customers use escalators; elevators availableforexpress service. Numbers of customers to be transported fromground floor estimated fromdensity x storey area x number of storeys (8O% on escalators, 20% elevators); this figure must be divided by capacity of transport chosen to give number of elevators and escalators required.

Ancillary rm

8 Goods deliveryinparkingbays

Wc,telephone booths, staff cloakrmand lavatoriescommonly placed on mezzanine floor —u(7); oftenplaced in basement in USA, alsobargains —(10).

Goodsdelivery

NocTNNJNJ sales

5000

luxurygoods

NfNJNJNJNJ

salesservice 5000

clothes

2500

fast sellinglines

5000

bargains

---I9

Separated from customer circulation, frequently in goods yard or by delivery ramps. Delivery may be made to goods sto connected to general sf0, perhaps with automatic conveyors. If delivery difficult in busy street, parking bays recommended —u(8). Circulation through receiving rm, sto rm etc, to selling positions —r(10). Refuse and waste has to be handled from dept back to despatch through waste disposal

dailynecessities. restaurant,demonstrations

2500

Intermediate stockrm floors

which take floor structure (in USA stockdeliveredfromgroundfloor or

area.

10

Favourablearrangementof goodsforefficientsellingon sales floor

basement)

backwardsliding downward withhatch frombasement sliding

II>
11

—F-

3000

—4—

Singledisplaywindow

3000 —

[:i

1 12

4—

1

°°.

I

1000 -4 i—

L__J

t6o0 i.—

12 Continuousdisplaywindow with movabledunits

1000 —

5000

-

•.

'iHT!

services d

—.—

—4

5000

13 Accessfrom behindcolumns

I .........

—-4

14

.- s

accessgangway

5000

Withaccessgangway

d

—4—-

190 Commerce

Shops & stores --

SERVICEDETAILS 5000

—-1

Back-upstock

Either on 1 floor,preferably top salesfloor,or on each floor in separate backstock rm areaoron low mezzanine floors—pl89(9). 2000

Goodstransport

hoist, chute, roller conveyor, conveyor belt, ramp conveyor, spiral chute, fork-lift,palleted trolley.

By trolley (cart), goods 500500

—

I—

3400

Displaywindowextendedby havingshop entrancebehindit & staircaseto upperfloors set back: internalw of shopmm 2600 1

500

5650

Displaywindows—(1)—(8)

—

2

Very deepshopsoftenpermit extensivedisplaywindows, impressiveeven ifshopitself quite small

=

Separate fromcustomers,ifnecessaryinconjunctionwith goodsdelivery; own stairs to cloakr, whichshould be 0.4—0.5 m2/P.Staff rm preferably on top floor.

Shouldbeatmm rate of1 for25females, 1 forevery 25 males upto 100 and 1 for every40thereafter; however, ratio of 1:15 recommended,with washbasins prorata. Staff should beprovided with drinking water, rest rm, lockerrm, drying arrangementsforoutdoor clothes, control oftemp, ventilation and lighting, seating (UKreg).

2300 6250

] —-

---H

Building regulations

6001er

tI3500

Staff entrance

Staff wc

-H

--

Interchangeable fitments usual in dept stores. In deg window spaceimportant give easyaccess to display, with mm loss of display spaceat back—p1 89(13)191(1 )—(4).

3000 —i--- 3000

—

3

Deepshops mayhavewide vestibuleswith displaywindowsat anglestoentrance,attracting customersawayfromstreettraffic

4

5 Fornarrowfrontagerecess entrancetoprovidelargerdisplay area&anglesofviewthroughoffsets

6 Byslantingentirewindowar&

Centraldoorssuitableforshops 6000—6200wide; countersmay beinstalledonboth sides;shouldbe cash!wrapneardoor

havingdoorsinsameline, ideaof(5) isdevelopedtoitslogicalconclusion

Consultreg on construction, eqp and finishes ofshopsand stores. In UK: openings inwall must beof appropriatefrconstruction and comply with appropriate bldg reg. Division floorsmust be of approved fr construction with all vertical communication between floorscut off. Floor heights usually governed bygeneral bldg height limits laid down byreg. Sales areas should be mm 3000 high.

B Properlyplacedfittingsallow customerstomove fromentranceto sales counter,cashdesk,issuing counter&exit withoutreverse circulation

9 Noseparationbetween customer&sales staff:wholermat disposalofcustomer(self-service)

i4 dispay'ndow

7 Automaticinstallation foropening&closingdoors(1-leafdoorwith 2-way age,entrance&exit coupled):aphoto-elcell &light barrier; b mat

/

10 Shopforindividual consult, fitting tables,egfortryingon spectaclesin optician

11

Flowershop with largewindow

&display ar: rearofshopfor arrangingflowers

Commerce 191

LJ narrow deep frontage window dressing ar

______ max windowat frontage

j

narrow flat frontage

[XI

Shops & stores

iDJ wide frontage

yj wide frontage

SERVICE DETAILS

Stock & despatch rooms

Sto and workshops to be separated from sales areas by fr walls and floors(UK reg), thesetobe treated as separate sto areasand to comply with restrictions on compartment size.

Entrance&exits

Inbldg ofover 1 500 m2usable floor areaallyards should have entrances entranceto separate offover

____________island showcase max display

door access __________________

[din Li El maxcustomeraccess withshowcases

Shopfront layoutvariations: deepwindowplanssuitableforfashion, furnitureetc,shallowforjewellery,books,stationeryetc 1

and exits sited as far apart as possible. Entrances and ages: mm heightand widthclearance 3700on level ground—WK reg: access for fire appliances. Turning circleforappliance 17 m. Roadsto take laden weightof 10.1 t. Distance of any point from entrance max 25 m. On ground floor exitsand main aisles for customerstobe 1070wide forfirst 200 people, additional 152 foreach additional 30 people. Where 2 exits required each opening tobe wide enough for full number ofoccupants. Exit doorsto openoutwards: nosliding doors —Bib1 17 601. Amounts and type ofglazing controlled by reg.

Stairs—*p408

Preferably on outside walls with direct exit to open air or through entrance hall etc (UK reg). From each part of upper floor mm 2 stairs, withindistance of 30.5 m. Rm in vicinity of 1 staircase only must be no furtherawaythan 15m. Width for first 200 people 1070; additional 152 for each additional 30 people. Rise/going 125—250 mm (UK reg). Stairs to basements enter directfromopenairorseparated fromstairsto other floors by lobbies.

shallowest natural Iighy.

beam 'a' from(2)

L..E 2 Insufficientday orartificial

lightingreflectslighterbldgopposite orviewer

3

Reflection

reduced

substantially ifstronglightstrikes backon display aboveeyelevel of viewer

All rmforstaff and customers must haveemergency lighting independent ofmain lighting. Forcirculationareas, stairs,exits etcspecialemergencylitdirection signs.

WINDOWS Shopwindow'simpact determines itsvalue. Almost useless: dazzling, reflecting panes, deepdarkwindows near bright pavements: goods for sale can only beseen with effort —(1 )(2). Shopwindows now rely forimpact on artificial light. Sun blinds necessary to protect goods on all aspects except N facing. Fascia totake sign:integral to shop front and relativeto sun blind.

Cold

Condensation and ice on frosty windows can be avoided for windows connected with shop bywarm aircirculationoverwholearea,if necessary by ventilator; forenclosed casesventilation slotsin shop frontwindows required. Provision may beneeded forfreshair intake intoslip through louvres or mechintake over shop window or overdoors.

4

Typicalshop frontcomponents

I

:•::•::::•:•:-:•:•::•:•:•:•:::•:.:-.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:•:

WIOdOWS

above stock d

I

F

'

a 0

worlishopfor small alterations

chang

T1T{][ 5 Bldg with side wing&backyard (typicallayoutofrentedaccninGerman cities) suitableforshops:goodsforingtradeongroundfloor,on upper floorworkshopsforalteration,fittingrm, stock rmetc; in basementdo,wc& ancillaryrmforstaff a groundfloor bupperfloor

b

192 Commerce

Shops & stores Fire

-ii!— a

1

solid

glass

I

very good

Ip

Impactsiting: amaxfrontage&display;

excellent

Special fire precaution installations:smoke detectors,automatic warning systems, sprinklers. Compartment size —p189 can be doubled where sprinklers supplied.

Temperature & ventilation 16°C mm after first hour ofoccupancy (UK requirement). Ventilation by extract/intake tans orair-conditioning in larger units. Necessarydesign for heat build-up from artificial lighting and occupancy loading.

bgoodimpact; ceffectsofsiting

Shoplayout

Aswith display shop itselfshould be easy to take in at glance. Space for customerand sales staff depends on commodity and number of customers; aim atsmooth quick procedure.Big store organisationsdevelop systemplanning to suittheirparticular requirements.

Locationof shops

Varies according to type of business: determined by custom, eg convenience shopping and consumer durables.Trade of smaller unitswill be affected by location of deptstores, variety stores and supermarkets which act as magnets. These larger units should be sited to draw shoppers past as many shops as possible. Shops should besituated for max impact related to trade potential and should be seen fromas many angles as possible. Shape offrontage, shop sign (integral component) and protection from weather should draw customers. Corner shops 30% more valuable than shops in row. Each type of shop has its individual shop window shape (shoe shopsneeddifferent displaysfrom butchers and jewellers). Deptstores usually have flat frontages. Sizesof window vary with local conditions even in new bldg. Size and design ofdisplay windows and height ofstall-riser related to goods displayed, eg jewellery orfurniture —p191(4).

Boutiques Examples of 2 different concepts —n(3)(4)

groundfloor

first floor

2 Typicalshop layout (fish, fruit & vegetable sb)

key 1 entrance 2 cashdesk

key

1 entrance toboutigue 2 entrancehatoapartments 3 displayplatforms 4 bItingml 5 sb cabins

3 showcase 4 dispiay cubes 5 ciothesracks 6 dispiay shelves 7 charrgingrm 8 mirror 9 stokiosks

ek

7 wc 8 cash counter

3

Boutique Istanbul Turkey: exampleoftroglodyticillusionist interior; reflectingceiling makeshappeargreater,visitorleft guessing aboutshop's extent Arch Mehmet Konuralp

4

BoutiqueChampsElysee Paris : reflecting glass sets goodsoff againstcomplexbackground; artificiallightingdirectseyetomost rewarding points Arch IsabelleHebey

Commerce 193

Shops & stores BREAD & CAKE SHOPS—(1)—(4)

I- staff

tlcursto

I-.

SS

breadsto

ftn bakery

Circulationfor bakery: shopwellventilated, possiblewith steamextractor 1

if

2 Plan of small bakery: breadsto withgood connexiontobakery,shop &despatch

Generation ago small bakeriesproducedapprox 85% of household requirements of bread and pastries,factory bakeries remaining15%: these percentages now more or less transposed in UK. Sales in personal service shops mainly over counter, which may containrefrigerateddisplay. Freshly bakedgoodsrequiregood aircirculation.

FRUIT & VEGETABLESHOPS—*(6)—(9) Fresh vegetables should be stored cool butnot refrigerated: potatoes indark rm, carrots & root vegetables in sand, fruit in dark rm at temp 1—5°C & 85—95%hum. Deepfreezersfordeep frozensupplies. Walls tiled or washable. Sale often from delivery containers (baskets, crates, boxes) —e(7)(8). Dirt traps below sto racks —s(8). Fruit & vegetable shops usefully combined with flower shops.

woodengrille

zinctrough

3

Salescounterwith screen:bread compartments—u(4) vary with loafsize

4 Shelf arrangement:breadonslatted shelves

S.

(air circulation)withtins belowto catchflour

t

staff

c>

IlltlllllM I aration prep- I cellar intake —

1 spices

\

_l 5

Circulationforgreengrocery: smallstockas mostgoodsdelivereddaily

6

8

9

Counterwith standsforboxes&wire baskets, drip pan &dirttrap

490(

I

I

H

55d

I

Planoffruit &vegetableshop: rmwith machinesfor cutting &preparingvegetables

7

Typicalboxesforfruit &vegetables

Pavementsales fromtrolleys(carts) or in frontof shopwith attractive display

194 Commerce

Shops & stores FISHMONGERS —(1 )—(3)

=:

r'

intake;

os coldi

Fish need cool sto (often marble) for display, cold rm for overnight sto and deep freeze cabinets in shop for deep frozen products. Smoked fish must be stored quite dry in contrast tofreshfish.

peparation

sto

_______ ______

Shop must be well equipped with ventilation devices. Wallsand floors washable. New UK reg mayrequire glazed shop fronts.

_____________

u1T

Arrangements forreceiving largedeliveriesand forrefusedisposal. Ifdesired, aquarium for eye appeal—÷(2).

't,=z-_

——-7

1

Circulationforfishmonger

2

Seafood specialtyshopwithoutallied sales

BUTCHERS—(6)—(10) Work procedure:

1 delivery, 2 cutting up, 3 manufacturing, 4 refrigeration, 5 selling. Preferably on 1 level, if possible with rail and wheel carriagesaspig halves and beef quarters heavy: 75—100 kg. Manufacture and cold rm 1.5—2 times size ofshop. Walls: tiles, mosaic etc, washable.

cr']

intake.__]— —[game

[:sta1_ _________

chiihngrm —f _________

F: prsparasorsJ_

—i deepfreeze.]

f 3

Fish counterwith coolingcompartment &drain

4

Table tops: marble, glass, ceramic.

Circulationforpoultry& gameshop

GAME&POULTRY—.(4) Often together with fish. Similarin requirements. Workr with plucking machineand game scraper. Poultryabsorbs smells so must bestoredseparatelyfrom fish in shopand cold rm Table tops and walls washable: marble, tiles, mosaic, plastics. Spacious refrigerated compartment or show cases.

6

Counterwith marbleortilefacing

5 Butchers counterwith chopping block

7

Stairs

deplay

tocellar

Ij co"

meat counter

8

Circulationforbutcher's

9

__jII

1

pickling

Hooks & railsforhangingmeat

[9

n,achines

______ _____

oithngup

J_

— - — -- —

J

worI<space stake

Large butcher'sshop

wdesececeage

10 Counter in butchers shop—.also (5)

Commerce

195

Shops & stores CHEMIST—(1) Frequently self-service except for prescription counter. Will include other merchandise, egphotographic eqp, cosmetics.Mm requirements for accn and fitments usually laid down in special chemists' manuals. Dispensary (with reg-type double-locked cupboards for poisons and narcotics) subdivided according to activities. Prescription counter and customers' section ofshopprovided with seats forwaiting.

Dispensary ofparamount importance;must allow undisturbedworkwith goodview over drug shelves; must be well ventilated with tr ceilings, acid-resistant table tops and floor coveringsand washablewall surfaces. Ancillary rm and workrm ? twicesize ot dispensary.Med supply basement must not be connected with other basement rm; spirits, ether, phosphorus etcmustbe kept in secure recessesorin cellars with steel doors.

Planofchemistshop

1

adiustable chair

Night dispensary may serve as office in daytime; alternatively night counter may be provided in recess with illuminated sign and night bell.

services

MENSWEAR& FASHIONSHOPS—*(4) For self-selection clothes displayed in free stands or wall racks; for personal service in glass-fronted and hanging cabinets with special

curtain

3 2 Space-savingarrangement

round servicecore in hairdresser

Standardshampoounitwith backwash for beautyparlours&

displays. Arrangement must be flexible, with movableeqp and fitting rm 1500 x 2000.

hairdressers

SHOE SHOPS—i.(7)--(9)

aJIllhJftEIfl

bfl2V

Medium size shop, personal service: 8000—16000pairs; polish, stockings, socks, tights also available. Allow 1 footrest/2 seats, 1 stool/2 footrests for salesassistanfs —*(9). Carpeting desirable; low level and wall mirrors should be provided. More convenient ifstockand sales on same floor. Forward open sfock or hidden stock at rear. Adequate forward open stockpreferable for quickservice but selt-service shops followgeneral pattern, with specialdisplay racking.

FASHIONFABRICS—*(5)(6) 4

Organisationof atailor'sshop

5 Arrangementsforstoofcloth:

ashelfsame waslotbale bobliquestaggeredsystem(for

shop) c pairedshelves,eachof bale w

Often sold in conjunction with ready-to-wear clothes, lingerie, fashion accessories, wovengoods, haberdashery.Merchandise required to be attractively arrangedwith lighting toshowtrue colours—np25 398. Shelves not higher than 2200 so that they may be reached without steps; optimum height 500—1 500. Surfaces smooth so that material slides easily and does not catch. Counters for standing customers 850—950high, forseated customers 550—700; counter width700—850. Forready-to-wear clothesdept provide changingcubicles 1100 x 1150 and fitting rm—*(10)(11).

36O—i

Jt

a

6 Displaycounterwith shelfabove for materials men

330 180

110

women 300 160 100 children 300 160

9

90

Combinedfoot-rest&assistant'sseat

r4-r-—1 473—-664-

_ JLNLli

NH

I—i 473—1—864-J---1

7

Organisationofshoeshop

8 Shoe shop

10 Typicalfitting rm

L—1 524—1

11

Betterdressesfitting mi

196 Commerce

Shops & stores SELF-SERVICE customer

lEle

Self-service stores mostly forfood shops, drug stores and increasingly for other types of convenience goods. Staff mainly for advice, assistance, checking out, replenishing, possibly for quick service ofmeat and

preparation rm coldsto delivery waste stock goods lift

dairy foods. All goods prepacked and clearly displayed and ticketed (exceptsometimes fresh foods).

Proportion ofancillary accn mayvary between 60% sales 40'/ ancillary and 48% sales52% ancillary.Width of aisles 2200—2500. Entrancevia basket stands ortrolleys(carts); exit via checkout points. Replenishing byassistants. Wall shelving up to reaching height (top shelf 1 650, bottom shelf300 above floor level) .—(8)(9). Free-standing sales display suitable —*(4). Checkout points —(5)(6) laid outto suit frontage ofunitwith counter top forpurchases, cash, wrapping space with paperbags, spacefor parking basket ortrolley. Surveillance point essential.

staff restrm staff toilets &do unpacking

.-Hoff

1

i

Circulationforself-serviceshops

in

flout

out

2

Number of checkout points varies with unit scale and is related to turnover/m2, as controlled bytrading policy —4(2)(3). For each 100 m2 shop area: 50—100 baskets and 10 trolleys (carts). For each 200 m2 shop area: 50—200 baskets and 30 trolleys (carts).

flOut

o

out

Typicalself-serviceshoplayoutsshowingcheckout pointsrelatedto frontagew

basket stand

—

____

display counter display cash rack ister

r

___

I

sndardw

1600-1

0 N

j1 800—H

baslcetsheff

1194 6001 1194 600p 1194 991 991 500 991

T 0 N

C.,

checkouts

—

Planofcash deskwithmm dimensions

—minw

6

checkouts

7 Stackablebasket&trolley(cart)

customers basket packingar shopfront

3

pelmet with ticketing & lighting

Layoutofcheckoutpointsshowingdimensions

—900-1 400—

ventilation'

—

dirttraP\ 1-600--I

4

Salesdisplaywithstacking compartments&concealedlighting

Sectionthroughsmallcashdesk 4—864

Wall shelvesforbottles

I—

9 Wall shelvesforfruit,vegetables & unpackedgoods I—762——---l

I 10 Self-selectionunit: Ivaries; specialmerchandiseneedsspecial inserts

12 Free-standinghangingrack; hangingrack 11525 11

Backfixturewith shelvesonly

13 Millinerytable

Commerce 197

Shops & stores SUPERMARKETS:EXAMPLES

[

30

sto ar

oilheating

1

2 air-conditioning plant 3 airshaft 4 refrigerating plant 5 coldstofats 6 deepfreezing 7 coldsto meat 8 minced meat 9 ante-mi

10 meat 11 coldmeats 12 fish 13 deepfreeze 14 coffee 15 fats

1

16 vegetables 17 twit 18 checkout 19 flowers

I 15I15I1516I16j16j17I

20 trolleys (carts)

[;1

21 wr 22 changing rm,women 23 changing ml, men 24 wcwomen 25 wcmen 26 fruit&vegetablepreparation 27 fruit&vegetablecooling 28 empties 29 bottle reception 30 heatingoiltank

C

171

____ 20[ 1

13

111111

customer self-servicear

1IIiIIIIIlIl !!lh1!IIIIII1III

rwtEJ

Germansupermarket Arch PeterNeufert

—— -

4800

55.12

2 Swisssupermarket

0 O

II

c)

=0

II

II

0 0

II II II

I

II

260

4800

3 Cross-sectionof(2)

groundfloor

carpark

II II II

ii

_____ II

4800

I

4800 —4 4

Siteplan of (2)

t

4800

198 Commerce

Shops & stores HYPERMARKETS Basically single volume transfer shed, grossarea 10000—50000m2: 1 trader under 1 roof, using self-service methods to sell max range of convenience and durable merchandise at low prices; goods delivered directfrom manufacturersto largeon-site warehousing areas.

upper partof durables warehouse

Location Out oftown on perimeter of city, townor district centre. Mm catchment area 80000 population; 25 minutes driving time out of town; 10—15 minutes frominnerzone:siting related to road patterntoallow this.

Carparking

roofover

5.25 cars/100 m2 gross area (av shopping trip 1 hour). Provision for trolley (cart) collecting. Separate provision for service vehicles and refusecollection (perhaps with incineration or compaction). Discount petrol and tyre service forcustomers only.

Planning Up to 50% gross

area for warehousing, cold sto, food preparation, offices and staff. Main sales on1 floor,mezzaninecould hoestaurant, hairdressing, offices, toilets, staff accn and some warehousing. Staff numbers related to sales area: say 3 staff to 350 m2 sales, with shift working.

Warehousing

& ancillary accn

mezzanine

Stowill be open 24hr/dayforrestocking outofhours,cleaning,servicing etc. Deliveries and restocking using mech aids, eg forklift transfer in

warehouse to palleted trucks forrestocking shelves; warehouse racking may be high (groceries) orlow (textiles). Large food preparation areas needed forfreshfoods, butchery,baking, preferablyvisiblebycustomers.

Sales area Self-service principles apply generally—p196. Aisles must bedesigned for palleted trucks, with 1 800—3500between racking.

Construction

For flexibility wide spans and max column spacing (say 8 m x 12 m). Firstfloor must be designed for heavy loading if used forwarehousing. Compartmentation of warehouse areas essential: controlling factor in design may be insurance requirements. Waivers may be needed to allow max opensalesarea.

Service Air-conditioning, high intensity artificial lighting, throughout. Cold sto refrigerator. Services —vp383—97 Floors must be hard wear, easily cleaned tiles.

Fireregulations

Consultreg. Subject todistance ofbldg fromboundary, frand compartmentregdo notapply inUKto 1-storey hypermarkets: meansofescape provisions mustbe approvedbylocal authority.In2-storey areasnormal compartmentation reg do apply, subject to possible relaxation by appropriate authority. Sprinkler essential.

groundfloor I

Diagrammatilanoftypical hypermarket

181.5

key 1

battery,caraccessories

I

&oftover

—1

softdñnks.winesetc 2 groceries 3 pharmacy & cosmetics 4 dairy 5 fruit &vegetables 6 children'sclothing 7 clothing 8 householdgoods 9 fancygoods

10 shoes 11 elgoods 12 fumiture 13 fire-fighting& sprinkler installation 14 etsub-station 15 butchery preparation 16 cookedmeats 17 fruit& vegetablepreparation 18 balieraapastryshop 19 changingnn 20 lay 21 boutique 22 aftersales service 23 furriiturerepairworkaliop

2 Layoutoftypicalhypermarketwithapprox20000m2 selling space

Commerce 199

Shopping centres & precincts Increasing trend in Europe and USA during 1970s plan large retail complexes in innercity areas. Despite their large size restricted space forms primary design factor. High site rentsoftenmeanthesecomplexes incorporate office space; also sometimes residential flats and condominiums but less frequently. Aswith convention hotels —p221—3 large internal spaces allow separation of interior circulationof public fromthat of service and store personnel. Traffic patterns which maximise retail display and access to retail unitsgenerally mechanism by which high

rent unitslet.

2

Bullock'sSouthCoastPlazaCostaMesaCaliforniaUSA a second floor bfirstfloor c groundfloor Arch WeltonBecket&Associates

200 Commerce

Shopping centres& precincts EXAMPLES

a

: liii

II

•

I

marshft7d&cO

b

tlLlord&taylor —.

Lk

:::::: -

________

•

-

____________

T

tmh18co

2 Water TowerPlaceChicagoUSA agroundfloor bmezzanine floor cfirstfloor dsecondfloor Consultarch WarrenPlatnerAssociates Arch LoeblSchlossman Bennett& Dart

*

lord &taylor

_________________

Commerce

201

Shopping precincts & centres EXAMPLES

b

a

C

d streetlevel

1 CiticorpCenterNewYorkUSA asection btypical mid-risetowerfloor cconcourselevel dstreetlevel Arch Hugh Stubbins

Shops aridstores: —Bibliography entries 116 117306340341369 374 450477552 601

202 Commerce

Restaurants

1

PLANNINGFACTORS wall 200

ei

S

a

waD

0

900

4.

2300

U

4o I I

a

50

-S.

squaretables:diagonallayout local density0.92

squaretables,squarelayout localdensity1.4

circulartables:diagonallayout local density0.82

+—36s0---$-500 2350M I

_____

4j

largeboothinrecess local density0.86 itseating10 people orl.1itnnly2peoplesitonbenchseat

banquetteboothseating localdensity0.8

counterservice localdensity1.26 dimensionsA& Bincreasedwhere2 waitersemployed

Layoutarrangements

1

4diners 750

Restaurants should be planned sothat variety otseating arrangements can be achieved, eg tables tor2 and 4 and placing together oftables to provide 6, 8 and 10 places. Consider also banquette or booth seating —u(3)(6); but theseshould be supplemented by normal tables to give flexibility. —*(1) shows typical table and counter layouts and local densities. Columns best situated near group of tables or at corners ot table. Provideacoustic lobby toservice doors between restaurantand kitchen. Accessforguests should beplanned sothat notconfusedwithservice.

it 1person

2diners

+700+

+450+900 +

tt+

2persons

Ttaso 2

guide: : 1 waiter/waitress per 12—16 covers restricted menu : 1 waiter/waitress per8—12 covers typical menu a Ia carte &deluxe : 1 waiter/waitress per4—8covers

Aislew

+

3

1650-1900

1

Typical banquetteseating

I

I

DLI

H

111

DO DO 28seals

22m2

DODD

Service aisles —'(2) not less than 900—1 350 if to be used by both trolleys(carts) and guests. Waiterstations should be located so as not to disturb guests: number will vary according to standard of service but following may be used as

fl

_

Ambience an important tactor in restaurant design: decoration, lighting should be integral part. Large regular spaces should be broken up into smaller more intimate areas, if necessary by means of screens of various heights or decorative features. Changes of level not usually favoured by caterers butacceptable providing they make positive contribution to design, donot involve morethan 2or3steps and main partof restaurant on same level as kitchen. Where changes of level occur seating areas should be protected bybalustrades.Cash deskmay beat entrance or by service doors or within kitchen area depending on cashing system operated bymanagement. Provide head waiter stand in a Ia carte or de luxe restaurants. Hard wearing floor service in area around service doors. Traditional and specialty restaurants frequently have aperitif bar associated with them tor waiting customers and drinks before meal. Such bar should be planned sothatheadwaiter cantake orders and call forward customers whentablesready. Dance floor in restaurant: allow 1.0—3.5 m2/couple.

D

k::::::1[yffffIi

5600

layoutforpartof restaurant: local densityexcludingmaincirculation & wafterstations& serviceareas 4

Mm

5 'Staadtler'table to seat4:with flapsextendedseats6

6

Banquetteseatingbooth:table must bemovedtogainaccessortop may bemovable

Commerce 203

Restaurants SPACEALLOWANCES (EXCLUDINGCOOKINGAREAS)

Snack barservice

Usually restricted tolightmeals, served atcounter ortaken bycustomer to table. Food normally cooked withincounter area but back-up preparation, wash-up and sto required. 1.50—2.20 m2IP including counter and cooking.

Cafeservice 0.83 m2/P: limitedmenu, usually family type of business, designed on traditional lines with kitchen separate from dining rm. Food may be collected bywaitress fromsmall service counter orhatch tokitchen.

Self-servicecafeteria 1.4—1.7 m2/P, long self-set-vicecounter, provide good circulationspace. Space for clearing trolleys (carts) required. Self-service counters —p206(2). 0

1

2

3 4rn

Coffeeshopservice—*(3)

1'2ft

1

1.2—1.4 m2/P, usually waitress service, oftenfromforward cooking area withcounterwhichmay be decorativelyscreened. Main preparationand wash-up at rear. Counter servicesometimes included.

Specialtyrestaurant

Traditionalrestaurant: 110 seats

Space requirements vary widely. Display cooking, grill, dance floor, special decor effects may be required. Bar may be included within restaurant.

Traditionalrestaurant—(1)

1.3—1.9 m2/P according to type of business. Should have space for display table, flambé work, generous seatingand spacing oftables.

Carvingtablerestaurant—*(2)

1.6 m2/P including space for carving table. Display table with hot and cold positions for self-service of ts, vegetables and sweets. Preparation, cooking and wash-up donein main kitchen.

01 I 2

2345678 I

I

I

12

servioe

I

1'S

Restaurantseating124with self-servicecarvingtable

W =waiterstation

012345678 I

I

12

I

I

I

15 18 21 24

rn

ii

I

I

rn

iI 1 24 ft

204 Commerce

Restaurants Table sizes vary according to typeofrestaurant; mm forcafeterias etc:2 persons 600 x 600, 4 persons 600 x 1100. Diagrams show tables for goodstandard of restaurant.

TABLE SIZES

r

110, preferably

150—200

600, preferably

65O750

I I-— 380—f-—--

800

—f-- 450 —+—

—!--—

550

850

-H—

—i——

750

—H

lottable/P

I

T knee h600

man

woman

4

4

II

00

2

II 1Jj

waiter

6

for

TiI- 1450

ii

P

12

8

iU\JU -

-

6

2050

—

—

8

ci[

2700

H

I35°

- :2500j

-1

avdia of circular

3300 12

10

5

dining tables for

16

U

'000 0000 .n0,0Ip

\IIU

average Iof tables with chairs at eitherend

getting

eating

sitting down

14

12

10

P

Commerce 205

Restaurants SNACKBARS

1 250

C.)

Barstool

1

service — F.

2 Bar stools:normaldistance

diners --4-1300--

fl4500-4-i

+ 2100

500

rT2 1r'

I --I--

4

I

_.I

.C.

service diners normal — 2700 1300 -I 30 stoolh -7501- 1200 -f.75Q.4

500

r1

od

mediumh

Wt.:.Tui

,- hstool

High densityarrangementwithsmall tables

T

0 _____________ 00 _________ 700

T

r

Cli

Typical U format with 12 seats mm length 600/P = 7200. This length may beserved by 1 waiterifmeals pre-cooked; ifmeals and drinks have to beprepared atcounter further1—2waiters necessary—(7)(8)(9).

Areas required

Per seat 1480—2150 Ratio ofservicearea to total area25—50% Netkitchenarea 15—25%

24.0

-fX1

Kitchen& wash-up

se;ice!

shi

Preferably at same level as restaurant,kitchen area divided into: servery area ofcooking, frying, grilling and preparationofsoups and vegetables cold buffet (meat, salads, fruits, fish,sweets and desserts) wash-up area —*Bib2l 7

ShortU-formatcounters I—.

customers. Counters with stools less economical ofspace than closely spaced tables but ensure speedy service and quickturnover. Avsitting time20minutes: 3 occupants/hr compared with perhaps 1/hrin normal restaurant.

Format

C

LongU-formatcounter

J

Refrigeratedshowcase

Situation In centres of cities where accn expensive must be max turnover of

°9P229P!JjJ

lllll'..

6

5 Widertableswith more space

15.0

7

3 Mediumh bar stool

Other requirements 20.0

—4

IT

service

ar

U) C\J

Toilets for customers, staff toilets, staff cloakrm, small office, food sto including refrigerator and deep freeze, liquor sf0, boiler rm, airconditioning plant if required. For scale of sanitary fittings —*reg. Public cloakrm not normally required forthistype of restaurant,hdtand coat stands or coat rack on wall sufficient. In large snack bars separate entrance and exitsdesirable. Cashier near exit.

CC)

C'J.

tray slide

rail

50 *—750 +

9

PairedU-formatcounters

10

1150

Self-servicecafeteriaservice

750

206 Commerce

Restaurants Drive-in restaurants supply food and drinks

DRIVE-IN& SELF-SERVICERESTAURANTS

direct to cars so that guests may eat without leaving vehicles. For access and serving pro-

3 6 9

O

16

vide canopies and covered ways; dining hall should be separate, with parking space close to drive-inservice. 1 waiter can serve 6cars.

12 15 18 21m

7 36 45

4

ft

Self-service advantageous for snack barsand to overcome staff shortages. Smooth-running system (entrance-trays-counter-cashier-dr-exit) more important than comfortable atmosphere because diner's stay much shorter than in ordinary restaurant.

1

Drive-in restaurantCalifornia ArchLauter

1

backfittings& hatchesfran,k

I / / // il 'i , IIi.i111

9

:1

J J•1• U.U1.

I

fl

trayslide

=Sat 9.0—11.0

2

Typicalself-servicecounter toserverangeof 2/3 choicesto80/90customersin 10minutes

22

J 1

21

1icf1,c

fiat

13 ter 14 restaurant

2 coldsto 3 day sto 4chel

5 wash-up 6 bakery 7 meat preparations 8 sk 9 coldbuffet

l5ha

9

16 newspapers 17 beerbar 18 maincold5*0 19 deepfreezerm 20 chiP no

6 12 15 18 21 18 27 36 45 4 3 1

2 trays coldbuffet 3 beverages 4 hotmeals

10 hotmeatpreparation 21 preparatiOn 22 wodishop 11 wafter'sgangway 12 café 23garbagebins 24 carport

S cheese& desserts 6 cashier 7 refrigerator 8 beverages(d)

2

9

iCe

10 hotd 11 streetsalescounter

3

Self-servicerestaurantParis ArchPrunier

Restaurant references —*Bibliography entries 016 043 045 049 096

4

Restaurantonmainhighway:restrm &layon lowerfloor,wheretheycanalsoserve motel Arch Neufert

097147153156176217226243282319341 439441 442477583

Commerce207

Restaurantcars: using minimum space 10.7

—1

UUF

I

LJf1c1DflcTTj1flLtJflODr1L1flflcIjoflc1___)I 1

Tram restaurantcarofRhinelandRailCompany 1.49

550-'- 950

3

550—480'-

480

70

Space needed for dining services in long-distance trams and motor coaches —s(1)(2) modest compared with train dining cars—s(9). DimensioningofGerman dining cars result ofmany years experience; present systemafter numerous design changes. Diagonallyplaced tables tried out in recent years found unsatisfactory and not illustrated here. Kitchen arrangementsrepresentmax useofavailablespace; this applies both to width of doors and service hatches and to refrigeration units, whichare exceptionally large—(8). All disheshave to be washed up in kitchen between 2 meal services (main and snack lunch). Service in dining car made easier because number ofcustomers limited to number ofplaces—s(8).

+

-1550

3100

-I-

+ 1651) ±

3430

1327

H

I

Detailsof1; diningtablesonly halfaswideasinrestaurantcars:noserving pantry; kitchenlocated almost in middle of vehiclewherespringingmost effectiveto lessenjolting

9

3

4

SectionA-A—u(8)

-

Groundplan of Germanrestaurant car—.(6)(1O)

4

Section B-B—.(8)

biing b 1485

615

Cf)d

hratirig

air-conditioning

1740

0

1015

1600°

for railwaystaff

corr

fulng

e[] td

conductorsseat

5

6

SectionC-C-.(8)

Transversesection—u(1O)

12 Sleepingcargroundplandetail —u(13)

7

Section D-D—*(B)

1650

1—

ksy 1 provisions

2 ck 3 switctrd 4 refuse bins

5 trig

9 sideboard

-

13 warrningd

6 staffconipartment 14 deepfreezer 10 trig 7 foldingseat 11 preparation 15 k 8 door 12 sk 16 sk 8 Ground planofkitcheninGerman restaurant car: section(3)—(5)(7)

tr

15 'Comet' articulatedtrain double compartment

13 Crosssection—.(12)

208 Commerce

Hotels C)

2

Location is one of most important factors for commercial success. Depending on market orientationhotels should generallybe conspicuous and sitednear main road ormotorway intersections,airports,commercial and business centres or resorts.

CD

Site

C)

Following points should be considered: height and plot ratio requirements, ease of access, adequacy forparking either on ground or within bldg, viewsand aspect, relationshipto adloining bldg, levels.

0 2 CD

conventionhotelwith largeconference rm, night club,shopping citycentrehotel motorhotel resorthotel low-mediumtariff hotelwith private bathr but mm catering hostels: singlerm & mm service

Types

Marketorientation will dictate type of hotel. Construction of new hotels of less than 70—80 bedrhardly viable unless they can be run on family

m2/mi gross

type

1

55—65 45—55 35—45 40—55 20—30 18—20

Grossar/miforvarioushoteltypes

basis.

Citycentre: includeluxury, convention and citytourist hotels. Charac-

section

tensed by high plotratio, high riseconstruction,frequently largefunction accn, inclusion of shops—.p222or offices —*p223 in development to improve viability. Motor hotels: cater mainly for people en route by car or motoring locally, therefore sited at important road junctions and on outskirts of cities. Land cheaper therefore sites fairly large allowing large car park and low or medium rise construction. Generally contain all usual hotel services but on modest scale. No rm service.

residential bedr corr,elevators, stairs service ar

Airporthotels: similar planningto motor hotels butcatering specifically for airtravellers therefore require all night receptionand possibly some

totalresidential public &servicear: frontofhouse lob &circulationincluding P

international companies.

reception,do, reservations off,

nightcatering. Sometimes have convention services forconvenienceof

intake at weekly orfortnightly intervals. Restaurantshould accommodate all guest. at 1 sitting. Require spacious lounges, games rm, bars, possiblyalso swimming pool, beachand sports installations.Conference rm can also be included encourage off-season business.

Motels: .—p219220 Convention hotels: —*p221 —3 Condominium:development involvingt ownershipwhere individual owner has full benefit of rm, suite, villaforown useorletting butshares costscommon to whole development which may include all usual hotel

24 3.2 0.6

26.5 9.3 0.7

27.8

36.5

0.4 0.3

0.5 0.4

1.1

coffeeshop bar 1 includingcounter, sto bar2includingcounter, sto lounge toilets functionrm pre-functionar furnituresto privatedining/meetingrm

0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.4

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3

1.1

1.3

—

0.5 0.2 0.9 0.2

0.1

0.4

—

stO

workshops& maintenance Iau, linensto etc staffcanteen,lockers,toilets

8.2

7.8

3.8 0.9 0.8 0.3

2.5 0.9

1.0

1.1

0.3 0.8

0.5

0.4 0.7

offfor personnel,

s, control,housekeeper etc circulation,serviceelevators etc total backof house

separation of guestand service areas: no cross circulation; distinction between frontand backofhouse

tobare mm of reception,office, breakfastrm, bar and ingservices.

m2/rm

switchboard, luggage restaurant

k&ksto

Diagram—p209 shows typical relationshipofpartsofmedium size hotel. Points ofprinciple tonoteare:

serviceand finishes; de luxe hotels have larger service areas, more service elevatorsetc; ineconomy hotelsthese areasreduced,sometimes

m2/rm

totalfrontofhouse public &servicear:backofhouse

Functionalrelationships

Space allocation& standards —.(1)guidetogrossar/rmfor varioustypes of hotel. (2) shows space allocation for 2 typical contrasting hotels: figures assume mosteconomical layout. Quality of hotel mainly dependent on

500bedr citycentrehotel

1.8

shops

services.

all catering outlets ifpossible beon same level askitchens: ifnot, main restaurant directlyrelated to kitchen; other restaurantsand banqueting rm should have service rm connected by elevators and stairs main kitchenwhere bulkcooking is undertaken organisation ofbackof house such that staff and goods are separatefar as possible and control can be maintainedoverboth.

b

200 bedr motorhotel

1.6

elevators

Resort hotels: at seaside or mountainresorts orspas. Usually planned to cater for package holidays with reception arrangements for large

a

total

boiler houses,plant rm &car parking excluded

2

Space allocations

0.9 7.9

7.0

43.5

51.7

Commerce 209

Hotels

service entrance

guest entrance

Flowdiagramoftypicalhotel

210 Commerce

Hotels or variations of these arrangements would

have

to be

PLAN FORMS

combinations adopted.

Bedroomaccommodation

A Compact

arrangements:

bedrblockoverwide spans. B Bedrblockadjacent topublic rm block: considered to beeconomical because optimum structure and services can bedesigned foreach part. Suitable formotorhotel development on large site. C Open layout with public rm and service blockcompletely separate from bedr which may be in groups scattered about large site. Suitable for motel and resort type hotels where plenty of land available and

As bedr formsgreater proportionofhotel constructionkeytoeconomical design largely in layout of bedr block. —*(1) shows some possible Double-loaded block (A) capable of development into L U courtyard plan; requires only2stairs; considered most economical layout. Double-loaded Tshaped block(B)capablebeingdeveloped intocross; also economical but 3stairs required. Single-loaded block (C) capableof being developed into L U or courtyard plan: not economical solution but may be desirable, perhaps combined with A take advantage of site conditions; ifdeveloped form centrecourtyard can beused provide atrium effect. Square block (D) with central core containing all vertical services, maids' rooms etc, compact and useful for small sites where tower development may be required. Y plan (E) requires 3 staircases and has more complicated structure than straight blocks; structural system may cause problems in public areas. Triarc(F) similar to E but more space taken up by circulation; concave curveresults in bedr wideratbathr end providing opportunity forlarger bathr and dressing area. Circular (G) requires careful handlingavoid awkward and inward facing rm; notcapable ofextension. Circular with centralcore (H), similarto D; also requirescareful handling avoid awkward rm. Convex curves inGand H result in bedr narrower at bathr end, causing cramped space forbathr.

development of bedr block superimposed on podium. Suitable forhigh risedevelopmenton city site. Problemsarise frombedr services having tothrough public rmand fromprobableneed carry

landscape conditions dictate.

VERTICALCIRCULATION Hotels of more than 2 storeys should be provided with enger and service elevators (—(3) —p41O—2). Except in small hotels all elevators should be duplicated provide efficient service and standby in case of breakdownor repair. Numberand speedofelevatorswill depend on height and populationof bldg and for largeinstallations should bebasedontraffic studyby specialist. Service hoists ordumb waiters notadvised owing need have 1 person each end: bettermake service elevators largeenough take trolley(cart) plus personnel. If possible plan all elevators in 1 bank or towerwith service elevators opening to kitchen area and enger elevators opening directly to guestlobby. Separatebaggage elevators not required except in de luxe hotels; but may be desirable to have 1 elevator available for manual controliflargeamount baggagehandled. In high bldg much depends on qualityand speed of elevator services as regards both guest elevators and serviceelevators: not wiseto skimp this aspect. In addition goods elevators may berequired inbackareas: should be of large capacity and of sturdy, easily cleanedconstruction.

Relationshipofbedroom blockto publicroomareas Many ways in which bedr block mayberelatedtopublic rm and circulation but can be illustrated by 3basic arrangementsshown —.(2). Likely that

A

B

1:

service

circulation & services A

J

L

guests

service

-.1

C B

servKe c .vemflcal circulation

bedr

Dsemvice 1

Plan formsforbedraccn

2

Relationship of bedrtopublicmi

3

Typical verticalcirculationcore for500bedr

hotel

Commerce 211

Hotels PUBLICROOMS Restaurants

In medium and large hotelscommon to provide more than 1 restaurant give customer choice menu and price. Cheaper restaurant usually coffee shop or cafeteria: more expensive a Ia carte. Large hotels may have additional specialist restaurants.In certainsituations,eg citycentre hotels, cheaper restaurantmay beaccessiblefromboth hotel and street

to attract non-residential business.

Seating capacitiesrestaurantsvary accordingsize hotel, amount potential outside business, location in relation other restaurants, duration stay guests, amount breakfast rm service to be provided. In resortand other suitable locations provision should be made serve meals in open air either by extension of 1 restaurant or by separate service. FurtherdetaIls—up202—7;kitchens—vp213

Bars Cocktail or aperitif bar (if required) should be planned as comfortable

others. Service of drinks, tea and coffee should be provided from dispense orfrommain kitchen. Separateresidents lounges notnormally required.

Recreation rooms Card rm, table tennis, billiard rm etc should be considered for resort hotels.

Functionrooms

Multi-purpose rm for meetings, banquets, balls, parties, exhibitions valuable asset. Design considerations include: separate access if rm large; divisible by movable partitions; separate access for guests and servicedesirable; audio-visual eqptobeprovided. Large span required precludes this rm being planned beneath bedr block except on costly city sites. Space allowances: i.i—1.3m2/P banquet style seating 0.9—1.1 m2/P meetings: table groups theatre style seating 0.5—0.6 rn2/P

intermediary waiting area between hotel lobby and main restaurant;

Other requirementsforfunctionrm: ante-rm, preferably approx 1/3rdarea offunction rm, with dispense bar

Main bar will provide chiefdrink service of hotel. May have external entrance to encourage non-resident business. Fairly long bar counter ed by bar sto with ice making machine and bottle cooler should be provided: section may berequired for service ofsimple meals.

furniture store0.5 m2/seat easily accessible fromfunction rm

servicemay be by waiter: long bar counter may not berequired.

Possible otherbars: rooftop,pooi side,beach, club areas.

cloakrm and toilets (depending on proximity of hotel toilets): provision of wc and urinals as for public areas—vp212 unless music and dancing licence required, in which case should be as for concert halls, theatres etc —vBib36i 604.

All bars capable of being shut securelyduring non-opening hourseither bygrill or shutterat bar counter orbyclosing rm. Former has advantage rm can be used aslounge when bar closed. Should be possible service

Movable partitions should be full height and fold completely away into pockets. AvdB reductionof45—50 sould be achievedthrough partitions and between function rmand kitchen.

bars without ingthrough publicrm. Barsshould comply with licensing laws. Space allowance forbars excluding counter: cocktail lounge (comfortable) 1.8—2.0 m2/P general bar (some standing &on stools) 1.3—i.7m2/P

In large function rm consider separate access for heavy exhibits. Allow 510 kg/m2 floor loading.

Meetingrooms

In addition some meeting rm, preferably associatedwith main function rm, may be required. May vary in size; should all be capable being serviced fromeither main kitchen orpantry.

Lounges

Reasonable provision should be made for people waiting and relaxing either in relation to lobby or circulation areas or to revenue-earning areas suchas bars. More lounge space required in resort hotels than

Fireprecautions

Alternativeexitroutes must beprovidedforall publicrm. Travel distances toexits,flameresistance ofmaterials,fire and smoke resistantcompartmentationmust be in accordancewith regulations —up216408. service

elevator

ptr elevator S

freight elevator

Ia

banquetrm

600seats —

L_

I

Spacerequiredforbanqueting for37allowing forservice

-

2

a Si

Space requiredin dr for14 allowing for service:2.0m2/cover

,— a

E

l4

royal

bar

bar

pre-functionlob

do

1600 people

I

I

a

a

n

-.—.t-

-

—-

vest

• o

II

I

r---1

Banquetingseating at tablesfor 10: typical arrangements forlarge banquets:1.2 m2/cover 3

4

5

10

15

20m

r: r :

0

0

=a

0

___ vestibule

1

royal salon

I

standing

E

banquetfoyer

8500

Idre stairto

I__________________ t5 30 45 605 of suite forlargehotel Example banquet

vestibule

S a

projection booth

212 Commerce

Hotels FRONT OF HOUSE Entrance Arrange drive-insocars can pull off road and with space forwaiting cars

and taxis: waitingspace for coachessometimes needed. Providecanopy. In exposed positions provide draught lobby or revolving doors (require doors for fire escape and baggage). Where traffic heavy with guests carrying own bags automatic doors. Separate door to baggage rm in high class hotels. Special provision for baggage handling for hotelsexpecting people in largegroups.

Receptionarea

Reception desk —v(1) near and visible from entrance with porter, receptionist, cashier close by. In largehotels separatedeskfor porter (mainly supervising baggagehandling).

Hall porter's desk

Lengthof counter arranged so porter can go freely into entrance hall. Depending on size of hotel should be fitted with alphabeticalguestlist,

Reception& porter'sdeskfor400-bedr hotel: receptionists, porters, cashiersnotnormallyseated,therefore worktop heightforstanding 1

backelevationofdesk

message waiting indicator, working shelf, drawers. Site key rack —x(3) with slots for keys and letters corresponding with number of bedr in easyreach receptionists. Am behind forshorttosmall items, post box and slot.

Receptionist'sdesk—v(1) Fitted with sloping rack not visible by guests for rm states (usually manual card system but may beelectronic in largehotels), worktop and countertop for guests registration,section at normal height forclerical work, shelving, cupboards. Provide alphabetical list. Behind reception desk reservations office with direct access for receptionists: should have wall space forcharts and telex(ifany). Cashier'sdesk—v(2)

In small-medium size hotels may be partreception desk. In largehotels normally partitioned-off section ofmain reception deskwith small office at rear for chief cashier. Desk office for: 1 or 2 cash s, bill tray spaces alongside s,lockablecashdrawers, shelvesand drawers, guestsafe deposit boxes—n(4),deposit boxes for staff floats,telephone meterdisplay board, airtube system terminal ifrequired, safe.

Telephone switchboard—(2)

Often placed near reception counter so receptionists can operate at off-peaktimes. Otherwise in separate rm, possibly with hatch to public lobby and public telephones nearby. Fire alarm : at reception deskorsomeotherpointwhere all night attendance. Typical counter lengths fordifferent sizes hotel: counter length noofrm 50 3000 100 4500 200 7500 400 10.5

Hotellobby

Consider supplying in or nearlobby: housetelephone, publictelephones, television security monitors, clocks and calendars, news teleprinters, information desk, travel agents, airline and car hire desks, kiosks and shops, lounge and waitingareas,guest secretarialand businessservices, public toilets.

2 key

Typicalcashdeskfor400-bedrhotel 1

safetydepositboxes

2 key & messagerack 3 rmstatusrack 4 roiaryaiphabeticaiindex 5 currencyinformation 6 cash 7 cashier 8 reception 9 concierge

10 switchboard 11 frontoff manager 12 fihng 13 telephoneswitches 14 ielephonemeters 15 tapestry& decorativeclock 16 pagingrecievercharger 17 flreaiarmpanei 18 reservabonsoff 19 safe 20 chief cashier 21 clock 22 advancereservationsrack 23 tapedmusic& pagingeqp riomiai teieptione fs servicestationteiephone d drawer cd cash drawer shelf d

—

t

4

Typicalbankofsafety depositboxes: varioussizes should be provided

Cloakroom&toilets In small—mediumhotels where noteconomicalemploycloakrmattendant space may provided for coats and bags under eye of porter or receptionist. Otherwise provide cloakrm formain lobby, restaurants,function rm: sited discreetly, if possible together for ease of supervision. Plan cloakrm for large function rm so asensure easyflow and quickissue of coats. Provide recessed area atleast1200in front ofcounters to avoid encroachment on main circulation. Counter lengths: generally 1 000/ 100 P. Publictoilets:number ofwc, urinals,wash basins usuallydetermined by local reg. Forwomen'stoilets vanity top, mirrors, good lighting. 1 wcfor eachsex fordisabled persons.

swilcfl

reservations Cf0 & bags

key rack

panei

U telephone

work Fm cash top rack &work top

5 Typical frontofffor120-bedrhotel

Commerce 213

Hotels KITCHENS& FOOD STORES Should be planned on one level ifpossibleto serve allcatering outlets. If

not possible main kitchen should be on level with main restaurantwith preparation and stoon differentlevel. Foreconomy 1 wash-up desirable. Banqueting and any otherfood service area not next to kitchen should belinked byservice elevators (preferablynothoists) and stairs and have own forward service eqp. Kitchen, cold rm and food sto area should be planned to be locked offfromstaff when not in use. In large hotels food and drink sto should be under control ofstoreman. Approxspace allowances forkitchen planning including food sto, cold rm, wash-up,chef'soffice: main restaurant kitchen area 1.4m2 x no of covers 0.2 m2 x no ofcovers banquet kitchen &servicearea coffee shopkitchen 0.3 m2 x no ofcovers separate independent coffee shop0.45 m2 x no ofcovers Increase or reduce theseallowancesaccording whether fully traditional orconvenience foodoperation envisaged.

1

Allowapprox500/c extraforstaff toilets, changing rm, canteen and other sto (see below).

k&food sto flowdiagram

Specification notes for kitchen areas: floors non-slip tiles, draining to gulleys with wide radius coved skirtings; sloping floors to have gradient not more than 1:20. Recessed area at restaurant doors for ribbed rubber matting or other non-slip cleanable material. Plinths re-

L=1L1

+—--+

1350k

surface. Corners protected. False ceilings offr tiles with access s to inspection covers, fire dampers etc. Openable windows to have fly

convenientfor heavyItems

max reach

f....

quired for some eqp. Grease traps outside kitchen if possible. Gas, waterand plumbing supplies to be run towithin 1 000ofappliance: final connexion by specialist. Walls in kitchen tiled up to 1 800. In sto walls fairfaced or plastered and painted. Dwarf walls tiled with inclined top screens. Where mech make-up air provided windows non-openable except forcleaning. Doors to havevision s and metal kick platesor automaticopening devices.

.

Main cooking eqp should be eitherin island or againstwall with extract canopies extending about 250over. Extractvelocity usually 7.7 to 10.2 m/s. Should preferably have vertical sidesextending to ceiling. Height tounderside 2150.

1•5o

2

Mm

spacesbetweeneqptoallow

forcirculation

convenientfor heavyitems

Limitinghforsto shelving

3

-t6Th---

8O

I A

cleanlinenracks B table

C

0

4

A

C

B

tubs extractor

D washer E table

5

t

0

D

A tumbler

C

dryers washers

Non-ironIau for120 bedrhotel

Sizesof kitchen sto will depend on type of hotel, location,frequency of deliveries, type of food, ie whether convenience food. Cold rm temp: deepfreeze—20°C, chill rm2to 3°C.

max reach

press& board shakeOuttable H four rollironer J soiledlinenur I foldingtable F G

La ufor200 bedr hotel

Other stores Furniture sto with adjacent workshop, paint shop etc: 0.2—0.3 depending on amount in house maintenance

m2/rm

Cleaning materials: 0.2—0.4m2/rm Glass, silver, china: 0.1 m2/rm Liquor:0.2 m2/rm, divided into areasforbeer and mineral bottles, kegs, redwines14—16°C, whitewine 10—12°C and spirits Empties: closetoloading dock

Refuse:planning will depend on method ofsto and collectionsiebinsor compactor. Allow space for vehicle backup to receptacles. Providefor washing down refusearea, bins etc. In warm climatesprovide refrigerated refusesto.

Linen: area depends on type of hotel. Typically 0.4m2/rm: may be less if inhouse laundry provided. Shelves at least 600 wide open lathed. Allowspace forsorting and worktable for repairs. All above areas for 200 bedr hotels, do not necessarily increase or reducepro rata according to number of bedr.

crockeryd

Laundry

For 200 bedr hotel space ofapprox 140 m2 required excluding linen sto, steam boiler, chemicals sto, office. Ifnon-iron linen used space can be reduced to 40—59 m2. Ventilation ratio should be 15—20 air changes/hr with separate extraction for steameqp and dry cleaning.

Servicebay communication

6

Standswithopenshelvesfor goods

7

Waiter's servery& sk

Should be arranged in such way that incoming goods can be kept separate fromoutgoing refuse and preferably with separateentrance for staff all undersupervision ofcontrol office. Vehicles back upto loading dock. Providewashdown, weighing scales,staff clock-in. Allow sufficient heightand turningspace for large vehicles. Columns and corners to be protected fromdamage byvehicles.

214 Commerce

Hotels KITCHENS& STORES

meals/day

2 Totalstorequirementsforconventional kbasedon numberofmeals prepared/day

staffar wash-up Sr serveryar

cookin9ar

preparationar

25

stoar

55 meals/day

1

Kitchenlayout of largeroadsiderestaurantCaliforniaUSA

3 Arrequiredforsto k,servery&staffarusingconventional methodsoffood preparation

4 Exampleofktoserve4restaurants: coffeeshop 120covers; mainrestaurant100covers; specialtyrestaurant 100 covers;staffdr80covers; mainfood sto inbasement, alsoservice&ktofunctionrm

Commerce 215

Hotels ISTRATION hotels office accn may be limited to general office behind reception desk, manager's office and chef's or control office at rear. Larger hotelswill require all or some offollowing: At front of house associated with reception: reservations office, front office manager, chiefcashier, sales manager,secretary. General (preferably nearreceptionbutcanbeelsewhere): general manager, 2 or 3 assistant managers, secretanes, chief ant, s' dept,duplicating rm, archives.

In small

At back of house: control office at service bay, storeman, personnel office,secretary and clerk, waiting rm, chief engineer, security officer, chef (within kitchen), housekeeper, training rm. Space allowance for offices (UK): 0.3—0.4 m2/rm orin accordancewith statute(Bib346347).

Staffaccommodation

In large hotels provide staff canteen for approx 1/3rd staff with own kitchen. Canteen should beaccessiblewithout staff havingtogothrough kitchen. Senior staff diningrm may be required. In small hotels senior staffmay use restaurantand junior staffdining rm may be supplied from main Kitchen. Provisionofstafftoilets—Bib341480. 1 full height locker for each member of staff should be provided: space allowance0.36m2/P excluding bench space: 1/2 height lockersmay be used for certain grades of staff. Assume equal number male and female staff unless otherwise informed.

Lockers:

Staff sleeping accn depends on location and management policy. Manager's flatmay be required.

Technicalareas

Maintenance engineer's workshop and sf0 required adjacent plant rm. May include, according to size of hotel, furniture sto, engineering eqp sto,carpenters shop, paint shop, printingdept. Allunder chiefengineer's eye. Accessfor replacement of heavy plant to be allowed for. Space also required forel sub-station and switch rm.

1

Servicear&staff accnforlargehotel

Exampleofoffforlargehotel: except forfrontdesk,reservations& cashierthese may also besitedelsewhere, egonmezzanine 2

216 Commerce

Hotels GUEST BEDROOMS

Bedroomcorridors& stairs

Bedroom sizes —(1) In medium tariff hotels 2-B rm typically approx 15—17 m2. High tariff hotelsmay have rm upto28 m2, excluding lobby and bathr butincluding

Corridorsnot over-long; may be 1 200—2000wide according type of hotel. Corridorflowcapacity—vp407. Wherewidth lessthan 2000consider modulating corridor by recessing bedr doors. Ceiling void often used to house engineering services: heighttoceiling notless than 2250. Direction signsand numbering of doors to be clear and well lit. Protect corners from damage. El socket outlets at 12 m intervals. Provide emergency lighting. Carpet floor for quietness. Space forshoecleaning machines, drink dispensers and ice machines may be required in corridors or lobbies.

sitting area. American sizebed: twin990 x 1 900;double 1 370 x 2030; queen size 1520 x 2100; king size 1830wide. Most hotelorganisations buildbedrsized totake twin or double beds in order provide flexbiIity and avoid built-in obsolescence as standards raised in future. Some rm may have fold-away beds so that they may also be usedassitting rm or small meeting rm—.(2).Murphy beds fold verticalclosedwith wall .

Fireprecautions—(4)

Follow national and local fire codes.

Floor to ceiling height 2500 (mm 2300)with lower ceiling of2000over entryto allow for mechanical services. Except at resort hotels balconies not usually favoured because ofcostand maintenanceproblems.

Doors to bedr tobeself-closing with mm halfhourfr. Partitionsseparating guest rm from corridors to have 1 hour resistance unless automatic sprinklers installed. Mm fire ratings for separation of exits such as staircases normally: bldg up to 3 storeys 1 hour, 4 storeys or more 2 hours.

by hoteliers

Proportion of rm (approx 20%)with communicatingdoors. Should be2 doors, preferably with rubberor neoprene gaskets to reduce sound transference. Sound transmission between bedr and between bedr and corridors should beminimised bydBreductionof45—50. Where external noise fromheavytraffic oraircraft provide double glazing for reduction 40—42avdB.

In UK self-closing smoke stop doors should be provided every 18 m in corridors and at all exit staircases. Max travel distances to exit stairs shown in diagram. Linings to corridors and stairsshould have class Aor B rating forsurface flamespread.

All exit stairs must be at least 1 050 wide, be of fr construction in fire

protected enclosure having 2 hour rating. Access must be through vestibulefittedwithself-closing doors at least 1000wide. Lockeddoors should beprovided with panic boltsorbreak glass system.

For greaterprivacy and sound insulation additionaldoor may be placed between entrylobbyand bedr.

Privatebathrooms

Bathr normally contain wc, washbasin orvanity unit with mirror over, bath with shower. Insomedeluxe hotels and in most SEuropean and S American hotelsbidetnecessary. Showers in placeofbaths savelittle in cost or space, therefore not often provided. Shower compartment in addition to bath sometimes provided in de luxe hotels, as also separate orscreened off wc.

Floor service

Bathr should be carefullyplanned in relationto plumbing and ventilation ducts. Theseshould be located in relation structure and ease ofaccess formaintenance.

clean linen racks and rubbish sacks. Depending on class of hotel and rm servicesystempantry may alsobe required: should contain shelves for setting out breakfasttrays, sinks and worktop, refrigerator, ice maker, boiler, toaster, space for trolleys. There are arguments for and against linenand rubbish chutes. Need should bechecked with operator. Every floorshould also have sto space for cots, extra beds and spare tv sets.

Numberof rm perfloorshould ideally be related to number of rmwhich can beserviced by 1 maid: willdepend on class of hotel, productivity of staff and size ofrm, butwill comewithin the rangeof 12—18 rmpermaid. Maids' rm should becentrallylocated and close to serviceelevators.These should contain space forservicetrolleys(carts),soiled linen hampers,

Following additional features should be included: glazed tiling round bath tub (at least), grab handles for bath shower and bath, shower curtain and rail, soap tray, removable bath foraccess toplumbing, shower, mixervalve preferably thermostatically controlled, adequate towel racks in accordance withclass ofhotel, good shelfspace if vanity top not provided, el shaver connexion, bath mat and non-slip surface to bath/shower, toilet roll holder, clothes hooks. Other items to be considered: tissue dispenser, bottleopener, hook for shoe duster, waste basket, sanitary bin, stool. Good lighting over mirroressential.

1

bed size

rm ar

x 2000 1500x2000 1000 x 2000

8.75 m2

1 000

single bed double bed twin beds

accesss

12.5m2

13.5m2

Basic mm rrnsizes (excluding lob &bathr)

[!61

In hotels where maids cannot get from bedr to staff toilets without ing throughpublicrm, eginmotorhotels and motels, provision may be madeforstafftoilets andchangingrmIn bedrblock.

biT corr

corr

access

144

328

42h

3 single

double

access

Typicalarrangementsof bathr&ducts: access s toductsshouldbet/2 hrfr; ductsshould have firestopsbetweenfloors;sizesvary with heightofbldg; 'a'isbestforaccesstoductbut b & 'c' providemorespaceforvanitytop maxtam

trolleys(Carts) under worktop

L_] serviceelevatorlob

spaceforrabbisf

tray& china

sacks

sk

shelves over

-

desk/work

boiler ..._—..——

I

ptr

II

I

hampers

LJL IL

toaster

cleanerssk soiled linen

±

trig

maidstrolley cart)park

maxl8m

5 Typicalservicearfor50—60 mi/floor; note: aprovisionofptrdependsonclassofhotel

and rm servicearrangements in k blocal linensb ordmay berequireddependingon method of control cfloorsto forbeds,cots notshown

ij1ffli 1Jbedr b

sometimes communicating toiletonly doors

2 a basicbed requirements barrangement of

sittingrrnbetweenbedrprovidesmaxflexibilityfor suites;suitescanalso beformedat corners ofbldg orwherestandardisationofstructuralgrid not possible;luxurysuitesmayalso beplannedas penthouseorvillasin grounds

maa allowabletraveldistancefrom

4 stage 2escape;no furtherthan 18m

dimensionshouldexceedSm 3 inmuftl-rrttsuites anyassocIated privatecorrshouldnot eaceed 7.5m inlength

5 dead endportionofany escapecon

mostremotecornerofrmtodoorway 2 inmulti-rn,suitesno singlecross-ire

4

Fire:max traveldistances

allowedfromexitdoorofmito entranceofprotectedroute should

notexceed7.6m

Commerce

217

Hotels GUESTBEDROOMS

1

Guest bedrdiagrams

Diagrams —(1 )(2) showconfigurations for bedr and bathr. Most new hotelsplanned with private bathr attached to bedr; examples without private bathr therefore not included.

a Typical twin bedr in common use: 3600 rm width optimum for economy/comfort; wardrobe in lobby b Similarbut reduced in depth for single or double bed

c

Narrow frontage scheme againstbathr

d Width of rm increased allow possibility of dressing area & walk-in closet e Bathr placed between bedr allow one bathr have natural light Layout provides for separate wc compartment with bidet if required; angled window can be applied to any of theseschemes & allows for extrasitting area &directional view g Luxury bedr withvanity unitseparated frombathr h Staggering wardrobes in partition wall can savespace

-rubbish

4 Chambermaid'strolley(cart) C

2 adressingtable unit bnighttable &bedhead with wallhungtelephoneto leave table clear:table maybesplayedtoalloweasymovement of bed ccombineddressingtable, luggagerack&tvunit; may becantilevered for ease ofcleaningbutifsomustbefirmly anchored totakePsitting;upstand should beprovidedatbackof fitmenttopreventdirtmarksonwall;luggage rackmaybereplacedbyteamakingunit; lights shouldbeplaced toilluminate worktop& both sidesofface evenly

3 Typicalcombinedunitwa: where hangingspaceonly allow 500 rail/P; some luxuryhotelshavewalk-in closets&dressingrm

5

Linen trolley (cart)with removal fabric

218 Commerce

Hotels BUILDINGSERVICES —(1) shows salient features of bldg services design (—p383—97)

but

following additional points should be noted:

Emergency electrical supply

Centralheating Ifair-conditioning (normal USA) not adopted bedr should be heated by

radiators with individual controls designed for quickresponse. Public rm, particularly restaurants, should be provided with controlled mech ventilation tobalance kitchen extract. Bars should have extract fans.

Certain essential services must be maintained in event of failure of mains supply. Generator willbe required maintainfollowing: fire exit and emergency lights, approx 20% of public area lighting, cold rm and refrigerators, fire pumps, cash s, fire alarm indicator systems, telephone communications, sumpand sewage pumps.

Bathroomventilation

Firealarm systems

Lighting

Following essential: manualbreak-glass s and automatic smoke or heat detectors with audible warning throughout bldg; automatic recessed hose reelsthroughout, hoses to becapableof reaching every bedr; external fire hydrants; portable fire extinguishers at strategic locations; asbestos blankets in kitchen; fire dampers.

Airconditioning

Central system generally preferred to individual rm units. Should be capable of being controlled by guests in bedr. Public areas must be zonecontrolledto copewith peak loads and foreconomy when certain areas not in use. Good maintenanceaccess toallunitsessential.

Generally extract system should be ducted tofans on roofwith individual bathr connected to main riser by shuntducts to minimise sound transmission between bathr.

Bedr lighting systems to be arranged so that at least 1 main light switched from door and bedhead. More elaborate switching arrangements maybeadopted according totype ofhotel. Fluorescentlighting in bathr to be of quick start' type. Each bedr or pair of bedr to have consumerunitwith isolating switches. Corridor lighting should be time switched sothat sections canbeturned offatcertainperiodsforeconomy. Public rm should be switched in zones and special consideration given to decorative effects. Main switches should be located where public cannotreach them.

Shaversockets Thereshould be dual voltage (single voltage USA) shaver sockets in all private bathr and male public toilets.

I 114 coldwater sto 140 I/guest

screen plant onroofmust be well insulated

bathr extracts

•separate flues foreach boiler

zone forservices

airhandling plant sited to minimise nuisance

1000 zone for

o

3 9

6 18

I9

27

12m I

LEEJ— sto

3611

boilers: at least2 each capable of 2/3 total heating load water softener probably required

I

Section showingsalientfeaturesof bldg services design for hotel

Commerce

219

Motels Location

6250

On major highways, often near largetoxins,

excursion centres and holiday resorts, and convenient for supplies (water, el, gas, fresh foodand laundry). Restaurant, petrol and garage services need not be connected to motel but should be available nearby. Self-service restaurant —p205 206. Sited so thating headlights do not sweep bldg: avoid hilly terrain because of noise of vehicles braking and changing gear.

Approach

Take into consideration stopping distance of cars: 100 kph— 150m. Entrance: leads to reception (short stop), then to parking area (carport or garage) near as possible to rm. Exit through reception (control and return of keys).

Size Unitopen to 1 side only;3different layouts Arch Polivnick 1

Motels generally 1-storeyand spreadout since land relatively cheap.

2

Unitwith daylightfrom 2sides (difficultto control) Arch Roberto

If run by couple withouthelp10—i2unitspracticable; 1 helper required for every additional 10 rm. If affected by seasons,divide motel intosmaller groupsof 4—8rm with stop-cocks forwater, el, gas etc. Single bldg cost more than terrace housing.

If trucksto be excluded construct low canopy over age atreception.

3

Carportsbetweengroupsof3or 6units Arch Duncan

4

Unitswith coveredcarportsas3but in fours ArchTibbals-Gramley-Masson

b

5

Layoutofmotel withparkingarforeach block&restaurantas independentestablishment ArchFried

3

6

2

1!D

2D

410

18 m

6ft

Motorhotel RevereMassachusetts USA aunitsinblocksof 12with accesstoparkingatendeach bldg bcatering &bldg provides for entertaining,dining,conferring Arch Salsberg &Le Blanc 6

220 Commerce

Motels Staggeredlayoutofresidential unitswith reception&caretaker's flat Arch Williams 1

2 2 doublermwith lob(forcold

Provide large central rm for all guests, with recesses for writingand reading, card tables, radio, television, souvenir shopsetc.

season)and cabin (forch)whichcan beused separatelyorwitheitherrm

Telephone boxes should have provision for sitting and writing, and have maps, directories etc available as mostly used for long-distance calls.

Roomsize

forcity hotel:approx 4000 x 4000 upto 5000 x 5000,withbathrand ifnecessary Large than

kitchenette, even if only 1 bed.

Provide inter-communicating doors between

unitssothat suites may beformed.

Since90% guests stay only 1 night cupboards and chests unnecessary: provide large coat racks on wall instead, where belongings hang visibly,soless likelytobeleft behind.

Ancillary rooms 1 centrallysituated linenrm with 5 sets linen/B (1 being used, 3in sto, 1 in laundry). Cleaner's

rm accomodates trolley (cart) with compart-

ments forclean and dirty linen, soap, bath salts,

toiletpaper, vacuum cleaner, broom,floorpolish etc.

If possible direct access from rm to car park.

Efficient drainage ofapproaches, parkingareas and paths, as guests enter rm straight from outside. Entrancewith b/wc, betweencarpark& guest rmforsoundinsulation Arch Hombostel 3

4

Staggeredlayoutwith approach from 1 side only Arch Thompson

Play areas some distance away to avoid disturbingresting guests.

restaurant

resdeflta units

approachfroni fillingstation hrhway

Layoutof3 with restaurant Arch Hornbostel

6

Establishment withefficiententrance &exit control

Commerce 221

Convention hotels m2

595 280 restaurant

parlour&cafe

400 185

370

200

175 93 520

185 75 375

520 390

ballrm

425

185

space

foyerspace

Planning and design concept which absorbed large proportion of hotel investment in USA during 1970s, often as part of efforts regenerate innercity areas. Basic characteristic:large amount ofspaceavailable for convention business activities such as meetings, exhibitions,seminars. Conventions entail dense traffic:400-rmhotel can have population 800 ormoreat height ofconvention orconference.

occupancy

meeting

banquet

800 600

400

3750

5785

5.40

758 7148

4660

Flexibility

300 2900 880 3580

740

5390

meetingrm:

00 P

of space

essential —v(1)(2). Spaces for eating capable of

beingserved independentlyatall times butkitchens should utilise same

70

7930 parking)

central supplies (eg water,gas, drainage). Staff servicing guests orworking behind public spaces should notcross or impedepublic areas —v(2). In addition to segregation of personnel, main public and meeting areas require large outside halls for security, check-in by conference organisers, provision of coffee, literature and exhibition stalls etc. Large numbers involved make necessarycontrol oftraffic inand between main convention spaces. Use of atrium as unifying design concept —p223(1) groups ballrm, meeting rm, exhibition spaces, shops, bars, restaurantson 4 levels. Service functions ofoffices, laundry,sto, loading thus contiguous with space they serve but out of sight; segregation of vehiclesalso obtained. Conferences and conventions generate need for bedr with space and eqp for daytime business meetings. Small kitchen, tables, easy chairs, adequate lighting required —vp222(ld). (Rm thus equipped termed suites insomehotel chains.)

58 520 432 1010

employee employee telephone lockers dr

a linen

lau

I)

LL.,...

I

I

L

I

'

above

•!.

banquet

meetings

d

:

:

ptr

;i1ç.

foyer

ballrm I

StO\

1sto

b

entrance

PhoenixofAtlantaHotelUSA abreakdownof publicar(totalof2058 guestrm) b mainlob floor c lowerlob floor Arch AlanLapidus key imainlob 2loblounge 3regetration46shops&agencies 1

7checkrrn 8restaurant 9coffee shop

10 news stand 11 bar/cocktail lounge I2discotheque l4grandballrm l7meetingrrn 2Oreceivingk 21 maink 22k 25rrn service 31 rnech 34 snackbar 35main entrance 36convention foyer 37 reception & control 38 openlightwell 40 convention entrance

0 6

12 1,8 24 m

o 40 t0 ao ft

Smallconventionhotel(400rm) asecondfloor bmainfloor:showing segregationofhotel &convention business vehicletraffic& tightcontrolof service& personneltraffic inside 2

222 Commerce

Convention hotels EXAMPLES

9

a

6

12m

20

40 ft

summitrestaurant hoteiguestfloors

ofttower C iuflior balirmIeve ballrTn

veI

-podiumbael _—otttower Wnmediate level Streetlevel

I,

--.,---

a 01.53m 5 lOft Hyatt RegencyHotelHoustonTexasUSA bfirstfloor ctypicalguest rmfloor dexamplesofbedr suitesshowingprovision of meetingspace;note possibleuseof dividingwalls to createsmallerrm Arch JVIII 1

a lob floor

2

RenaissanceCenterDetroitUSA:convention center & 1400 mi hotelwith 2650m2 ha, 13 restaurants,offspace, commercial retail space &rentableflats(orcondominium) asection b streetlevel plan ArchJohn Portman

d

9

9 9

12m

10 20 30 40ft

Commerce 223

Convention hotels EXAMPLES

E Jcrc. ? r pool°°

:

___PIaZa__1 fastfood'

r

restaurant

ew

IL 036912

dr

U'.• /5\ I:

I

bac I bei<' ow

b

m

10203040ft

b

9

121824m

204b600 ft

2

BonaventureHotelLosAngelesUSA:atriumdesign incorporating 4cylindricaltowers&central tower a retailfloor blobfloor ArchJohn Portman

Hyatt HotelBostonUSA:atriumdesign with addedfeatureoforientation over riverproviding viewfrom publicspaces&guestrm aground floor btypical guest rmfloor ArchJohn Portman 1

Hotel references: —Bibliography entries 001 011 043 049 050 147 176217223226243 255 272 273 274 319 324 341 346 347 363 377 439440 441 442 477

480583645

224 Commerce

Public houses English pubsfamous associal institutionsthroughout world; very difficult create afresh. Being increasingly copied as special attractions in large European and Americantowns. (Evenprefab pubs availableforexport.) Few moderndesigns have satisfactorilycaught right atmosphere; many originals have been brutally altered, often first to so-called modern design, then back again to spurious Edwardian. Constant feature of successful pubs seems to be breaking up of space into small intimate rm whichnevertheless retain feeling of bustle all round. Traditionalway dothis centralservery with bars radiatinground. Good pub hassomething oftheatre about it: good taste should be used sparingly; brashness and vulgarityhave place in interior fittings.

Regulations

b

Apartfromstatutes, for purposeof firesafety UK pubs mainly controlled underliquorlicensing law. Applicants opening pub must apply to local magistrates for licence. Must also notify fire authority,whichhas power inspectpremises on questions of adequacy offire separation, between such areas as kitchens and bars, and means of escape. Fire authority inspectorhas power objectgranting oflicence ifdissatisfied. For pubs catering for less than 50 people 1 exit generally considered enough when pub 1 -storey. Elaborateformula,takes into travel distances, door widths and numbers of people, to calculate number of exits needed for pubs serving more than 50people.

Unless pubs employ more than 20 little affected by (UK) Shops & OfficesAct; but ifpartsof larger structures full rigour ofbldg reg apply; could dictate, eg, provision of sprinklers at base of multi-storey block. Finishes on wallsand ceilings also controlled by reg to prevent flame spread. Lord HighiralLondon England: entirely modern pubwhichrecreates atmosphereoftraditionalEnglishdesign,containedwithinlargescale housingscheme;bars separated, varyingindesign &comfort: aground floor bsection Arch Darbourne & Drake 1

Amenities

Scale, siting, quality, cleanliness of lavatories most important aspect of successful pub; can be decisive in keeping or losing customers; particularly important when renovating old pubs.

Most pubs nowalsoprovide some snack bar service thoughnot usually with stooPs —p205; provisionof heatingand cooking eqp suitablefor bar counterimportant. Quick restaurant service for lunch time trade now common in town pubs, necessitating some kitchen and food preparation area.

Do not forgetprovision for pub games, generally darts, dominoes but somehighly Pocalised. For modern cellar techniques and installationsconsult clientand/or (in UK) Brewers' Society.

2

Groundfloor plan TheFanciersNorthampton England; bright&breezy workingmen's club;colourfuluseofmaterials, stripedglass s & curvedcorners Arch Roscoe MilnePartnership

first floor plan

1st floor plan Foxhillsgolfclub Chertsey England Arch BuildingDesignAssociates 3

b

4

MarkhamArms ChelseaEngland; sympathetic conversion of existing Victorianpub; originalbowfrontremains;addition hasbeentackedonat back; geometryof bow repeatedin built-in seating; a ground floor b section Arch RoderickGradidge

Commerce 225

Office buildings BUILDINGTYPE Office bldg either custom builtto meet particularsetof requirements or speculatively toattract largest possible range oftenants.This distinction has led towidedifferences in bldgform. In theory should be no difference at all because same fundamental principle applies to all office design: organisations change far more rapidly than bldg. Distinction managed bydistinguishing between design for4scales oftime: Shell last at least50 years: must be designed to meetwide variety of organisational needs —.(1).

visual and acoustic separation and decoration now frequently achieved by furniture. Second, becoming increasingly difficult distinguish office function from allied activities such aslab, industrialprocesses,education

Services become obsolete as office technology changes and must be replaced at least every15 years —.(2). Scenery: fitting out of office interiors to meetprecise organisational needs; sceneryneedlast onlyso long aslease, usually5—7years—o(3). Sets: positioning and repositioning scenery elements such as desks, chairs, screensand partitions to meet immediateorganisationalneeds perhaps evenevery3 or 4 months—*(4). 2 fundamental developments in office bldg in recentyears. First, significance oflong hell diminishing as shortcenery,particularly

primarily involves handling information and making decisions based upon information. This definition hides enormous variations in size of officeorganisations, office technology and styles of management.

furniture, absorbs more and more functions. Carrying services,

1

OFFICE FUNCTION Most employees in advanced economies workin offices. Office work

Range includes multi-nationals which employ thousands of people in only 1 of many bldg to 1-man enterprises. Much office worksedentary but offices also include spaces for machinery, canteens, meetings, filing, libraries and other ancillary activities whichcantake up 1/3 ofspace needed byorganisation—e(6). Office organisations changing rapidly and in every respect. Extreme care should be taken toavoid building obsolescence into new bldg.

iHi

Shell

r-

1'

1'

1'

1'

-I

2 Shell &services

asconstructed

5

after15years

after45years

after30 years

Relativecost comparisonof shell, services & scenery over 45years

anciIiay

workplace

3 Scenery

primary

circulation,coreetc

I

I

1

I_j

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

4

6 Comparisonofspace requirements in4bldgshowingvarious Sets

relationshipsofworkplace/ancillary needs

I

226 Commerce

Office buildings DEFINITIONSOF OFFICE AREAS—(1)

a a

Efficiency of office bldg usually measured in of ratio of usable office area to grossarea of bldg. Real estate definitions vary but basic unitsalways same:

(a

—

ead,oftfloor thicknessofexternalwalls columns staircases lifts lax ducts

•• •S •• S S •S

plantrm circulationwithincore publiccorr privatecorr internal walls required for bldgpurposes—not influenced S byspacease— internal walls tenant's own subdivision floor recephon

oft space/deskar

wtelddg bldgplantrm bldg reception coveredparking sf0forwholebuilding eginbasement

*t

•S • ••

•• S •• S ••

ia5 fl,e

, B

S

S S

S

I• S

option

S S S

5

S S S S

•S

•

•S S

Workplace area (oruseablearea): spacesin which possible forpeople to workatdesks;includes secondary circulation, Primarycirculation: circulationessential toprovide accessand means ofescape to workplace areas, Special areas: space which cannot be used for office workers but is dedicated to particularfunction, egarchives, restaurant. Core:space needed for of bldg, eglifts, stairs, ducts, lavatories, Gross outside area (GOA): —a(2a)(2b) sum of all constituent office areas including core,structure and perimeter walls,

Netusable area(NUA): —x(2c)(2d) what remains when core,structure

S

•S •

S

•• S iienclosed) (if • S • S

optionifsingleletting subjecttoseparaterentalcalculation

,-

,5d

enclosed)

S S S

S

S S

*

•*

t

t

*

•

*

Upartiallyincluded S whollyincluded

Definitions of usedtodescribeofficear:precisedefinition sometimesdifficultbecause of differentusages, variations in bldgdesign (eg slab &centrecore), differencebetween letting floors,partsof floors& wholebldg 1

and perimeterwalls subtracted fromGOA. Core in multi-storey office bldg should occupy no more than 20% of GOA—4(2e). Obviouslysmallercore more efficientbldg—xp228—9. Primary circulation usually takes up between 10 and 15% of net usable area. Special areas vary enormously depending uponfunction ofoffice organisation —v(3). NB in multi-tenantedbldg primary circulationsometimes excluded from 'rentable' area. Special areas should be convertible to workplace area. Not all work place areaequallyvaluable. Common design faults—x(4)whichresult in insufficient use ofspace: columns too closeto perimeter walls wasteful modules dominant columns fixingprimary circulation routes space ofwrong depth provision of services onlyat perimeter

2 a forplanningpurposesgrossfloor aristotalof bldg measuredfrom outside edgeofexterior walls b forcost purposesgrossfloor artotalof bldg measuredfrom insideexternalwalls C NIJA:UKpracticeexcludesallcorr between tenancies d NUA:USApracticeexcludesonly circulationincore e bldgcore:example has major& minorcore

a

DE. C

in

-0

L±L

d

wasteful module

e

intrusionot structureintowork place badlypositioned radiators

IJ

/I7\

pesmeterserocesonly wastedspacearoundcolamns

,1 oft toodeep

/

,.--——'

\

"—....—

/

-'

11wrongdepth space—

'.\ difticubto

adover

( —pnmaty

3

Analysisof space usein4 projects showingvaryingspace requirements

4

circulat: fixed bycolamns

Commondesign faults

\\ entranceto/

Commerce

227

Office buildings Positions of primary circulation: fixed? does it serveto 1 side or 2 (single ordoubleloadedcorridors)?

TYPESOF OFFICESHELL

3 factors determineshape offloorofofficebldg —s(1): Depth of space: depth of any work place area measured

Position of core: placed centrally, orat 1 end, ordetached. between

perimeter orcoreand primary circulation.

11111111111110

for3—5open plan workplaces

II

11

3 major bands ofofficespace depths can beidentified —*(2): narrow, 4000—6000: suitable for single office rm or for 2—3 open plan workplaces medium, 6000—8000: suitable forenclosures larger than single rm or

oflspace

cellular open structured

deep, 8000 + : more than 5openplanworkplaces deep These depths can be combined in various ways and together with position of core and circulation generate wide range of office shell configurations —*(3).

CELLULARISATION

1

Greatest test of office bldg capacity to accomodate various kinds of organisation: degree to which can be divided upintormofvarious sizes. Not all organisations require large number of small rm and not all can use high proportion ofopenplan space successfully. In life of organisation demand forcellular and openspaces will fluctuate. Consequently capacity of office bldg shell to provide range of rm arrangements must be measured. Should be ed that small rm not just required for individual office but increasingly for other functions, eg noisy or confidential machines such asterminal printers ortelexes. Capacitycan be measured by number of rm of various sizes which can be provided in given shell —s(4): this can be matched with demands of typical organ isations for rmofvarious sizes _a(5).

Determinantsof shape shallowspace 4000-6000 X2000)

/)

I-Ii = integralcore

shell

rne&urnd6000-8 000

detachedcore

I

1K2000

\/ I \'__/I IN_JI /

() \

(

'\}

(-

,iN

K— —-

deepspace6000+

/

/__

\\

-

__/

\ (/

/I

0

___

rn

X2000

' ) :_) / f \_//

______

0

\_/ 4 Shell array

2 Spaced

o indivkiualenclosed

rrn

O groupsharedenclosedrm

0 open

shallowspace

lOO%fl 100%

mediumspace

Ill Ill

III

11111111111

I

67%

67%

::

33%

33%

100%

deepspace

Ill I

f111

3

5 Capacityof3shells, showing max amounts of individual Spaced

and differentways of organisingspace

cellulansation

228 Commerce

Officebuildings CORE Office bldgcore—.(1)(2) p229(l )(4) must providetor: Elevators: number and size depend upon population ot bldg, number of floors, and required waitingtime. Elevatorsshould begrouped sothat availability ofanyelevator in bank on anyfloorcan be easily observed. In tall bldg elevatorsusuallygroupedtoserve 10ormore tloors—.p410—12 Ducts: vertical ducts required forheating, telephone,electrics, drainage andwatersupply; alsoin air-conditioned bldg forairmovement. Provide on generous scale, particularly for increasingly important electrics and telecommunications, In large multi-storied air-conditioned bldg allow for. vertical air movement el

©

telecommunications & telephone drainage watersupply Services p383—97 Lavatories:Proportion men and women on each floor may change: desirable that male and female wc be adjacent so that replanning possible using sameducts—(3). Cleaners' cupboards: oneach floorof multi-storey office bldg provide cleaners' cupboard (mm 2m2)containing sto and slop-hopper.

Stairs: width of stairs determined by reg on means of escape and in particularby numbersofstaffto be providedfor—.p407—9

©

AmericanExpress BankingCorporation London England Arch DuffyEleyGuffone 1

Worthington

SW ElectricityBoardBristolEngland Arch SWEB PropertySection 2

ii

nals male

9

female

3 Groupinglavatoryprovision toallowfor changingproportionsofmen&women

Commerce 229

Office buildings CORES: EXAMPLES

DobsonHouseKillingworth NewTown England Arch Faulkner-Brown Hendy NatkinsonStonor 1

2

Deptof Environment LondonEngland Arch PropertyServicesAgency

/

/

/

\ /)

3 GreaterLondonCouncilislandblockLondon England Arch GLC ArchitectsDept

4

EuropaHouseStockportEngland Arch John Caytten&Partners

230 Commerce

Office buildings

/7/77/"C I,

_

RELATIONSHIPS Office bldg can be designed provide best relationship between parts of organisation;travel distancesboth horizontaland verticalcan be reduced; visual links between component parts can magnify sense of close relationship. Other bldg forms can be used toachieve preciseopposite: max autonomy of component parts—(1).

INTERFACEWITH OUTSIDEWORLD

1

Ideally office bldg, whether speculative or custom built for 1 , designed with 1 entrance so that with outside world controlled for security, to present unitedface to visitors, and tomake finding one's way inside bldg obvious as possible —+(2). However, different policy which allows for more than 1 entrance can be adopted if organisation does not value security so highly and wants to allow tree access to several internal functions —(3). Another condition when major wants sublet space. Proportion of sublet space may change: could cause severe design problems.Third problem:when officebldg designed to be lettoverylargenumber ofsmall s and easypublic accesstoall partsof bldg becomes a malor objective.

Connexions

2 3 Organisation'sinterfacewithoutsideworldreflectedinhow approached& degreeofpenetration allowed topublic

/

4

Typesofaccess:depending on typeoforganisation, boundary shown betweenvisitor&companyar may fade &2spacesbecome1

Commerce

231

Office buildings MEANS OF ESCAPE Means of escape important determinant ofoffice bldg shell.In bldg over 2 storey travel distance from any point on office floor to escape stair strictly regulated (30 m). Alternative means of escape on each floor usually demanded. Design ofaccessfrombldg tostreet controlled. Reg also affect scenery planning: eg rm may not openoff rm. Each space must have direct access to means of escape —*p(1)—(3) —p91 — Bib346 347.

1

Altemativeescaperouteswith limitedtraveldistancemustbeavailable fromfiretoprotectedzone

2

Traveldistancefrom anypointonground&firstfloor to protected zone mustnotexceed30.5 m

3

In some bldgover 18.3 m hsomestaircasesshould beconstructedas fire-fightingstaircases,withsmokeoutlets, vents& frself-closing doors

232 Commerce

Office buildings OFFICE SERVICES Demand for services in offices increasing. Each work place must be next to outlets for power and telephone. Coaxial cable access for

1

Perimeterservicing

2

Floor grid

3

False floor servicing

4

False ceiling servicing

terminals frequently required: with increasing automation and telecommunications will become common seeworkstations with 6 oreven 8wiresofvarious kinds. Already some organisations provide 1 terminal for every 2 work stations. Precise need for connexions cannot be predicted: essential provide grid to whicheach workstation can have easy access without dangerous, trailing wires. Such grid can be provided infollowing ways: distribution at perimeter and through partitions distribution throughfloor grid (usually 1 800—2000centres) distribution throughfalsefloors(height should be 50—500) distribution fromceiling (NBproblem with safety) distribution throughfin walls (points at desktop height)

5

f

Distributionthrough inwalls

Commerce 233

Office buildings INTERNALENVIRONMENT

A

Quality of internal environment become major consideration: rising energycostsmainly responsible, leadingto reconsidering design of:

C medium, 14 m deep, mech ventilated D deep, 50 m deep, mech ventilated

ventilation (natural— mechanical—air-conditioned) lighting (highgeneral levels—tasklighting) heating (single source — optionalsource) —.(1)tor difference in energy use before and atter energy crisis (c1974). Environmental system should allow for:

Adaptability: servicing systems may beexpected tohave liteotapprox 15years. System should be adaptableto varying degrees ofcellularisation and screening asoccupant changes possible changes in tuel sources changing expectations and standards

Control:individuals may be able control their immediate environment according to nature of work: providing some control over lighting and ventilation can help. Acceptable level ot lighting and ventilation in 1 location must not create glare or draughts in another. Solution must recognise no 2 people equally comfortablein single environment.

Management& maintenance: environmentalsystems shouldbesimple, maintenance tree, easyto change. Depending on size, bldg manager! supervisorwill probably be needed, ideally appointedduring construction and betore commissioning Economicfuelconsumption:flexibilityto adaptto alternativeeconomic tuel sourcesin future. —.(2) for comparison of energy use in 4 generic bldg:

shallow, l2mdeep,naturallyventilated

B shallow, 12 m deep, mech ventilated

Each bldg form has same gross floor area, construction and amoint of glazing, with vertical dimensions adjustedto suit each. Requirements for heating each plan form shown separately. Can be seen that relatively little difference in energy consumed with respect to variations in form, increased energy going into lighting as depth of space increases, compensatingtor reduction ot energy tor mech plant because of more compact shapeof bldg. Each plan formtested tor2different overall lighting levels: 400 lux, 700 lux. Can be seen lighting and fanpower can for approx 70% of energyconsumed.

If prime oblective conserve energy attention must be paid to reducing artificial lighting requirements by: providing mm overall lighting level of 400 luxforoffice work reducing lighting further and introducing task lighting making greatest useof naturaldaylight and providing localisedswitching Fanenergyusemay be reduced byattention to design ofmech systems and byusing low pressures and velocities for distribution of air. Any economic environmental system must be designed for specitic bldg toensureenergy usage kept low aspossible. However, first2 questions any must ask are: whatoffice plan formis required? does this form orits location make air-conditioning necessary?

beforeenergy crisis

0 0 N-

high overall illumination levels (1000 lux) mm task lighting complexcentralised control mm externalglazing heat recovery highthermalcapcity excessheatsto singleenergysource deepplanbldg afterenergycrisis loweroverall illumination

E

levels task lighting moreindividual control moreexternal glazing heatrecovery lowerthermal capacity excess heatsto possibility ot additional energysources variety of bldg torms

Changingenergyusebefore& afterenergycrisis 1

Em

a

NB 10.76Ix = 1 foot-candle

2

Energyuse in4 genericbldg

0 0

0 0 N-

ii

234 Commerce

Office buildings OFFICE CONSTRUCTION

3 critical constructional elements affect office layout: partitions, ceiling, window module. 2 basic choices: complete modular integration and its opposite, avoiding precise modules—.(1).

Test of any office planning: how well range of small rm sizes can be accommodated. Small rm usually found in following approx sizes: 15 m2, 20 m2, 25 m2, 30 m2 (smallest size USA: 7.4 m2). Single rm depth should not exceed 6000 otherwise unusable space created towards backofeach rrn. Acceptable rm proportions should not exceed ratio of 1:1.5. Thusif strictmodular grid thought necessary, 1 500mm feasible grid —(2)(USA 1220—1524).

Ceiling grid can affect single rm design in similar way. Single most critical dimension: standard size 2400; USA 1 220, 1 830, 2440).

of fluorescent

tubes (1 200, 1 800,

Wide variety of possible types of ceiling: lightfittingssetin ceiling diagonal patterns movable fittings waffle grids largecoffers

All can be made compatible withplanning small rm. Discipline of ceiling grid relaxed when task lighting used because fewer lights needed in ceiling. 1.2mgrid

5m

whole bldg grid: structure services ceiling partitions

30m2

24m2

.5 m grid

5m

18m2

12m2

___________

22.5m2

30m2

15m2

modular Integration

1.8 m grid

_______________ _______

noceiling grid perimeter or floorservices

5m

36m2

27m2

18m2

partitions can fitagainst

walls&ceiling as required within solid wallzones

1

2.4mgnd

_____________

Non-modular&modularintegration 5m

24m2

36m2

12m2

2

Rangeof rmsizes at constant5000depthwith variouswindowgrid modules

I1HHH 3 Nogrid, smoothfinish,exposed concreteslab ordirect finish ceiling,surfacemountedlight fittings

6

2-waygridded suspendedceilingwith recessedlight fittings

IIHIIHHHI 4 Nogrid, smoothfinish,suspended ceiling,

5 Lineargrid, drysuspendedceiling, continuous

7

8

surface mountedlight fittings

2-way small structuralwafflegrid

1-directionaliecessed light fittings

Largecoffer/baygrid

Commerce 235

Office buildings SPACESTANDARDS workplaceare

Am sizes determined by space standards which allocate area

knownanciiiary

(egcomputer)

popsiatron

and enclosure todifferent levels ofstaff. Manycompanies usesuch standards

10%aiiowanceforanciiiary

but widevariation in: numberof levels ofstaff at which level enclosure required

nettasabie

allocation ofspace to levels

Thesefactors, and even greater degree of variation in ancillary needs, make extremely difficultpredict amount of space/head whichshould be

+primarycircuiation

used to calculate roughly amount of space needed to accommodate given number ofstaff. Certainly 10 m2NUA!head very low; 25 m2/head high. Any figure in between could be relevant to given organisation.

nettrentabie

1

UK statutory mm of workplacearea excluding anyancillary approx 4 m. (No statutory mm USA.)

+aiiowanceforcore,stairs,Uty,corr,iobetc gross

CALCULATINGSPACEREQUIREMENTS Office area requirements calculated in 2parallelways: people space (le individual space standard x numbers)+ allowancefor immediateancillary + factor(usually15%) forprimarycirculation; non-people space, eg machine rm, libraries, which depend more on eqp than on staff numbersfortheir area should be calculatedby informed estimatesbasedonexistinggood practice or comparable examples: again factor must beaddedfor primarycirculation.

Methodofcalculating spacerequirements forwholebldg; adjustments should be madeforsharedcommon spacesinmulti-tenanted bldg 3

a' + daie

a E

department

comments

.L °

a

+

a

aworkplace 1 manager 2perSonai assistant

CALCULATINGRELATIONSHIPS

3secretary 4 5 6

To prepare stacking plans te relating 1 department to another in an existing bldg. or even to work out configuration of new office bldg. interconnexions between parts of organisationcan be studied by more

totai workpiace bancillary 1 tiieS

2iib 3

or less detailed surveys of communications.

totalancifary totairequirement

4 Exampletabulation sheetusedforrecording existingspacerequirements &future predictions

5

Stackingplan example

HE.

2

Comparativespace standards in4 companies

6

Interrelationships

236 Commerce

Office buildings ventilation

loading

servicing

access

* * * * * *

* * * * *

* * * * *

* ** ** *

computer

lib

meeting presentation

k

restaurant 1

Requirementsofspecialar

11111

receç,on

II IUIThU tIIIIII

SPECIALAREAS Offices contain largenumber of special areaswhich may need: ventilation(orair-conditioning)—p392 superior floorloading to beplaced away fromwindows incentre ofbldg special servicing even toextent ot suspended floors greater height than normal office dimensions special access topublic or goods

cnmssoeares resteroi p41Øfl;.

companies

board1

UU

recephOn

desk

1Bn1

data

+

O 2

Examplesshowingdifferentstyles of reception

3

identical controlted

environment

Computerrot

Commerce 237

Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS also —p238 typeofspace

number ofP

typical space required

type ofuse

provision ofeqp

shortdiscussions brieting

1 2visitor's chairs atwork station

location

perP provision atworkplace meeting atdesk

2—3

m2

2 0—275

subordinates, personal interviews

or

C 0 meeting ur

1.5—2.5

C

cOo 0

working discussions with otntsff or visitors

conference table &chuirn; related eqp pinboard, chalk board

working sessions between within group otpersonnel from outside involvedwith some prolect. may last severalhr

conference table & chairs withsome screening from surrounding workstations; related eqp: tipchartn, pin up space, chalkboard; provision otpermanent notice board orchart board foruseotgroup

tocuted ingrouparudtucent toprimary circulation, to limitdisturbance of individuals

interviewing personnel or salesrepresentatives; discussions with olpublic shortperiods of use up to ¾ hr

aural & visual privacy required

clone to mum entrance & deptwith malor usage; may require waiting uradtacent ifused frequently

slides, overheadprolector, flipcharts,dimmer lightn, good ventilation; sto for drinks, audio-visualeqp

ease ofaccess toatt dept easily serviced with refreshments; access for outside visitors without going through workar; costs arclone by

vending machines,stand-up counters, lowtables & easy chairs; diuplayboard; screeningfromworkar

adlscent todo, wc &rest rm; equally accessible to allpersonnel on each floor

provision forgroupof workplaces meeting ur

6—6

t 5—2.5

provision foralt of staff interview rm

2—3

t.5—2 0

8—t2

t.5—20

meetings withoutside visitors orinternatpolicy making & planning meetings 2—3 hrmeetings

12—t8

225—4.0

primarily used brrefreshment breaks, but may also be urwhere general notices, scheduling channetc can be displayed;may become importantpoint forenchange ofinformation & ideas;aned throughout dayforutortperiods infrequent meetings: involvement ofallstaff formal board meetings; g ofcontracts; managementmeetings; business lunches & entertaining: 2—3 hr meetings

rm

k 0UU0 cu rent ar

assembly ar

100—150

bourdrm

16—24

1 5—2.0

conference rm

15—20

t 5—2.0

lecture rm

50—100

1= I

OL ITJD DUO

K°°00

1

I

04

located in screened urif in planned open off environment

presentation; working discussions with outside visitors

large conferences, presentations, lectures & training sessions

Typesof meetingplaces,characteristics & requirements

formal layout; audio-visual eqp:good ventilstion essential; telephone eetension; space & eqpfor stenographer

audio-visualeqp; dimmer lights&black out; uto for eqp & furniture, allow satficient spacefor alternative layouts closed circuit tvsystem, control rmfor prolector, lighting, curluins,tv& audio systems, stospace forfurniture display systems

may use cafeteris or recreation npsce anterm (forrefreshments & leaving coats) attached; easyaccess forretreshmentn: 2visits

easyaccess forvisitors

adlacent ar foraudience to assemble beforemeeting; several entrances

238 Commerce

Office buildings SPACES FOR MEETINGS

space allocation expressed

spaces

also —.p237

avof all

av of off I av of

off

using 'Kew' furniture

other general' off

drawing off

%

%

%

%

3 4 5 2

3 4

4 6 6 2 4

— —

meetingsi5aces sto refreshment/rest

do generalservices Percentage of space allocated in

1

openplan offformeetingaras percentageof total net ar

as% of total netar

3 2

7

7

circulation

18

total spaces

31

15 34

av of

2 2

19

8 15

29

31

headquarters accn for engineering organisation Ipopulat ion 1 2001 manufacluring organisalion populat ion400) headquarters accnfor clerical organisalion Ipopulation 1400) consultancy organisafion )populafion80)

2

Meetingarprovisionfordifferent typesoforganisation

1 per 1200

1 per 1200

1 per60

1 per200

none

none

1 per 15

1 per 10

office stall

office staff

office Stall

1 per40 oflicestall

1

per 12 office staff

1 per 80 1 per 45 office staff office staff

none

1 per18 officestaff

1 per 26 office stall

1 per400 1 per55' office stall officestall

1 per 280 office stall

1 per230' officeslaff

1 per 1 400 officestaff

none

I per 16 officeslaff

1 per 20 office slut)

none

none

1 per80

none

none

officestaff

clficestaff

none

office slatf

oiliceStat) officestaff

office staff

apporlioned toseparale companieson each floor

informal situation probabledifference in status between parties

.9

.9•

3

involved interview orbriefwith subordinate

48m

4.0.formal interview —2.7rn-4

!

-.-—3m-— —3m-—i- j—3m----4-

1

4-245m+ T±

UU I

E

in)

U L_J4

L

J

i!

I

L

L

UU

-it 'E

L

J4-

•

I

• 1 LJ L1 I

I

•l •

-it

I UflU

I

IE

lU L]U

• aijI

1_____j

1'4'

•l—l

II l,IaIl f •I I

U...

. IUI!UlI:

•

I

•fE

-+-

U______

U

l

• III $fl ,

•na UI II

lSII•l lUll1

•UIa

I

I I

I

I •i U U

I L

SLJUII •

L

•

J$_

E

Ut

I

L

U

-J

•

________ • ______

• U... ______ 7,2m

• 1

•.1II•m

UIIUIE a

Uf

I

•I I. .1

..

I

• U I_____ • • ______•lI -L__UUa I I

• •

-t-f••'U • U • •••••••... .1 •

1

1+

I

E

Meetingtable space requirements

5

J L!Jt

L

4—31ni—-j I

.

1

-4—3.1 m—4-

4—3.lm--4

I)

I

lll '. I

•

I

&4 &2J. • .•

: •••• 1'T

1

3.1m

4-31m -- IU .IE •flUIE I. IU

l

4—3.5m--—4-

+-365m-+

a.

•

-t

•

-1-4-

. L _il

'U..

I

-1+ If a Ill rajit: 0• iuOu II • iE1u1 I • -4-2 2m-4

3

lecture i'm 100—150P

seating arrangement & condition informal situation with both parties working on equal basis

1

2

t per 120

1 per 280 office staff

1 per80

conference i'm 22—28P

meeting irs meeting rm 12-16P 16—20P

meeting rrn ounge/ meeting atat meeting ar workplace restar serving group 6—BP ofworkplaces

•• •• •• •

.•

•U

U

•

UU•U• UUUU

U

o

U

Commerce

239

Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE Once simply element in workstationsforclerical staff and managers office furniture has become more specific and also means of controlling use ofspace, eg: screens to separate linking unitsto allow workplaces to be ganged in various ways services carried byfurniture use ofvertical surfaces for sto use ofsto tosub-divide fin walls 1

Typicalclericalworkstation

3

Supervisor'sworkstation

4

2

These developments have beenbasis formany proprietary furniture systems. Many types of layout possible but principal controlling factor density. Densities in openoffice planning at 8 m2lhead, 12 m2 and 16 m2—.p240(3)—(5) give someidea of range of possibilities.

Secretarialworkstation

6

Gangedworkstations:screened (carrel)

7

Free standing enclosed

Gangedworkstations:open

5

Free standing furniture

240 Commerce

Office buildings OFFICE FURNITURE

1

Furnitureused to controlspace: finwalls

2

Furniture usedtocarry services

3

Officelayout8rr/head

4

Officelayout12 rri/head

5 Office layout 16r1/head

Commerce 241

Office buildings STORAGE Filing cabinets still predominant method of storing office paper: but manyother possibilities, including suspended and lateral filing, which can be considerably more efficient in space use—*(1). Microfilm—p7 can be used to reduce bulk of paper held in offices: may not always be acceptable substitute because of:

rft

complexity ofinformation stored frequency of retrieval

hanging files

cost

legal requirements to keep original copy

Drawer type filing cabinet still predominant type of sto unit but not always mostefficient in space use —(3).

Spacerequirements

box files: ledgers onshelves

Deeper the cabinets, wider the age required between them. High shelves not easily serviced: time saved because access easier to vertical sto. Hanging files utilise wall area87% more efficiently than box files —*p242(1). Filesmay have betransportedby conveyor;desks in filing rm should have shelves for sorting; provision ofsmall tables and chairs on castors for convenience ofclerks desirable. Registry (document entry) should be centrally situated. Since clear height of 2100 only required, 3 storeys of registry could be fitted into equivalent of 2 normal office storeys. Dryrm essential. Deep registries more economical. Provide writing on reference surfaces next tostacks. Trolleys may be needed for moving files. Moveable registries make possible 20%greater utilisationofspaceby doing awaywith intermediate ages—*p242(3)(4). Layoutsnotstandardisedbutadaptedtodifferent needs, such as archives, lib, sto. Paperstovery heavy; can createacute floor loading problems.

shelves hanging

planhanging

Space required and capacity of 3 types of filing system compared —*(3)(4).USA dimensions filing cabinets, lockers, sto cabinets—*(5)(6) p242(6).

900'

480'

1

65;

Filing

600

4

3O0'

500

7Q()

Comparisonofcapacityoffiling systems

a

ii,,,

,rlIIIIrIIup,,Ili,ln,

b

P!II!I!fl!!!

iI,j(I 1

c

,

i,,i

TI

d I,,,J,,

i,,,,

5 USAstandardclearances forfilingcabinets aage drawersclosed only bagedrawersopen ccabinetsfaceto face age drawers closedonly d cabinetsfaceto faceagedrawersopen 3100 3100

2

Ff M44Tht

Exampleofrelationships with registryin insurance firm

deskh counterh extrah standardh

4-drawerfiling lateral filing open cabinet theoretical capacity (linearm) 2.4 2.0 capacity in use (linearm) capacity/unitar (linearrn/rn2) 2.7

cabinet

shelving unit

plan

4.5 4.5 5.5

5.4 5.4 6.0

:::::::::: :::.::.::::t

3 Comparisonof space requirements of filing systems

-

i

drawers extended

/

plan

Er o.j__ rj.r:::::: ::::::::::

-71 1-+—686-'l--660.4-6864-71 762

6

FilingcabinetdimensionsUSA

1-

762

t

242 Commerce

Office buildings STORAGE

3rowsoffiles

6rowsoftiles

;ii 1i41f

—1T——-r——T-T I i1Lt;;Ii11 11

11T1Tm—T—i

[.

0 Wall space comparison betweensuspended& boxfiles ofsamecapacity 1

4

Movableregistry(document entry) vertical &suspended tilingin folders, pigeonholes65/78/200

flatfilingin

library filingin loose-leaf index in rollbinder on open front d shelves 35/200 40/125/220

10000tiles

Continuous d/cabinet floorarmcI operalion but exclside ages

approx 2mm thickwithout holders, approx 25 sheets

11

5

T

ml UH L

—

II

I

I

II

II

=

2

1

lockers

plan

2

[

I

=

1300

a

Largedocumentchest: section& plan

3

EJ EJ U

officespace saved

3

Comparisonof space required formovable &ordinary registry

2

3

524 1830

762 914 1067

305

229 to 610

229 to 457

305 381

305 to 533

305 381

305 381

1

— H

W —

D —

1

:.::::.:.:.::.:ID

UUU

U U UUEIIEJ

36m2

lockerdimensions

-

plan

ir 1

825m

5.92 rn-

twi

w

rri HI

(0

2.4 m

-

Proportionof gangwayspace totiling cabinetspace

w

Co

11 Ow

7.25 ni

cabinetdimensions

stocabinets

6

gl4maxfor 1 drawer

H W D C

Locker&sto cabinetdimensionsUSA

762 1067 1676 1981 457 610 914 457 559 610 457 max tor2drawers

Commerce 243

Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT Office eqp increasing rapidly in complexity and scope as information technology develops. Use of office automation growing rapidly and expected be single most important use of information technology in longterm.

power telephone supply connexions

eltypewriter

telex word processor copier terminal telecopier micro-computer

microfilmviewer telephone vendingmachine video/tv monitor 1

. . . . . . e . . .

heat

noise water

extract

. . . .

e

. . . . . . . .

supply

.

. . . . . . . . .

5 Telex

.

h = 500

w= 500 d= 600

Basic requirementsofofficeeqp incurrentuse

6

Microfilmviewer

h = 1200

w= 1700

2 Elgolfball typewriter

d=

680

h=350 w=600 d = 450 7

3

Large(15 collator)copier

Smallphotocopier

h = 125

w =550

d = 375

4

Telecopier

8

Wordprocessorwith hardcopyonly;visual display unit(VDU)commonly used in addition

244 Commerce

Office buildings OFFICE EQUIPMENT(cont)

distribution frame

I

I

I

I rectifier unit

N

4

Small(4line) telephoneswitchboard

battery

h maintenance workbench

1,

1

I"

4000

Privateautomaticbranchexchange(PABX) rmrequirements

5

Mediumsized telephoneswitchboard (20 linesPABX)

h = 950

w=600 d = 360

2

Terminals

Small vending machine

h= 1850 w= 780

d=

650

printerh= 150+w = 400÷d= 380-I-

7

3

Large treestandingvendingmachine

Microcomputer

Office buildings references —*Bibliographyentries 069 177178222241 249 257 259260 341 346347363 364 366 374 389 429 465 479480540 541 542 545 554 564 565 566 570 580 592 601 614

Commerce 245

Banks

ecu

"

bankingha eflirance

partition

commussionaire

securitiesdept

bankingha

(

writingdesk

deposiiboxes

desk. iedger clerk

I

cashcounier

2

Customer'sroutesin major Europeanbanks 1

siairstostrongrm

'---

partitinri

ieadin9tosirOng en

4$]iob

Routestostrongrm

Different design requirements according to whether private bank with primarily mercantile interests, major bank, savings bank, mortgage bank; but ingeneral banks places where money paid in orwithdrawn by customers. Procedures needbe transactedquickly, securely, simply as possible. Mech conveyance and similar systems notnecessary orworth while except for really large institutions. Route followed by customer: from street outside through lobby into banking hall, sometimes fitted withbench seats or chairs forwaiting and writing desks forcustomers, andvarious positions forpaying in, drawing out, security, savings and (in Europe) giro transactions,or 'uniqueue' Desks for s and book-keeping (check on state of drawer's ) usually behind cash counter—.(1).

Other offices serving customers, eg manager, credit dept, auditing dept, usually next to banking hall with separate ante-rm, or on upper floor—.(3). Route to deposit boxes (often in basement): frombanking hall through partition into age, usually past securities dept and safe custody deptdown stairs to protective grille in front of lobby leadingtostrong rm, where customers' deposit boxes and strong rm door; sizes ofboxes: for

stafisideentrance

lpersonl000xl500uptol500xl500,for2persons2000xl500 Larger institutions normally have separate bank strong rm next to customers' strong rm, while safe custody dept has offices in front of entrance to this, with separate staircaseto banking hall or special cash elevators —.(3). Basement reached by separatestaircasecomprises cloakrm,sto space. heating plant, plant for operating elevators and pneumatic despatch tubes, elecfromech communications eqp and so on, as well as registry and elevator for documents. In mortgage banks must be possible for all mortgage business be completed conveniently onground floor.

3

Relationshipsofrm inbig bank

—.

a directors

— —

world savings

\

[

u

un

parkinglot

i,/

'z

Li

LIII

0

machine rm

L

clock tower

0

I

10 20 30m

326498 ft

sf0

[

'I

b 9

\,

',

? è

' 12

6 18

24ff

bankingrmN couporbooths

I

_entrance conference teller counter

C

1entobelow

4

WorldSavings& LoanAssociation SantaCruzUSA; main banking rm extendsupwardsthrough2 storeys litby skylights &clerestorywindows asite plan b groundfloor cfirstfloor Arch EsherickHomseyDodge &Davis

p

5

TannersNationalBankWoburn USA:conversion of originallysquare rectangularbldg byadditionof2 corners enclosing respectively staircase& off a lowerlevel b main level Arch Architectural Resources

246 Commerce

Banks Strong rm doors and armoured doors pivot gently on

steel hinges

withoutdropping; canwithstand anyattackand fitted with unpierceable, indestructible steel plates, with fire-proof and non-melting reinforcing,

with additionalfireproof, non-melting and unpierceablecompound casting. Total thickness approx 270—300. No keyhole: elaborate locking device (eg miracle lock, remote-control lock) and el-operated alarm system, whichsounds atslightest vibration ofdoor. Cashier positions —(2)—(6) nowadaysin Europe usually completely 250 thick. protected with bullet-proof reinforced glass, 4 panes Similar protection oversunken drawers. Alarm system operated byfoot or knee.Underneath counter normally standardtype steel cabinets. Exceptions still exist,particularly in USA, in bankswishing foster informal

'non-authoritarian' image. In USA many banks still retainteller positions either behind grilleoreven open.

1

Strong rmwith innerdaytimedoor Customers

Customers

EJ ET1

bankstaft

rufL

lo

bankstaff

(0

3 As—(2)with desks

2 Parallelcounter arrangement

r(01-r

Intercommunications system now more usually by means of televisioninstead ofby pneumatictubes, belt conveyors etc. Drive-in banks: to save time customers do not go into bank butdrive up to cash point—(8). No parking problems: cash points can be incorporated in bank bldg —(10)(11), separate islands —.(12)(13),orbelow pavement level, with shaft by kerb containing reflecting mirror, loudspeaker and cashconveyance device —.(9). Each cash point can serve up to 250 customers/day. (Eachtransactiontakes approx 60 seconds.) Not all banking transactions can be at drive-upcashier's desk: even where this system operates normal banking ha also needed for lengthierbusiness. NB diagrams this page apply totrafficcirculation on right

10

II

5OO

4

Sawtoothcounter arrangement with desksatsides

ii

f!

çi

Ei;i

ci

T_

10 Drive-upcashpoints

H-L 5

Germancashdesksas in big Berlin banks

6

Swedishtype cashdesk 11

microphone

a-b

bullet

12.0

.1

--L]1--i-{ ::

Cash points incorporated inbankbldg

28.0

8.0

I

7

Drive-upcash point,noparking

12 Twin cashpointsasislandto easetraffic

8 Drive-upcashpoint inkiosk

9

Cash point belowpavement with shaft forcustomerservice 3parkingplacesneededfor uninterrupted&smoothservice (Snorkelbank)

13 Cash points as—(7)(8)forthroughtraffic

Commerce 247

Banks EXAMPLES

9

1.5 a

3m

loft

Bancocli NapolibranchNewYork USA;interiorplan conversion of1070m ground flooroffspace in offtower block Arch SkidmoreOwings& Merrill 1

key

1 conference 2reception 3lob 4elevator 5toilet 6lunch rm 7do 8lockers 9refuse

10 planting bed 11 tellercounter 12 strong rm 13 safedeposit desk&booths 14chequewriter

l5fountain l6newslldistrict

manager 18coveredentrance

6m 5101520tt

b 2 WorldSavings&LoanAssociatesSantaAna USA afirstfloor bgroundfloor ArchKamnitzerCotton Vreeland

a m

10 20ft

4

unid

Albany SavingsBank: smallbranchbank NewYork USA agroundfloor b firstfloor Arch Feibes&Schmitt

3 FederalReserveBankBostonUSA, arrangementof aexecutiveoff32ndfloor bexecutivedining &meetingrm 31stfloor Arch Hugh Stubbins

Banks references: —*Bibliograhpyentries 007 249 254 374 477

248 Commerce

Vehicle services CAR PARKS

0

a c,J

I

With growth in motor transport separation of moving and stationary trafficessential. Results of traffic research suggest different parking layouts on basis of local conditions:

Population: desirable parking area in mid-town = 0.5_lob of population ofwhole built-uparea.

2

Parkinglane alongside footway

c'i+

Parkinglane eitherside road

divide

Number of cars: 1 parking space on towncentre for every 5—8 cars kept in built-uparea. Visitingtraffic:parking space for 7—9% of vehicles regularvisitors to town centre.

-

Parking space needed (including drive in) 20—25 m2/car.

Parking areas within roadway limits

Kerb space requirementsfor longitudinal parking—a(1)—(3)(7)(8).

LL 4 Double parkinglane down

3 Parkinglane downmiddle of roadway

middleofroadway

Parking lanes: oblique or right angle parking lanes for various road widths —a(4)(5)(6). Parked vehicles must not restrict visionof moving vehiclesatcorners; therefore gap betweenendofparking lane and bldg line 6000; 10000 preferred —a(1)—(4). Avoid rightangle parking (dangerous for ing traffic). Safety strips 500 wide recommended between parking lanes and moving traffic.

---------*

± 00

roadway

+ 0.05

parkinglane

+ 0.16

footway

-

3.0

o5r

roadway

NB diagrams on this page apply to trafficdrivingon right:data based on Germanpractice

2.32.3'

relationto streetedge

5.0

parking bays footway

edge of premises

5

43cars/i00m

9

Parkinglanesformotorcars

Rightangledalignment a 3.5 3.0

\\\\N

Ipumps

footway

6

Obliquealignment

—

14 cars/i00m 7.0

7.0

——

1DL 7

-- 5.0 --

5.0

-

LDLcD

- 4.75 -l--- 4.75-

I :içf

Segregatedapproach& departure

L

10cars + 9spaces

Ii

-

500 — 5.5 —'

59.5 500 5.5 ——

5.5

-

1—

500

IT!! r1 11111111 [1 1

s—

L b

H

footway

Enclosedparkingspaces a neighbourhood garage barrangement for narrowsite c road at anglegiveseconomical useofspace fordifferentcar sizes, savesapprox 10% floor ar 10

8

lit 1111111111

Settingdown: continuousapproach &departure (eg theatres, taxis)

Commerce 249

Vehicle services CAR PARKS USAstandards —op250

Off streetparking

In permanent car parks, lanes and baysshould be clearly marked with safetystrips for pedestrians —(10)(13). Enclosed parking spaces also —*p248(10).

Spacerequirements —(8)—(15)

Space/car withdriving lanes but without main access and exit:

±

7.5

44—

10.0 1

7.5

800

14

44-

5.5 -s- 7.5 1-5,5-44

800

600

2

45°parkingforbuses

1

3

Truckwith trailer

Smallbuses

90° parking approx20m2 45° parking approx23 m2: usuallypreferred forease of parking.

Parking bays—(8)—(10)

Space/car (medium—large) 5000x 1 800. Forcarparkslargerthan 800 m2 provide20% baysfor larger cars (6000 x 2100) if park attended. Provision for motor cycles, bicycles,disabledaccordingto localrequirements. 4.0

Truck & bus parking

Fixed bay sizes advisable because vehicle size varies greatly. For truckswith trailers provide for parking without reversing —.(1)—(6). For articulated lorries reversing usual. — 12.0

4

-4-———-

12.0

±

5 300 parkingfortrucks withtrailers

16 0—22.0 -4- 15.0—20.0

7

+ i

—4--

12.0

NB diagrams on this page apply to traffic driving on right: data based onGerman practice

—4

90°parkingfortrucks

4—15.5-—.4

oc:

6.0 -'4- 6.0 -,

I

— —

— 12.0

—4

90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers

35.0 -'o 6.0 145.04-5.0

For long distance traffic provide yards at town approacheswith driver accn, workshops, filling stations etc.

—1

90°parkingfortruckswithtrailers

4-150—20.0

6

—4—

20.0

i

T2.3

—

12.3

I I

—

4— 125 —t— 8,25 —° soo 500 500 4435,4- 8.0 —443.544—6.0 —4

1— 12.5 —'

soc soo

45,0-ir-4.5ii- 5.04

44,5443,544-

8.0

500500 —443,544-4,51

'

.° 3.0 ,0

—

:—

'44

—

-carsize

¶

jjj_

parking

I

-

bay

b

a

8

90°parkingformedium& small cars a &verysmall cars b 390 '

500 500 soo sco 13.54'--10.25—143.544-—10.25-—143.5°-6.0 -II

9

Wider baysfornarrowdriving lanes

500

43.544-- 8.0

26.5 soo 500 —443544—-

500

8.0 —44354

10 45°parking

11

45°parkingforcarsa, vansb

_____ 21.5 2.5

45

2.5

M

2.5

12 45° parkingfor largecars,

13 45° parkingformediumcars,

reversing

reversing

14 450 drive-throughparkingfor 15 45°drive-throughparkingfor mediumtosmall cars(no reversing) largecars (no reversing)

250 Commerce

Vehicle services PARKING:USA STANDARDS

public road

a

[

—

lL1_L'[I II H-H I III 2.43

dayparkeruse

standarduse & Lse

2.74

3.05

Ill!II

—(2)givesUSArecommended (—aBib513) parkinglayouts, stall widths and parking dimensions for 2 most typical car sizes. Recommended smallcar dimensions be used only in car parks designed forsmall cars orwith entrance controls which it onlysmall cars; putting small cars into standard car layout not recommended: standard dimensions will take all normal enger vehicles. Withlarge car dimensions parking easier, quicker: recommended for elderly, high turnover, luxury. With parking angle 600 or less may be necessary increase bay width by 75—162to give room for s walking toand from parked cars. Always consultlocal zoning reg.

3.35

I

I

Turning dimensions

I

I

of private with public roads. 'U' drive --a(3) illustrates procedure for designating any drive configuration given vehicle's dimensions —vp2l(1) and turning radii. Tangent (T) dimensions approx mm only: may vary with driver's ability and speed. —v(1) shows USA dimensions at intersection

I

luxury elderly supermarket& camperuse

Ihandicappeduse

nunrequirements=1 or2/100stallsorasspecifiedbylocal,state,ortedemallaw;place convenienttodestination

Roadways —vp2l

NB: diagrams onthis page apply totrafficcirculation on right

b

doubleloadedwail to

sungle loaded

waNtowafi (with burquers)

dqubleloadedwall toltiwfttlsawtooth concretekerbi

wali(withounhinuous concretekemb)

C

l

0$bayor edgeo$walk

doubleloaded

ittoltiortt towalk

edgei

dangle of park SW

2743

w 450 1

2 3 4

2896

1

2 3 4

9.75 15.03 14.12 13.61

50°

550

600

9.98 10.36 10.77 15.54 14.88 14.17

9.75

9.96

14.99 14.33 13.61

15.39 14.68 13.97

16.2 15.65 14.94 10.36 15.8 15.19 14.48

16.91 16.41

15.7 10.67 16.31

15.7 15.19

65°

70°

75°

80°

85°

900

11.43 17.63 17.07 16.46 11.23 16.87 16.43 16.0

12.09 18.29 17.88 17.37 11.84 17.68 17.37 16.99

12.8 18.85 18.59 18.19 12.65 18.44 18.19 17.9

13.51 19.61

14.07 19.74 19.66 19.56 14.02 19.66 19.58 19.46

14.63 20.12 20.12 20.12 14.63 20.09 20.09 20.09

19.2 18.9 13.31 19.1

18.9 18.74

NOTE' IIangles greaterthan70°have aisle w for2-way travel

2 Parking a recommended stallw b layouts arking dimensions vehicle

R

Ri

T

small car compactcar

6.05 6.55 6.83 7.01 16.76 16.3 13.26

3.28 3.61 3.84 3.84 10.06

3.7 3.05 4.57 3.3 4.57 3.4 4.57 3.66 9.14 6.86

10.1

9.14 9.1 4 7.62

standard car largecar

intercitybus* citybus school bus ambulance

9.14

7.92 5.72

D

6.86 5.92 4.04

C 0.15 0.18 0.2 0.23 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

* headroom= 4.62 Lb

small F

A B Ra Rb La Lb

15.52 46.71° 273.42°

9.75

large 26.59 35.58°

251.15°

11.58 7.95

30.48 15.24 18.8

55.27

66.8

NOTE Rvaiues brvehicles intended to usethesecuis-desacshould not exceedRb.

3 a'U'drive diagram withtable ofturningdimensions bcul-de-sacwithtable ofdimensions& angles; largevehiclel—np21(1)

Commerce 251

Vehicle services:multi-storeycar parks DESIGN GEOMETRY 'Standard designcar'—*(l)

UK 95% of all new vehicle registrations: USA large car dimensions column 2:

A

5500 2030

G

4750 1800 1700 500 2900 900 1100

H J

13000 14000

6550 7010

K

100

w

B

h

C

dooropening clearance

D E F

wheel base (worst cases)

turningcircle (dia) kerb wall ground clearance

1630

3250 890 1350

1

220

Recommended parking dimensions (90° layout) —*(2) stall I stall w standard shortstay long stay disabled persons roadway w 1-way 2-way standard bmw headroom (mm clearance)

1

L

5500

2400

2750 2600 2750 3050

2300 2500

3000 N

6000 6950 15500 2050

P

Recommended rampdesign upto 1 500rise

Standardcardesign'

4750

M

2130

in 7 USA: ramp1< 19.8 m in 10 max slope 1 in 7

1

morethan 1 500rise used forparking

9150 10700 20100

1

in2O

1

> 19.8 m ramp I

max slope 1 in9 L

N

L

:1

gradients, max, on helical ramps: upto 3000rise morethan 3000 rise

in 10 in 12

1 1

w, mm, straight ramp, noturning: between kerbs clearance, kerb to structure

w, mm, curved ramp, turningtraffic: 1-way 2-way central kerb, 2-way

3000

4000

300

75

3650

5200 9150 150

7000 500

turningcircle, outerkerb radius: recommended

12000

mm

clearance kerb, to structure 2

Recommendedparkingdimensions

9000

6600 6600

600

46O

Useofangled parking layout—.(3)

parking angle bin w mm 900 15500 80° 15400 70° 15300 45° 13700

av ar/vehicle USA rn2

m2

24.0 25.0 27.0 34.0

27.0 27.9 28.0 35.3

Most efficient parking angle 90°; lesser parking angles not normally used in UK.

CAR PARK ARRANGEMENT

2 parallel bins normally used provide circulation arrangement with 1-

way trafficflowshaving upwardand downward routes separated;makes possible best traffic capacity. Dynamic capacity reduced if2-waytraffic flows or mixedupwards and downwards circulation used. Cul-de-sac driveways undesirable: should not exceed 6stalls in length. Economy achieved byusing longestpracticable bin lengths. Downward route should be shortexpedite exit; upwards route devised give best possible search pattern for vacant stalls.

3

Typicalcarpark arrangement(NBlefthandcirculation)

252 Commerce

Vehicle services: multi-storey car parks Barriercapacity 2 barrier typesavailable:rising arm orrising kerb,having recommended

DESIGNGEOMETRY(cont)

Split level layout—*(1)

capacities:

Arrangement widely adopted.

2 bins soarranged thatadjacent parking levels separatedbyhalfstorey height.

Shortinterconnecting ramps used between levels.

Warped slab layout—x(2)

entrybarrier exitbarrier groupA groupB

400vehicles/hr 250vehicles/hr 400vehicles/hr

LIGHTING

Parking levelsconstructed with uninterrupted horizontal external edge: steady transition of gradientsconstructedgiveinternal interconnexionof parking levels. Compared with splitlevel layout need forramps ateither endof bldg eliminated, gradients reduced.

Parking ramplayout—*(3)

Parking level constructed as long ramp: has significant effect on elevational appearance; to keep to acceptablegradients long bldg required. When necessary exit can be speeded up by adopting external helical ramp.

Flat slab layout—*(4) External ramp usedto interconnect level parking areas.

Mean serviceillumination forpublic should be (Ix): parking areas driveways ramps roof entrance & exit

20 50 70 20 150

FIRE PROTECTION& SAFETY USA: check applicable codes and standards.

Structuralfire resistance

Construction of non-combustible materials with structural fr 1 hr. In specified restricted circumstances requirement for structural fr may be waived for bldg less than 15.2 m high.

VEHICLECONTROL

Feecollection GroupAdriverpayment:

Means of escape

All parking spaces within 45.7 m of escape stairway having

fixedor variable charge payedon exit

Adequate alternative meansof escape.

GroupBpedestrian payment: fixedor variable charge by purchaseoftokenorticket

hr fr.

Fireprecautions

Adequate fire brigade access, dry rising main, fire points plus any specificrequirements of local fireofficer.

season ticket pay & display ticket

highwater372.5

a

1

221 2.21 ___________________ 2.2!

iowwater37O.55

_____________________

2 emergencyexit

3

NB right handcirculation

4

FIatslablayout

5

Underlake carpark Geneva Switzerland

asection b siteplan c plan offirstfloor

DesignCZschokke

Commerce 253

Vehicle services:petrol stations Self-service station nowdominating influence on design,as result partly of high labour costs, partly of availability of new electronic pumping systems with memories for storing pump information at control counter. In UK self-service basis adopted by oil company petrol station networks: approx 75% of petrol sold in UK through self-service. Practice spreading rapidly in continental Europe. Proportion lower in USA but growing; motorway and inter-state stations increasingly self-service operations. Whether self-service or mannedpetrol stations usuallynow include shops or selling areas exposing customers to wide range of goods as they pay forpetrol.

DESIGN& LAYOUT Basic principles same whether forselforattended service.

Preliminary Tradingarea: detail study will establish needfor site. Road pattern: whether single, dual or three lane roadway will determineease of entryinto site. Traffic flow: number of vehicles ing site per hour per day to be established.

Vehicle roadspeed:will influence frequency of customers visiting site. From these factors estimate number of vehicles/hr/day calling at site and ofexpected peak periods forwhich site will have toprovide.

Basic

Initialcommunication:visibility; pole signvisible atleast 300 m before siteentrance —*p254(2).

1

Typical startinggate' layout allows2 carsto enteratsametime

Visibility:pricesign readable 100 mbefore siteentrance. In and out: easysteering on to site and space for cars to line up while waiting for place at pump; easy steering away from pump with no blocking ofexit and goodvisibility fordriving out onto road —*p254(3). Site traffic: 1-way flowonlyon site. Pumps: thinkin offilling positions —(1)(2)p254(4): consider filling at peak periods, usually 2/day, morning and evening; note that car is at pump site before starting filling for 4.5 minutes, and actual filling for 1.5minutes; memory system atcontrol counter imperativeto allow forquickrelease

ofpump;

capacity of1-hosepump with allgrades offuelavailableapprox 3201/hr. Pre-payment:consider whether volume of cars at peak periods or at night warrant money acceptor or card acceptor unitsto relieve control counter operator.

Shop: commonly 20—40 m2depending on retailing activity envisaged. Control counterareaadditional 4.5m2: sited to supervise refuelling area and shop activity. Air, water: site away from pumps with adequate parking spaces according to size ofstation.

Other services: should be kept separate from petrol filling area, eg dervfilling, carwash, sale of liquefied petrol gases. NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdriving onleft

2 Typicalechelonlayoutsuitsnarrowersite

254 Commerce

Vehicle services:petrol stations SITE ESSENTIALS

8000

Accommodation:shop and control counter,office,toilet(s), sto, perhaps staffarea—p253(1 )(2). Petrol sto: underground steeltanks cased in sulphate-resisting concrete 1:2:4 mix. Consult local codeforthickness ofconcrete surround. Tanksizes (UK) vary 13000—360001,in 45601 increments. Discharging must Supplytanker: easyroute todischarge pad on site. not obstruct cars. In case of emergency tankers should be able drive directfromsite. Lighting required for night deliveries. Canopy: required to coverallfilling positions with approx 3500projection beyond pumps on both sides: height above filling area 3850. On lightingfor night time retailingconsultcodes; in UKzone2type (vapour proof) if fittedtocanopy ceiling; zone 1 type (flame proof) if fitted within 750ofpumpsightglass; USA requirements similar. Levels: avoid variation ri level beyond 1:80 on filling area and tanker discharging pad.

Hioo1-8ooo Forecourtlayoutofpumpsiteswith preferred dimensions

Drainage: consultcodes; in UK from all areas within 4250 of petrol source (ie pumps, tanks) ventsto be taken to 3-chamber petrol interceptorbefore processing to main foulsewer. Site size: dependent on number of filling points and future marketing needs; preferred sizes—(4)p253(l)(2). NB diagrams on this pageapply totrafficdrivingon left

site

I

boundary,1

•l3000---imin

—

—'7/

sight ilne

I.

50

40—70mph road

min6l.0-

outa

40—70 mphroad

2

Areasofvision: I mainpole 2canopyfaciasigns 3secondarysigns NBhigherroad speedsreducemotorist'sangleof vision

3

I.—mln61

Entry&exit sightlines

4

Typicalfoursquarelayoutsuits deepersite

Commerce 255

1— 12 0 —4—-—--- 200 —-

-' 1

i—1I}[]

Li

32.0/trucktrain

ii

FORMSOFPLATFORM

— 12.0 —1

r1T3Ji5500

110

Vehicle services: bus stations

1....

-

Buses increasingly taking over from trains, demand ever increasing attention in relation urban traffic. Need take corners especially wide: turning spread needs special watchfulness—*p256(1). Bus parks large and small an essential partof traffic planning. Forms of platform—*(1)— (18). Bus stops should be under cover —+(19)(20). Consult bus companies ondimensions. Town centre squares should be designed or adapted serve as bus stationsaccording natureofrequirements—np256(1O)—(12).

1

wayin

Parkingarlayout parallel to directionofarrival 500

i8

500

scratchkerb linemarker

350k

8000

F0

'

8000

8000

r,s

5000

500

End ramps and convenient boarding steps of300—400—e(1O)—(11) and forloading baggage tofloor level. Service rm needed in connexion with bus stations —np256(1O)—(14). Provide space for temporary car parking —ep256(9). Keep in mind possibilitiesofextension—ep256(8).

NB diagrams on this page apply to driving on the right (German data)

500

2

Parkingplacesofvehicleswith trailersorcoaches

3 Obliquely(45)todirectionof arrivalforcoaches

----l

I

>

ri

-

I

36.0

12 Platformalignmentwith inglane

500

14.0

3.6

parking

—IL_______

L

--4

24.0—36.0—

10 14

13 Withoutinglane Rightanglestodirection ofarrival

forcoaches

14 Obliqueplatformalignment

5 Forvehicleswith trailersor coaches

8.0

/

3500

4

/

3030

2 3500

4Otn]40[1

-28.0 —F-16.0---4

6

Obliquelyiodirectionofarrival

7

Platformalignmentparallelwith directionofarrival

-- 1_

16 Departureatright

15 Longplatforms with inglanes

angles;arrivalat obliqueangle

17 Departureat obliqueangle

-3030: 1.5j 0 24.0

i6.5 65— r20

ri'iiith 1111111

1.51

jJ-

-

14.0

Longplatformat45todirection ofarrival

8

.

0"\ggage\

9

At right anglesto direction of arrival

18 Positionatrightanglesto directionofarrival

'

iii Lii

±0.0

J

glasswindscreen

2250

,sathkt

5400, _________

55°

+300—400 3000

10 Standardverticalinterlocking layout (USA)

11

Radiallayoutproviding more rm

infront (USA)

19 Shelterforunilateralloading platform

!1EE 4000—

20 Forloadingboth sides

—

256 Commerce

Vehicle services: bus stations TRAFFIC ORGANISATION NB diagramson this page applytotraffic drivingonthe right (German data) —30.0—————

"-

-

reintorcedl— ,R1=7.0 surtace (

Ku) rein-

•

3,5 1

60f

42,0

/,

2Ttñ

a=7.5 3.5 4.0

'7.0

Roadwideningatrightangletum

6

2

3

Turningcircuit

4

Smallturn-round

Platformoutside turningloop

station

Semicircular

platformiype

platformoutside loopwith noP crossingover

withouting writrpasiving lane

relationtolineofarrival paralle

at4&

at90

lane

relationioline otamnal

32

leachparhisgplace)rrr)

b

o

b

roadway 24

plattorsiw)m)

3

3

Semicircular

platforminsideloop accessibleonly by crossingroad

no ofloadingporrts a coacses

2

2

2

2—3

1

1

1

1—2

2—3 1—2

2—3 1—2

138

170

189 293

296

313

bvehicleswith trailers arviplatform& arrival

fl

vehicles withtrailers

8

ni

12

tU

3.5

35

35

warrivalspur irs)

4.0

80

8.0

r

a

ar

weachparking place(ml arwith roadwayirs2) avehiclewdhtrailer bcoach

24

a

a a

22

§ 3b 14

35 14

parking

spar (m2)

a coaches

24

12

a

parking ophors

e 24 36— 36— 36— 60 60 60 3 35— as— 30— 40 4.0 4.0

24

plattormllrnl

7

5Platfomiinsideturningloop

276 340 378 439 444 470

Space requirementsforplatform ar

176 68

135

178 89

182 140

91

9 Space requirementsforparkingplaces town

rightofway

centre

sales605k

V 0

-A-

11121314151

6

-'-'it

'•-,,ftV'

®.;r-i mainroad

1

=supervisors

2= restrm

1 drivers wc 2rusrringrepairs 3petrolstation 4eqp

5supervisor 6maltcollection& deliverypoint

3 = petrolstation

10 Largetransitstationwith parkingar

Large transitstationwith separate departure &arrivalplatforms

11

1

departurePentrance

2 amealP esit 3 vestrbule 4 baggagedespatck 5 arrival Pentrance 6 baggagein arrival 7 departurePexit 8 baggageoff 9 baggage deposa

mainroad

10 managersoff 11 off 12 intormatron &airtidrets 13 an

Groundfloor KLM busstation Arch Brook&Bakerna 13

1

fromparking

12 Transitstationwith separatearrival &departure platformspositioned obliquely,parkingarinseparatelocation

wcrnes

2 wcwomen 3 nursery 4 do 5k 6 canteenstaff 7 drivers'rm 8 meterdsto 9 registry 10 pumps

14 BasementKLM

Commerce 257

Rail stations ENGERDETAILS

HiH 2200

Tempbooking hall 12°C 1/5 surface area

Daylighting

-

1100

'

60O

H

1 to 4 Space taken upby people

Ticketofffrom 1 500 x 2000upwards Typeofsurface: rough, hard sintered clay orgranitictiles Walling up to 1 750 high with impact-resistant lining: tiles, hard plaster, boards Baggage deposit: doors for baggagetrucks 1 900—2300wide: alldoors preferably steel to withstand heaviest demands. Opening at deposit counterupto 1 200high; sliding window or protected bygrille. Baggage despatch cabin 2000 x 2250 Arrangements for storing bicycles verysimple and space saving: hung up neatly by front wheel —(12)(13) Easy to hang up if first raised on rear wheel, then liftedup with knee behind saddle

fN f/I iooc

iooo-4 —1000+1000-4-1000-4-

6

Cabintrunk

1

30 I

turntable

850nomiat h train

14 Bookingoffsection—.(16)

scheduta

7

At train schedulestand

8

Luggagetruck

15

Baggageoffsection—.(17)

dmphragm

lT \j

__

3750

1500

10 Baggagestand

1500

11

-—

16 SectionA-A 1350

T

I— 1100+

H

1500 3700

Bicyclestands

r1

17

Section B-B

—1

Baggagerack

500500i

530

T

11

1

100 530

ticketmachine

* T

±1

100—I

H

j

tt

1-600 -600-

Abreaststaggered

1

18 aStraightbarrier boblique barrier Vehicle seivicesreferences: —aBibliography entries 086 225 276308348424435513555567

636650

258 Commerce

Airports -airport boundary approachlight system

Primefunctionprovideenger airtransport. During short history has had respond tremendous growth and technological change. Should be plannedand developedprogressively meetchanges and newdemands —(1).

future

,_/runway crash/tire structural expansion rescue serviceroad

PRELIMINARYWORK Planning and design of airport should evolve according to sequence: preliminary study; examine indetail whatexists and identifyconstraints physical: land boundaries,topography, geology access: airside and landside environment: noise, pollution, landscaping resources: finance, labour, materials assess economic, demographic characteristics of population: gauge impact onairport; forecast traffic demands 5—10 and 20 yearsin future, showing annual and day, peak month, peak hr trafficforenger boardingandaircraft movements—(4)(5) developmaster plan forwhole airport develop plans for each component airside/ landside:

cross overtaxiway serviceroad runway

Airport layoutfor parallel runwaysystem

1

airside: runways,taxiways —*(3) landside:

runLay

140.0

216.0

152.0

237.7

259.0

engerterminal& aprondistancesfromrunway centreline forvarious bldgh; 1:7 = imaginary surfacecannotbe penetratedbystationaryobjects(aircraft atgates)orfixedobjects(bldg) 2

enger terminal with apron (1)(2) —*p260(1) ground transport air freightterminal with apron —*p262(3) aircraftmaintenance with apron —p262(l) aircraftcatering —*p262(2) other components: car rental, hotel, motel, offices surface access:road systems,fixedguideways Reg standards,

394395396.

single apron taxilane spacing forDC-10/L-1O111B767 118.9withlimited B-747 positions spacing forall B-747 positions 131.0

290.0—305.0

combinationpier/satellite dual apron taxilanes 8-747positions at satellite

note dimensions will vary for each airport

3

1

Runways&taxiways 2000 3.6

O

H

phaseIll

284

1600 .514CC

phasel visitors

IfTfJ[fJTIf

.I-

0.7

yr

4

0

•

'\

,-

/'

'%

2OC. hr 020406081012141618202224

5

Planning&projectdesignschedule: start planning4yrinadvance forecastupdate: 1 start design &working drawings 2revise3defer

'

engers

total

5

Derivepatternav/day peakmonthdepartingP and visitorsfromsurveys;preparesimilargraphs forarrivingPand visitors,groundtraffic etc: major data fordetermining sizeofbuildingar

mm

criteria —8ib391 392 393

Commerce 259

Airports AIRSIDE ________________

:— ±:::

_________________

ill b

+-.—.--.—.—-.4 ______

______ _______

._.!1L_÷

:"7

Runwayconfigurations(airportboundaries notshown) acloselyplaced parallelrunwaysforsmalltomediumvolumes: parallel access road system limitsexpansion bintersectingrunwaysformediumtolargevolumes: terminalexpansionlimitedwithintriangularar arallel runwayswith simultaneousaircraftoperating1 280m spacingforlargevolumes: expansion capabilitiesalong axis (crossovertaxiwaysnotshown) 1

Runways&taxiways—*(1) Length ofrunway depends on prevailingweather, topography, altitude,

temp, environmental restrictions, aircraft type and weight expected operate fromairport.

Orientation of runway in direction of prevailing wind. Modern aircraft canusually land and take offwith crosswind upto20knots. Light aircraft seriously affected by wind: if airport to be heavily used by this type additional runway may bejustified. Utilisation: aim should be for airport be usable by all aircraft for mm 97% oftime. Single runway can handle up to 50 movement/hr (1 movement = 1 landing ortake off), depending on mix ofaircraft, when operating under instrument flightrules(IFR).2 parallelrunways 1 310 m apart canaccept upto 70aircraft movements(USA reg) under IFR. Number ofmovements higher undervisual flight rules (VFR). Where large and small aircraft operate to same airport specific separations required in air, atlanding, take

off and

taxiing because trailing vortices from large aircraft will

reducecapacity.

Taxiwaysystems should bedesigned allow aircraft clear runway soon

as possible and provide shortest route betweeen runway and parking

______

ILinner taxiway

r—i I

lane

:

aprons.

Layout & design of runways and taxiways: essential consultexpert

advice.

I _<. ___j_ar&tParkmn -I_-satellite

LANDSIDE enger terminalconcepts

--

——— ___________

-- _________

--

-

— _______________ sateilite &terminal

—serviceroad

_________—concourse connecting

I — _____________________________

—

terminal units terminal

ierminairoadsystem

2

Aircraftgate configuration and way aircraft gates connected with one anotherand with main terminal dominantfeatures ofterminal concepts, of which 4 can be distinguished. Concepts nearly always occur in variations andcombinations. SateIlite—(2):aircraft parked in cluster surroundingstructureconnected with main terminal byengercorridor orconcoursepositioned below, on orabove ground level. Satellite structure cantake severalgeometrical shapes.

Satellite

—-- —-.

-— -

—]

"—inner taxiway ———aircraft manoeuvnnglane

—

)_j)._

I

J_L_.

aprontaxilane aircraftparkinglimit line concoursepier

.44

+1 + -

——-concourseconnectingunits ____________

terminal

_________________________

Pier—(3): aircraft parked in line ateitherside of structure. enger corridororconcourse attached to main terminal. (In both theseconcepts engerticket,inbound andoutboundbaggage handling usuallyceritralisedin mainterminalbutvariationsand exceptions occur.)

Linear—(4):aircraftparked in single line at structure,engercorridor

connecting functional elements ofterminal. Formerlywith aircraftparked in line on apron functions centralised in small terminal. In past 10—15 yearslinearconcept developed provide enger handling functions and ground transport forindividualaircraftpositions.In sucharrangement terminal functions decentralised.

Transporter—*(5):aircraft positions placed at distance fromterminal; engers carried byvehicles betweenterminal and aircraft. enger handling centralised in main terminal.

—-—terminalroadsystem

3

Pier

— -. —.- —--— -- —-- ,taxiwayoraircraft

—---—---—

4+ I

innertaxiway -

manoeuvring lane

C_aircraftparkinglimitline

l—aircratt manoeuvringlane I

L_aircraftparking

I—flightline

—groundhandling

I

L_light line terminal 1

1

-

CODO

—terminal roadsystem

00

transporters(busesetc)

—'--terminai terminal

road system

4

Linear

5

Transporter

260 Commerce

Airports FLOW& FUNCTIONS Flow of aircraft, engers, baggage and vehicles can be shown in compositeandsingle diagrams, used toidentifysequence of functions for preparation of schemes in plan and cross section —*(1). Series of diagrams can be developed asgraphic model to identify effect ofchange in events, testdifferentarrangement offunctions orsub-functions. Flowinterminal complex takes place in 3major areas: apron: area between runway/taxiway system and terminal; serves aircraft flow toand fromgates and flow ofaircraft ground handling eqp. terminal: area between aircraftgate positions and vehicularkerb; serves flow of engers and baggage.

ground transport:area located between terminal and points ofaccess at airport boundaries; serves 2 flows, ie enger vehicles, service vehicles.

Flow of engers & baggage

Both domestic and international can be divided into 3 categories each requiring sequence of operations as below (based on USA practice): outward (originating) engersarrive atterminal byground transport forwhichmajor operations: kerbside baggage check in for engerswithtickets —n(2) ticketprocessing at counters with baggage check-in —(2)(3a) outbound baggage —n(3b) security check—*(2) port control forinternational flights ticketcontrol ataircraft gates; enger waiting rm—*(4) aircraft boarding stairs, loading bridge etc—*p261 (4)

inward(terminating) and transfer engersarrive at terminal by aircraft; major operations:

aircraftdisembarking (stairs, loading bridge etc) immigration control (international) customs control (international) baggage claim ground transport

transferengersfrom1 flightto another; inter-line from1 airline to anotheror intra-line on same airline; baggagehandled byairline except for engers transferring from international to domestic flight who

must claim baggage and through immigration and customs

inspection. Outward and inward enger traffic generates visitor traffic. Visitor/P ratios vary byairport;need be establishedas partofquantifyingenger flowduringpre-determined times ofday. Transfer engers seldom metbypeople at point oftransfer. Through engers continuing on same aircraft domestically rarely disembark except, eg, occasionally fortelephone calls.

Secondaryflow—p262

Airfreightflow between freight terminal and aircraftenger terminal/ apron.

Mailflow between mail depot and enger terminal/apron. Catering flowbetween catering serviceand engerterminal/apron. Fuel flow between fuel depot and enger terminal aircraft apron: takes place increasingly by pipeline (hydrant fuelling), eliminating large fuel trucksand requiring onlyhydrant pump vehicles on apron. 19 8—22.9

tL

é98

tr

co

79855-6.1t DG

minute telephones Clast Dbaggagedrop

sign;tobagclaimterminal& groundtransportation

4 Pwr at aircraftgates,capacityfor200 seat

aircraft,80% loadfactor,boarding10—15minutes before scheduleddeparturetime:grossar 180m2 excludingfirestairs,net150 m2

—b ———,

2 Schem ticdiagramofdepartureleveloflarge terminal: 1 countercheck-in ()security check

a

Diagramof2levelterminal asecondlevel 1 carparking, kerbsidebaggage check,ticket lob 2 securitycheck 3Pwrwithticket andbaggageprocessing capability 4parkingatgate positions bgroundlevel 1 carparking 5outwardsbaggage make-up 6baggageclaim 7off,groundhandling 3

Airportflow diagramsbasedon USA procedures adeparture barrival: brokenboxes indicate internationaltrafficfunctions 1

b

operation

Commerce

261

Airports Baggage handling jirculation

rn

a

•

U

baggage trolleys canbearranged perpendicularor parallel to belt

2. circulation

2

_____________

7 - 52-6.

7.9

Baggagemake-up/outward(outbound) —.p360(3b)

Aircraft parking

1 Baggageclaim/inward(inbound)—p26O(3b) ___________ ________

9.1

ground level

gatecheck

3

Terminals

iL —

Aircraftparking

I

ticket lob

parkinggroundlevel

kerb

L.concourse

Lbaggageclaim

boarding landing

outward

baggage

a

DC-b

structural gar

b

4

I

L

claim ar

space for ground transport systems present & future

Terminalcrosssections asmall 1-level

blarge2-level : aircraft& boarding deviceshownperpendicular toconcourse

DC-9

262 Commerce

Airports SECONDARYSERVICES

UHIIIHIIIIIIHIIIIU carparking flIHIIIH HHIIIHIIfl _________

1lIlIIIIIIIIIIlIiJ

flIIIIIHIHIHIIIHIn

=-.—-—.

—.—

ti

-—.—

—_ —_

150

—i-i:

runway

1

Aircraftmaintenance

2

Cateringbldg

FREIGHT Freight carried byairline operating

both enger & airfreightaircraft consistsmainly ofinbound & outbound flow —v(3). Freight also transferred from 1 aircraft to another. Handling takes place inside & outside bldg. Procedure varies; to large degree depends on type & volume of freight handled: size, percent loose, percent containerised; type ofaircraft in use: single deck, double deck, side door loading, nose loading, tailloading, combinations. Such factors influence degree of mechanisation required. —v(3) shows 1 B-747position, nose-in, push-out, side door loading by trailers, & 1 B-707position, side door loading mechanised.

trailer& staging

ernployeeT] parking I

preferably+ acrossroad

3=

arfor future freight

expansion4 trucks/cars

dmery/PICk-Updocks

4—

each

a lane

0 =0=

0

0=0

=00

0 == 0 0

ry'TrT

3

dockhapproa 1170 clearS vanes 4.22 Smallterminals 544—610 largeterminals clearhvanes

Airfreight

Airportsreferences: —vBibliographyentries 048 067 165 186341 370 391 392 393 394 395 396653

Outbound flow —a(3) 1 loose freightdelivered at truck docks & processed through bldg; 2 containers delivered at truck dock', processed & loaded outside bldg by mech systems; 3 percentage of all freightcarriedon enger aircraft (as high as 70%) & dispatched from freight terminal by truck,cart ortrolleytoair enger terminal to be loaded at gate position.

Industry

263

Industrial buildings SITE SELECTION

DEVELOPMENTOPTIONS

Assess area requirements fromclient'sbrief forfactory orwarehouse, including: expansion potential parking: visitors, employees, trucks external sto area landscaping road, railway orbarge access Checknational and local legislation,zoning ordinancesand codes for: permitted sitedensities useofpublic utilities suchas (forprocess and personnel consumption) water, power, gas, effluentdisposal accesson public and private roads foremployees, goods vehicles and trucks

Rehabilitate existing site/bldg Infill + rehabilitate (including in townsites) Newbldg on existing site (including phased redevelopment) Newbldg on newsite Each will be defined by: Zoningordinances, reg USA Suitability of site size/shape; boundaries Suitability of bldg size/type/shape (as briefed) Geology Topography Public utilities Statutory permissions Access forindustrial vehicles and workpeople's cars Rail or water access Airport proximity to site Labour resources ofarea Finance: development costs or subsidies, operating costs including taxes/tax relief, loan interests

Assess environmental impact of heavy industry, light manufacturing andwarehousing onsurrounding community; in USA fileenvironmental impact statement withauthority. Consider: noise:machinery and vehicles (particularly at night) vibration light (external circulation, marshalling,shipping and sf0areas at night) fumeand dust pollution effluentintowaterways orground water hazards of possible explosion orradiation exposure

Investigate assistance for development finance from central government (Assisted Development Areas in UK) and local authorities, city development corporations (State Development Commissions USA) etc.

SITE DEVELOPMENT

Building plot ratio & sitecoverage

Plot ratio of 1: 1 should be regarded as max on all sites inclusive of industrial and ancillary office bldg. Site coverage should not exceed 75% of site at ground level. Likely that site coverage ofapprox 50—60% can be achieved. Site area forplot ratio calculationpurposes excludes anypart of ading streets (except where theseto be closed).

Car&truckparking

Typical car parking requirements for industrial accn (check local standards): UK USA m2 spaces 4 a total employees on max shift x 85% lessthan 92.9 lessthan 232.26 5 (15%absent x percent whoarrive by lessthan 371.61 6 car) dividedby avcar occupancy = lessthan 510.96 7 parking spaces required b 1 space forevery2 employeesduring lessthan 656.32 8 shift of max employment & 1 foreach lessthan 789.67 9 truckto be stopped simultaneoulsy lessthan 929.92 10 lessthan 1 021.92 11 lessthan 1114.83 12 Lorry parking requirements will depend on needsofparticulars and local reg.

— stage 2

F'

Li

factory

V//47/I

-_J :_

Locatefactories&warehousesonsite to allow expansion, preferably in2 directions:considervehicleaccessduringphased expansion 1

'Nursery'unitdevelopmentsshould alsoallowforexpansion butwith urbaninfill sitesthis may haveto beatexpense ofyard ar 2

264 Industry

Industrial buildings BASICBUILDINGTYPESELECTION

AREAS FORSOME INDUSTRIALOCCUPANCIES

Factoriesand warehouse bldg types only economicallyand operationally interchangeable where structural frame has column spans that will not conflict with spacing of pallet racking, clear height permitting use of modern mech handling eqp, roof structure that can accept loading of production and environmental services. This normally only economic forsmallscale bldg orwhere companyhasmixed stoand manufacturing useson site likelyto change.

For feasibility studies before detailed brief (program) from these areas can be used asapproximatebldg areas.

Keyfactors in buildingtypeselection

Factories —p266—8: operationalflexibility for rapidresponseto changingproductiondemands: clearheight column spacing,roofand floorloading,roofconstruction for services routing fortype of manufacturingprocess involved energy and environmental control: natural or artificial light; environmental needs of/from process: good working conditions forlabour durabilityand firecontrol: selectionofmaterialsforstructureand envelope related to fire riskand anycorrosive effects fromprocess resale potential promotional value for company Warehouses —p269—72: structure commensurate with sto demands: structuralspans tosuit rack spacing and height and floor strengthto allow more than 1 arrangement energy and environmental control: to keep stored products in good condition: insulation and cooling in somecases, ventilation in others; good working conditions for labour (eg avoiding loadingdocks tacing into prevailing wind) fire control:compartmentationtominimise fire spreadassessed against hindrance to stoand handling and cost ofsprinklers

Selection strategy Single ormulti-storey development

modern production and stotechniques make full use of bldg cubewith inherent multi-level characteristics multi-storey development (or conversion) can be efficient for lightand high technology industry, particularly where landcostlyin urban areas: consider personnel circulation and escape, national and local reg, fire control, goodscirculation and process, services routing and trucks and private vehicle access and parking, particularly in dense developments consider cost and environment impact

a

4 —

.7,7,,r,/7,,,///z,//'

Manufacturingindustries

Av 28 m2/P; range 22—33(33m2/P under 664.5 m2) anodising sheetmetal work polishing furniture manufacture shop fitting manufacture clothing textile (made up)

Distributivetrades av8Om2/P builders merchants timbersupply books & magazines machine spares electrical goods & spares antiques/furntiture upholstery/textile

Average area/worker clothing research & development electrical components & assembly surgical instruments/appliances, scientific instruments miscellaneous manufacture(eqplastics products, musical instruments) leatherwork metal goods, cutlery, jewellery, forging, small tools made uptextiles (egbags) packaging, stationery, printing pottery& glassblowing motorrepairs, reprographic services ery, furnishing upholstery, shop fitting, timbergoods

m2 11

13 17.5

19.25 23.5 24.0 24.25 28.75 32.5 36.75 45.5 46.75

Typicalarea distribution production sto off amenities

0

60—70% (decreasesas size increases) 20% & less (increasesassize increases) 10—15% (increasesassize decreases) 5—9% (increasesassizeincreases)

Distribution

I4i

o b

0

00 00

builders engineering contractors (eqmachine tool movers) appliance repairs instrument repairs reprographic services printers machine tool repairs

Manufacturing

00 o

15 m2!P (smallest) to30 m2 medium size

el repairs

Includes circulation space

—ir4-01

Serviceindustries

Key: 1 verticalservicesrisers 2goods elevator 3access&escapestairs(check local reg formaxdistances) 4 plantar

Multi-storeydevelopmentor conversioncanprovideefficient accnforlight &hightechnology industry,particularlywhere differencesbetween production, lab &hardtodefine:example shows potentiallydivisiblespace 1

sf0

off

80% + 10—20% (greater need in some types ofdistribution)

amenities 0—5%

Industry 265

Industrial buildings 0

0

i:

:

0

:[:

:

0

Building shape inplan. Selection ofplan shapeis function of: demands of production or sf0 system

C')

climate, size, shape, topographyand geology ofsite location ofutilities expansion potential ofprocess in relation to site _-*p273(l)(2)

p4 ground level

p

SELECTIONSTRATEGY

•____

Some production processes can demand long, narrow bldg: intensive line production methods, eqmetal rolling, papermanufacture factories using overhead gantry cranes, eq heavy engineering high-bay automated warehouses: function ofeqpmovement efficiency multi-storey development, flatted workshops for natural light and ventilation Majority ofother industrialusescan beefficiently installed in rectangular plan with proportions 1:1—1:4, typically 1:2/2:3. Modern mass production methods capitalise on mech handling techniques no longer literally interpreting line production'.

-

production

Increasing demand forbldg which will notrestrict location ofproduction, stoand toclearly definedareas, butwhich permit rapidreallocation withinbldg envelope. Structural bay sizes suited to process and location of access equal shape in importance.

level

IDENTIFICATIONOF BUILDING REQUIREMENT

N1N.

2

I

I

I I

I I

——

Key: 1 groundlevel: goodsin,despafch,parking 2 production level 3 intermediate process plantlevel 4principal environmentalplantlevel 1 Mulfi-storeyfactorieseconomic forprocess-based industries (eq food, pharmaceuticals,tobacco)wheregravitycanbeusedinprocess andenergy beconservedbycompactplanning

Factories: should be designed to serve variety of useswithin their life: frequent problem inefficient factory stock through structural obsolescence — insufficient services capacity of roof structure, insufficient headroom, shortspans. should not be considered merely as weather-proof envelopes round production process. Formand dispositionoftheir structurefundamentally influences essential freedom to optimise production layout and route services equally freely to serve that or any future production layouts withoutdemanding long periods ofdown time foralteration. Selection of structure is key factor in providing efficient and flexible operation. There is range of structural types that have proved efficient and adaptable. Buttechnological innovation mayadd to these types, eq stressed skin construction requiring only minimal frame for envelope. Assess roof structure for: servicecarrying ability in each direction and easyaccess for relocation abilityto accept point loads and flexible location for materials handling eqp, eq overhead hoists, conveyors natural lighting: consider glareand insolation/heat loss durability and maintenance: performancein fire and need forcleaning/ repainting, particularly in clean areas Industrial bldg designed to be closely matched to initial process or layout can prove as inflexible and costly tooperate inlong termasthose designed to minimise capital cost (to exclusion of consideration of operating costs and operational flexibility).

2 Mass production does not usually demandlong narrowbldg, ie formal-

isationof flow diagram:typicallyprocess is loopedbetween common vehicle access& sf0 zone

a

±

4

[Z1 [Thi

Key: 1 offar 2labar 3amenity

Z2

:::7:.

7

I

I L±_L1 !H! JW L J

ar 4 production ar 5testing & inspection 6wet servicecore 7expansion

3

r

In light & hightechnologyindustry production research &arare becomingless & lessdistinct: deptwillneedtoexpandorcontractfreely

--'-i- _o--

4

Factorystructuresmusthavespanswideenoughinbothdirections to allow optimiseproduction layout: traditional batchproduction linesof similarmachines,a, may needtobereorganisedintointegrated cell' to exploitmodernmech handling techniques, b

266 Industry

Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDING TYPES Separate bldg types can be identified as most efficient in meeting operational demands ofcertain methods of production. Spans, type of structure, clear height, roof and floor loadings function ofhow product manufactured or stored rather than what product is. Industrial bldg should be designed to serve broad range of useswithinthat general production sector.

Basictypesto be identified are:

Lightduty

2

Impliessmall scale (also —p285—90workshops). Industrialbldg where operational demands of production or sto process place few demands on structural frame or floor. Interchangeable between light production and distribution duties. Typically up to 1 860 m2. Light metal work, packaging, clothing, consumer durable repairs, small printers. Distribution of el goods, builders' components, sub-depots for local retail distribution.

Mediumduty

Principally batch production orsto duties where process and ing services implysomedemands on design of bldg structure, shape and floor, allowing potential flexibility of production and sto layout. Sto and production bldg types not interchangeableunless roofstructuredesigned with production services capacity.

—

Light dutyindustrialbldg mainlyforsto purposes:portalframedstructure typically4.5mtoeaves;spans mm 9m,typical12m;roofloading0.35kN/m2 (no hoisting);floor loading 16kN/m2

3 Mainly light production: trussedframe;eavesh &spansas—.(2); roof structuralloading(services)0.5kN/m2(up to 2thoistloadsdistributed! structuralbay)

4

Typicalprocessflowdiagramfortraditionalbatch production organis.tion,

eg engineering

components

ru L . .-i -

-

n. .-

,

V

5 Typicalprocessflow diagram forhigh technology industry, eg electronics material 1

Lifi

Mediumduty industrial bldg: 6.5m preferred eaves h(toallow mezzanine),mm 5.5m;spanstypically12m x 18m; roofstructuralloading: to accept point loads2 monorailhoistlbayorupto5 tsuspendedcraneloads distributedover bay; floor loading 25kN/m2forstackedsto

t

Industry 267

Industrial buildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont)

C

(I)

Heavyduty

Designed to accept large scale batch or mass production systems, which have intensive demands for overhead productionand environmental service and materials handling, and dense floor layoutswith some heavy production machinery and inter-process sf0 areas. May need high bldg to exploit multi-revel ability of materials-handling eqp. In heavy engineering sector somespecial types to exploit heavy lift overhead gantry cranes.

1 Heavy duty industrial bldg: 7m mm general purposeeaves h, 9m forracked, sto &overhead handlingsystems a; 12m forbulkprocessing

plant b;spanstypically 12 m x 18 m butcan be lessforheavyroofloadings(9m x 12m)orgreater forlighterloads(20 m); roofstructural loading: 5 pointloads& lOt beamloadsdistributedoverbay; heavierloadsneedgantrycranes&additional structure; floor loading:15—30kN/m2withsome specialbases forheavymachinetools

possibleparallel sub-assemWy process

may be multiple subassembly stages

2

Typicalprocessflow diagram fortraditional massproductionline: modern developments tend tosplit assemblyfunctionsoffline into teams

268 Industry

Industrialbuildings FACTORYBUILDINGTYPES(cont) structuraltype

Hightechnology

2

1

Demanding high quality process and/or personnel environment. Small

hght duty

S CST S S

in roof zone; can also be requirement for under floor servicing. High content of bulk handling; powders, liquids, gases. Interchangeability

mediumduty

S

or large scale: similar design demands. Provisionfor intensive services between production, lab and areas: rapid change demand with technological innovation and volatile markets.

0

possibleseparate secatdary processsto

secondaryprocess(maybeondifferentsite)

STRUCTURALSELECTION Check nationaland local (state) reg forconstruction and performancein fire relating to required occupancy andwith client's insurancecompany: thiswill affect materials choice —sp277.

SERVICINGSTANDARDS; STATUTORY REQU IREMENTS Forgeneral servicing standards in industrial bldg —up383—397.

•

S

S

S

S

S

heavyduty

S

S

O(b)cS

S

S

hightechnidogy

S S

CS

smallscale

S CST

generalpurpose

S

• CS

•S

S CS

.S

3 appropnatestnicture appropriateslnicturein notedcaseonly

A

aluminium

C

concrete

S

steel

T

timber

a

multi-divisiblespaces

b

withoverheadgantry cranesonly

C

widespans on irregularsite

S (a)AS

S)c)AS

S

AS

S CST

• •• CS

6

5

S AS

0(b)CS

C

largeplant, 10—15kN/m2forhighlabouruseassembly

4

S AS

S

1 Typicalprocessflow diagram forprocess-based industry, eg petroctientical,rubber

2 High technologyindustrial bldg: mayrequire undercroft for bulkprocess access& servicesrouting; 7m preferred mm eaveshover process plant a&forpalletisedsto b; 4mmm forhightechnology assembly environment C;roof structura'loadingsupto 1.2 kN/m2, distributed,forservices, hoistloads upto5tdistributedperbayforplantremoval; floor loadings 15—20kN/m2 for

3 CST

S

termerhate

.

•

4

S CS S(c)AS

Factorystructuraltypes

Structuraltypes: asingleaxis solid beam,long span purlins b singleaxiscastellabeam,long spanpurlins:forservicerouting ortalframe forusewhereservice loadingminimalorgantrycraneage: typical pitch6°, rooflightsbuilt into pitchorridge d flat orcambered truss, 1 or2axes emonitorroof, evenlydistributedlight,singleaxis spaceframe: forverywide spans; wherecolumnscannotbeat equal spacing;wherehighdegreeof servicingfreedomrequired

Industry

269

Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES Warehouse bldg selection depends on scale and type ofsto operation. Different methods of sto unit loads imply various levels of efficiency in filling bldg volume and accessibility to load. Equally these decisions affectselection of mech handling eqp —vp278(4)(5). Warehousing operation usually involves bulk sto and order selection functions. Thesetendhave dissimilarstoand materialshandlingdemands except when small scale installations: typically high dense sto for bulk stockto exploithandling techniques with lower 'active stock' areas for orderpicking. Typical proportion divides warehouse: 1/3 high bayarea, 2/3 lower area for order picking and assembly and loading bay zones —v(1), ie can combine 2 of bldg types described below. Because of densityof stock bulk sto area may not needto expand so rapidly as processing zones.

Key: ahigh bay palietsb efficientmechhandling blow bayar:Order picking&load assembly cloadingbay

I

Typicalproportionsofhigh& lowbayarfordistribution warehouse

WAREHOUSEBUILDING TYPES

I,

I? L

U

I

_in1 U

check-of1/ sort

[

check-off! sod

[

bulkstock

I

activestock! orderpicking

[

U

[er

Small scale —vp266lightdutyfactory and —vp268(3) entries 1 & 2.

General purpose

Forfork-lift,reach truckand narrow aisle stackeroperation. Bldg acts as weather-proof envelope to sto operation. Importantthat spans, height, floorstrengthallow forflexible installationofsto methods —ep272 types 3—6, 7a & 8a; also—ep266 medium dutyfactory types and —*p272(1 0).

Intermediate high bay

Independent bldg structure for intermediate height narrow aisle sto systems. Up to 14 m bldg height (12 m sto height). Allows variationsin sto layout and possibility of other later uses; also —p267 heavy duty factory.

U assembly

U

k-outloadirigi despatch

2

Typicalstoflow diagram: repository, componentsb foradingproduction process

3

Typicalsto flow diagram: egcold sto,steel stockholding repository,

4 Generalpurposewarehouse,typicallyfor7500 stackh: 8000to eaves; spans 12—18m; floor loading25kN/m2mm NBconsideralsoflat roof

5

Intermediatehigh baywarehouse, typically14mto eaves:spans 11.1—20.5 m depending onaislewand pallet size; floor loadings50 kN/m2 distributedloads

ci c C,)

270 Industry

Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES

High bay

-.p271(1l—13)

Integral rack structure: for sto heights to 30 m to exploit automated handling techniques —o(2). Economic land cost high, labour cost high, expansion potential limited. Sto rackingforms bldg structure, with root and wall cladding attached to it. Very strong floor and foundations required so poor ground can preclude concept.

S r

supphersgoods

U

3

Wheresf0arlimited&throughputspeednottoppriorityintense useof volumecanbemadewith mobile racking; double-sidedrackingmounted on rail-bornecarriers: racksnestfacetoface, only 1 aisleopeningat time; imposeshighfloor loadings

f

+ +

1-

-1-—

4

Blockstacking3—4palletsh: aislemoves through stackto providefirst-in, first-out rotation; aislewrelatedto type of fork-liftused—'p271 1 Typicalsto flow diagramfordistribution warehouse, eg retailfood distribution

f

ii iii Hi

ii IIi[IIHU

a

7zzfr2 a' lii I

1(

1:

[Cflbfl

5 Forbulkpalletstoin long aislesstockshouldbearranged innotional arso

[—snj

that fastestthroughputstock closest toassemblyar: noterackorientation at 900to assemblyzone —

BB'1

__s 2b —

—

.

p p7

—

2 High baywarehouse, bldgstructure

•

[3 _

.

0 0 0

—

integral with palletracking; h 30m; floor loadingscan bemorethan 60kN/m2distributed

loadassently

6 Fororderpickingdiversestockrackingarranged parallelwith load

assemblyzone with rackardevotedto stockwithvariousthroughputspeeds, fastest nearestassemblyzone: reduces slowmoving pickingmachinery blockingmovementofothers

Industry

271

Industrial buildings WAREHOUSES

C

Fork-lift dimensions

In design for best use of sto space note interaction between aisle spaces and fork-liftdimensions: decision on stacking may decide size and make of fork-lift, choice of fork-lift may decide stacking. Relevant details for somefork-lifttypes and pallet sizes —(1 )—(6).

/ type offork-lift

Counter-balanceforkliftcapacity 3000kg: stackingaisle90°with 1220 squarepallet3670; intersecting aisle (dotted) 2000;Iwithoutpallet3150, w1100 1

counter-balanced fork-lift:load capacity 2500kgat 610 load centre I withoutpallet wwithout pallet h: mastlowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front(drive) rear(steer) 90°stackingaisle (1 200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1 200 pallet) (dotted)—(1)

/'\l_____ ./ \-

/ / //

1

/•/

dimensions weight kg

3246 1118 2286 4500 6000 750

3480 2000

fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheel ar, available from

trade literature

4

Counter-balancedfork-liftdimenskns&weights: palletsizesUSA 1220

x 1220, 1220 x 1 830; somepalletshavesides1220h typeoffork-lift

dimensions

weight

kg extendingmastreachfork-lift:loadcapacity 2040kgat 610 load centre Iwithoutpallet wwithoutpallet h: mast lowered weightwithoutload wheel loadsladen1: front (mast extended) rear(mastextended 90°stacking aisle(1200 pallet) turn-out aisle(1200 pallet) (dotted)—.(2)

2 Reachfork-liftcapacity1 500kg, palletcarriedwithin wheelbase;stacking aisle 90°with 1 220 squarepallet2400;intersecting aisle (dotted) 1 900; Iwithoutpallet 1 600, w 990

1

1 930

990

2667 2722 4282 481

2362 1 905

fordistributedrollingloadsdividebywheelar,

available fromtrade literature

5 Extendingmastreachfork-liftdimensions&weights type offork-lift

dimensions

weight

kg poweredP-controlled palletfork-lift:load capacity 1815kg Iwithout pallet w withoutpallet h: mastlowered wwithout load wheelloads 90°stacking aisle (1200 pallet) turn-out aisle (1200 pallet) (dotted) —(3)

/ \ 3

PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-lift: stackingaisle90°with 1220square pallet1 750; intersecting aisle(dotted)1 500;Iwithoutpallet1 820,w787

6

1 854

762 notapplicable notapplicable 1 752 1

498

PoweredP-controlledpalletfork-liftdimensions&weight

372

(I)

272 Industry

Industrialbuildings WAREHOUSES

Storageefficiencywith varioushandling methods

Takingtypical stacking areas 33m x 33 m, volume efficiencyassessment includes 1 repositioning aisleat end of rack runs; pallet size: 1200x 1000 x 200 tall—*(1 )—(9); figures in column 2of (10) relate to numbers ofpicture captions. USA pallet sizes —*(11) and p27l(4). Fork-liftinblockstack:3SOOaisle;3600stackh (4.5m bldgh dotted) 1

LE

±E

E

E

Fork-liftin palletracking: 3500aisle;7500 stack h 2

3

Reachfork-liftinblock stack: 2600aisle;3600 stack h (4500 bldg h dotted)

4

Reachfork-liftin palletracking: 2600aisle;

j uflu

7500stackh

F_______________________

5

9

Reachfork-liftindrive-inracking, drivesinto stack betweenframes:7500stack h

typeof sto

eqp

access sto increase stack pallets volume h stored efficiency overfork-lift equivalent

%

Reachfork-liftindoubledeepracking, has extendingfork attachment: 2600aisle 6

Automatedfixedpath stackercrane: 1 400 aisle; 24 m stackh; integralrackstructure

fork-lift: bldg h Smto undersideofstructure

2 beam pallet

reachfork-lift: bldg h8m to undersideof structure

narrowaisle stacker:

1452 1 200

24 20

poor 100

3 blockstack2 4 beam pallet

3

1 584

28

poor

9

racking Sdrive-in racking 6doubledeep racking 7a beam pallet racking3 beampallet racking4 8a double deep racking3

5 5

1400

35 58

100

17

2400

blockstack1 racking

lb

7

Narrowaisle stacker,movesparallel with rack:

astackh7soo bstackhdottedlo.5m

%

3 5

1

laat out 5

2400

49

50

5

1800

46

100

50

7

2520

46

46

110

5

2400

59

50

7

3360

60

50

32

100

8bdoubledeep racking4

automatedhigh bay stacker 9beampallet crane,rail guided:bldg racking ft 24 m toundersideof roofstructure(can be

istin

15 5400

30m+)

'volumeefficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used (4500 mm) 2 volume efficiencyincreases iflowerbldg used bldg fttounderside roofstructure 8000 bldg hto underside of roof

8

Narrowaislestackerin doubledeepracking, l600aisle: astackh7soo bstackhdotted 10.5 m

structure11 m

assectionof longeraisle: typically 100m+

10 Stoefficiencywith various handling methods

Whenusingpallets1220 x 1 830(frequent inUSA)preferred aislew3600;4270run of rack accommodates3pallets1220 x 1220or2 pallets1220 x 1 830 11

Industry

273

Industrial buildings key: 1 off 2goods inwards 3rackedbulkpallet sto 4order pickingar 5order &despatchassemblyar 6repackaging& processingar 7expansion

SITE LAYOUT Site layout for factories and warehouses determined by: shape and size ofbldg expansion potential services running through site, eg gas mains, powercables topography: affecting accessforheavy vehicles andbuilding economics (cut and fill) energy conservation: exposure to prevailing and storm winds ground conditions and drainage, eg avoiding pilingor potential flood areas surrounding neighbourhood: keeping noisy external plant and loading baysfromresidential area vehicle (road and rail) manoeuvring and marshalling area in relation to loading bays —p282—3.

Economics

1

Option 1: lowrise 'conventional'sto; minimalsite works

Comparing alternative site layouts will usually resultin trade-offbetween conflicting factors. Exampleshows alternativesforsiting distribution warehouse: important cost factor involves expansion potential and linked mech handling eqp investment decision First option —+(1) minimises excavation by exploiting fall of land to provide raised loading dockat infeed: distribution vehicles were to be side loaded fromground level. But goods inwardsloading bay would face prevailing wind, energycost, and circulationround site required, needing relocation in event ofexpansion. Secondoption—(2)accepts some excavation forraised dock: in leeand exploits fallof site to sink part of high bay stacking area for less environmental intrusion and increased handling efficiency. Revised axis of bulk sf0 area allows much increased expansion potential without affecting operation of existing installation.This combined with improved sto and handling economics more than offset any increase in capital costof construction.

Planning grids

2

Option2:narrowaisle highbaysto:trade-off= costofsiteworksagainst increasedoperational flexibility& lowerenergyloss

To coordinate building's structure,services and circulation in formulating siting and expansion strategy and to integratetheseelements during bldg design, discipline their disposition by employing planning grid.

3 Tocoordinatestructure,services& movement

indevelopmentstrategyworktomastergrid;note 3-dimensionalimplications

274 Industry

Industrial buildings LAYOUTOF MULTIPLEUNITDEVELOPMENTS & ESTATES Small scale nursery' and 'seedbed' units: meetneedto integrategroup of units into existing urban or rural community. Illustrations —(1)(2) show small 'seedbed'group combined with landscaped open space and 'nursery'unitswith expansion capacitywith grouped goods access. Speculative developments forrental: built in variousforms ofterrace to

allow flexible space allocation. Note: sufficientheavy goods vehicle manoeuvring and parking area (see also loading bays)

car parking for workpeople and visitors (check local standards) off and amenity accn: either integral within volume of bldg (where site area restricted) or as attached block (where developer requires max rental fromproduction/sto area) mixture ofsizesofunit in estatecan beachieved byvariable location of cross walls in terrace or by providing 2 or more groups of bldg of increasing size: decision depends on scale Trade mart concept may be used to revitalise urban areas: divisible space undercommon roofallowing high degree of planning flexibility.

// //// 41V

3

key: 1 yard 2 public

12 39

24rn

785

—i:

wt

key: 1 goods vehicle parking/loading 2cross

open space

routes 3atrium pedestrian route 4retail use 5service use 6craft use 7lightproduction

'Nursery'& 'seedbed'industrial unitscanbe integrated intorural community,bringreliefto crowded innercity 1

9

'Trade mart' typedevelopment, attractiveinnercitypossibility mixinglight industrial,craft & retailstostimulate workingcommunity: common envelopeprovidesmulti-divisiblespace 3

key: 1 'nursery' units; rental 2mediumsized divisibleunits: rental 3largerdivisibleunits: rental 4purpose-built units(lease-back) 5yard/loadingar 6carparking(grouped) 7 landscapedopen space

tOrn

14 ft

2

Typicalmixed useindustrial estate with rangeof unitsizes forrentaleachhavingexpansionoptions(by extendingintoadingunit):openspace & grouped, shieldedparking& yardsforeachproperty;landscaping improveswhatcan tooeasily bedesolateenvironment

Industry

Industrial

275

buildings ci

INDUSTRIALPARKS

C')

railroad spur

sewagetreatment plant

'

\\-it

-

/

,/-' 1

—:-

2

)

//

"\

—'-

—

-

—

/

I

t

/'I

1)1/I

hillwaterS

diversion channel & lakeoutlet

Siteplan EarthCityindustrial parkSt LouisUSA:developmentinflood plain of Missouririver necessitated systemofdrainage lakes&diversion channel,with leveebetweenEarthCity&river

IndustrialAirparkSpiritWestSt LouisUSAhasaccessfromairportto individual sites in park through taxiwayeasement& also fromChicago-Rock Island railroad 3

276 Industry

Industrial buildings BUILDINGENVIRONMENT Rising energy and labour costs make bldg environment increasingly important contributor to operating costs and productivity. Factors to be considered in providing goodconditions atworkplace include: dust and fumeextraction ventilation in hotweather heating in cold weather natural and artificial lighting noise control

As rough guide 5 I/sIP: conventional air change rate of 1—1.5 air changes/hr may resultin more than 50 times this requirement,wasting much energy.

Heating

19°C 16°C 13°C

light requirementIx

engineeringmachineshops manualwork benchwork carefulbenchwork precisionwork

200 300 500 1 000

engineeringinspection&testing mediumdetail fine detail minutedetail sheet metal benchwork stamping,pressing spot welding,general precisionwelds assembly mediumdetail small detail very finedetail storesissue counter

Ventilation

sedentary work active (bench) work very active work

place

66°F 59°F 57°F

For many companies with processes involving heat, energy can be

recovered and waste heat transferred to contribute to work place requirements: considerable cost savings possible. Warehouses with refrigerated orchilled areas can also benefit, heat being recovered from the chiller's compressors to warm areas where people work.

paint shops paintdips

Heating and ventilation demandsalso function ofstandardof insulation and quantity of glazing provided. In UK factory and warehouse bldg mustbeinsulated to0.7 W/m2 °C, with single glazing limited to 20% of roof area and 15% of wall area. These areas still high for energy conservation: 1O%ofwalland roofareausuallyconsidered appropriate.

warehousing loading bays palletpicking order pickingsmallitems packingstations

Natural lighting Demand for natural roof lighting influences selection of roof structure.

1

1

Escaping noise also troublesome outside bldg: place external plant awayfrom direct lines with surrounding s; screen and suppress source.

300 500 1 000 150 200 300 500

maxexposuretime hr

102 105 108 111

Noisecontrol

Reduce noisebefore reaches workplace byabsorption (walls, roofsand pendant absorbers) and/or bymodifying backgroundnoise. Reduce noise effectbyisolating workers in noise reducing enclosures.

500 1 0001 1 5001 300

Artificiallighting:typicalrequirements

85 87 90 93 96 99

—.p398—400;—*(1)

Reduce vibration at source by mounting machineryon resilient pads or special foundations.

10001

also needstask lighting

soundpressurelevel dBA

Artificial lighting

Reduce noise at source bydesign ofeqp, screening and enclosure.

750 500 500

spraying colourmatching

Compared with the insulated roofwithoutanyopenings 20% permitted glazing will increase both heat loss by4 times and ventilation demand through insolation: in highly serviced environmentsuncomfortableglare canresultfrompipe runs crossing bright roof lights.Outdoor illuminance varies from 5000—25000 lux fromovercast to sunshine conditions in temperate climates: therefore 3% DF will provide equivalent of 150— 750 lux at work place; 10% roofglazing will result in av DF about 5%. Flank glazing must alsobe carefullydesigned toavoid glare, particularly athigh level. Natural lighting inwarehousescan bepositivedisadvantage, sunlight raising tempand causing package fade.

Noisemajor pollution and limit on working efficiency: noise damageto hearing, humansensitivity tovibration —p18; max levels inworkplace

500 1 000 1 500

24 16

8 4 2 1

minutes 30 15 71/2 33/4

continuouslevelsover 85dBA should be avoided 2

Maxexposuretonoise

Industry 277

Industrial buildings PLANNINGFORFIRECONTROL

BUILDINGREGULATIONS

Deg factory orwarehouse to meet potentialfire hazard involves: measures to limit spread of fire within and outside bldg by compartmentation, detection devices, sprinklers and choice of materials for structure and cladding providing readily accessible and identifiable means of escape with alternative route in everysituation providing ventilation in roof to reduce heat and smoke build-up to prevent fire 'leap-frogging' underroof cladding and enablefire service rapidly vent smoke: typically 1 vent per structural bay, with curtains of non-inflammable material forming smoke reservoirs in roof space extinguishing fire or at leastcontrolling seat of fire until brigade can extinguish it, by means of sprinklers, high expansion foam or gas drenching Firedesign decisions involve consultation with: : compartmentation may significantly affect layout of process or warehouse fire chief/officer: local reg and practice, particularly on fire appliance access, water supply and means ofescape 's insurance company: predominant influence on fire control in USA. Insurance company can demand compartmentationon basis of calculated maximum forseeable loss' (MFL fire wall). Reduced compartmentation can be negotiated against deg roof structure of greater fr and installation of sprinkler system. Insurance companies usually allow 50% reduction for sprinkler system.

UK bldg reg relating to compartmentation for fire control and cubic capacity of bldg, covering eg rules for measurement, periods of fr for elements ofstructure —Bib116590592593594601. In USA areas, construction types, egress or exits, compartmentation and all matters concerning fire safety and fire control are regulated by bldg code istered by city or municipal inspection dept (—*Bib027 505 509 510). Matters concerning fire insurance ratings of hazard and bldg covered

bystandards ofNational Board of FireUnderwriters.

Statutorycontrols

On national or state basis. In UK controls affect max cubic capacity of compartments for single and multi-storey bldg and fr of elements of structure forfactory and warehouse bldg of certainfloorareas.

Warehouses Warehouses with pallet rackingcan provide particularfire hazard,aisles acting as flues. Reg forinstallationofsprinklers,ingforfrequency ofoutletand flowratesbasedon degreeof hazardforstored material. In USA apply rules from National Fire Protection Assocation and client's insurer. In UK Fire Officers' Committee Rules forAutomatic Sprinkler Installations should beadhered to.

Site planning

Control offire spread canalsoaffect location offactory orwarehouseon site, particularly in relation toading s. This can affect bldg costs as there are rulesset down formaterials and frof walls when ading otherproperty at particulardistance. ForUK—unprotectedarea requirements in Bldg Reg ES (Bib592); for USA —*state bldg codes and requirements of American Insurance Association (Bib026); in general codesprovide fire safety for people and underwriters protect bldg.

IIIII

Factorieswithoutsmoke ventscan become rapidlysmoke-filledwith fire spreading under roof 1

surface

Withvents& smoke reservoirsfirecan be quicklycontained&controlled 2

:3 C')

278 Industry

Industrial buildings V ,P

ENVIRONMENTALCOMPARTMENTATION

V

V

Compartmentation, so long as compatible with handling and services demandsof production and sto process, can be used reduce both energy loss and certain hostile environments, such as fumes, heat, noise and dust, aswell as limiting fire spread.

Hot, dirty processes can be grouped to exploit energy and material recoverytechniques. Proportion ofarea/volume of factory affected by processwill indicate strategy; high proportion of area affected, group processes into compartment;low proportion,enclose separateelements of processwith local extraction and controls. Alternative increasingly attractive with high energy cost: segregate those whoworkin production area into environmental enclosure, exploiting automation, and only

-11* 1

minimally temper malority ofarea. Parallel with warehouses: automate main stosection, limiting environmentalcontrols tozonesofhigh labour use fororderpicking and assembly.

In unitsconstructedspeculativelyforrentingoff& amenity accnprovided

in stripforflexiblespaceallocation

WORK PLACEDESIGN Design ofworkplace fundamentalto achievinghigh levels ofproductivity: alsoinfluences labour relationsand absenteeism.Work placecombines:

Ergonomics

Work people's relationship to machinery and work actions to reduce fatigue and increase safety.

Mechanical handling

From most basic, low cost handling devices, scissor lifts, hoists and counterbalanced manipulators,whichcan revolutionise manualwork, to accumulating conveyors, automatically routing mobile work stations and robotassembly machines.

Work organisation

Grouping people for certain tasks. Traditional isolation of machine operatorsand line assemblyorganisationunder reviewin severalcountries in Europeand in USA; team organisationcanoffer greatercommunication and production flexibility.

Environment

2

Environmentalfactorscanbeconsidered forpurpose designedfactories: with noisy &dirty processesoff andamenityaccncan besegregatedfrom productionzone

Positive demands: temp suited to activity—USA: AmericanSocietyof Heating,Refrigeration & Air-conditioning Engineers (BibO3l), UK: Institution of Heating & VentilatingEngineers (Bib164) airflowand air cleanliness lighting: backgroundand task —p398—4OO Defence against: glare noise vibration harmful gaseous or dust products: explosions

key: 1 lightmaterial:low usage,infrequentoperation 2frequenthighlevel controls orlightpositioning 3 convenientcontrolzone: standingmanipulation 4seated control zone: light& medium-heavylocation 5infrequentzone of heavy material

3

Manualwork& sto involvesomecriticaldimensions: mostcommon working &manipulativezone is in2—4band

IQDL

II

4

II

Hli

Li2

II

Simplehandlingaids suchasscissorliftcanimproveworkingconditions& productivity

5 Counter-balancedmanipulatorcanenableoperatorplaceheavy loads accurately

Industry

279

Industrialbuildings WORK PLACEDESIGN Amenity

Washing, changing, wc and smoke/rest provision related to workplace. Location and scale depend onworkorganisation—.(4): traditional line production will require centralised services accessibleto numbers of people team organisationimpliesamenityaccnclose byorlocaltoteamoperating area; with changes in production organisation depending on manufacturing methods and volume, both are likely to change with increasing frequency.

key:a1000 b2400 c800

1 Typicalmanualorder picking frompallets&shelf,replenished by reach truck; simultaneouspickingfromeach sideforhighthroughputinstallation

key:a 1000 b1800

2

Slowerthroughputpickingoperation with 1-waytrolley access: replenishedby narrowaislestackerorfrombehind rack

uiu a b

c a

key:a800 b75 c150 dllOO e250

3

Typicalrack& shelfhforfloorlevelorder picking

4

Wet services,washing& rest ar: a small divisibleunitsas stripalong boundary bmed & largesizefactorybldgwith 2possiblezonesforplacing wet services,eitherallowing freelocationineachzoneorgroupingintoflexibly positionedbutdistinctwet serviceunits,egforteamaccess cforlargescale factoriesanotheroptionisislandwet serviceand amenity ar; advantages: singleundergroundservicesrun &accessibility fromall sides

c0)

280

Industry

Industrial buildings HYGIENE ,'

1•••• unnals

washtrough

—i ii,

Washing general

UK law requires that adequate and suitable facilities for washing, conveniently accessible,beprovided and maintainedforuse of employed persons in allfactories. Where nospecialorderofficial recommendation not less than 1 washbasin/20P doing clean work, 1/lOP doing dirty work, 1 /5P handling poisonous substances. Provisionofwashbasins—vBib6O8

Lavatories

UK factory laws do not specify numbers of lavatories: provision considered 'suitable and sufficient' foroffices, shopsand railwaysequally relevant for factories—vBib346 347 604.

Lockers 1

2

Layoutofdo, washr, drinfood

Changingmiwith strict separation ofclean&dirtyclothes

productsfirm

Changing areas

ocher sizes

IhwdI I

Forclean trades 1 locker/P must beprovided; fordirty 1 double locker/P to keep workand street clothing separate. Mm

I

changing area0.5 m2/P

Ambulance rooms Specificationforambulancerm:

11750130013001 11850130013001I 118501 3501 500

Floor space not less than 9.29 m2 with natural light and ventilation. Should contain: glazed sink with hot and cold running water, table with smooth surface, means of sterilising instruments, adequate supplyof suitable dressings, bandagesand splints, couch, stretcher, separate rm for male and female, qualified nurse always available.

I timber 120001 400 I 500I 12000140015301

vents

3 2-tier rowoflockersformultiple shift firm: orlower lockerforwork clothesupperforstreetclothes

shell —

4

Doublerowofventilated clothes lockers:benchesinfront

*

1120

towelholder

5 Hbwith tapsand adequate dimensions;washingtroughs narrower(up to 940 deep)

6

Washfountain(Bradleysystem): 25% saving in spacecompared with rowsofbasins;waterconsumption 10P/15—391: water pressure atmosphere

7 Continuousbasin: Rottersystem

Fountainonwallwithdrinking jet, controlledbylever 8

o• 11

Sho cubicleswithclotheshooks outside

iri 9

Seriessho eachfor4P

10 Continuousshoalongwallswithfootsho

12 Sho cubicleswith clotheshooks inside

Industry

281

Industrial buildings SANITARYINSTALLATIONS

;7N

ID

iD 7

__ D

—125—"———1.55—i

___________

i— 1.5 —"-—1.15—-,

LDH h

Singlerowclosetsdoorsopening outwards(above),inwards(below) 1

—1.25

H is......

\N

h ZN

D

Sanitary installationsaccording to German standardgiven here. 1 tloor outlet with smell trap per closet and 1 tap connexion with 1 socket spanner and hose union. Cleaner's sink. Floor surface non-slip, water resistant, easyclean. Walls washableupto2000high. Floorand wallssealedagainstmoisture. Rm temp mm 15°C. Wc partitionsto ceiling height; space outside well ventilated; 1 washbasinand handdrierper 5wc.Where soap dispensers titted 1/2 basins. Mm 1 mirror for2—3 basins.

—t

1.5—44———1.55

Iii

Singerow closetswith urinal on oppositewall 2

7N {D7K 7i\

: r

h l.25

2.05—

500+— 1.1 —t-600-

:* 1

ZNT

—1.5—it-——125—i

3

Singlerowclosetswith bowl urinals opposite

4

h5004900

F500+S1Xii

12 Changingarwith hanger

Changingarwith simplehook tittings:unattended 11

fittings:unattended

Doublerowclosets iockerswdh benches

locker

bend,

HHHH

locker

L

11 350 1

Lit '—

Al

wwstodssickngunder

ftj H±H

5 Washrwithhb

6

Washrwithtrough

13

Mm

1.0

slo4ffl DH[IIE E±1:d

i—9-H

450s-ô--r--6OO-i—6OO-i

—5Xi—4

[I] HI U 1.0

t—500—4

1.3

r IL 1.0

—900-i

I

I

i—900—4

1.0

[Istool I—

9—

dimensionsforchanging rm

_—105 —500 4 'a >2,05 Al

7 Washrwith tootbaths

8 Washrwith foot-trough

1.05

14 Depositdo, singlelayout with pegs, duallayout with hangers do): attended

I closedsho wrlti

—1.05—4550: changingcubicle

__Ff14 1.05— 1.5 —±1.05*1.05°--1.1-' 3.6 — -°2.15 -H

9

Gullydrainage,individual drainagetorhalf-opensho compartment

10 Bath cubiclewith changing alcove:mm dimensionstorsho& bath units

720-800-'

15 Vendingmachines

(theatre

a C C',

282.Industry

Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS Link between production or sto process and distribution system. Much effort toreduce production costs can bewasted throughdelayed vehicle turn-round and increased manning if loadingarea notcarefullydesigned.

Decisionsin loadingbayplanning

Raised orgroundlevel dock?Generally, forend-loading containersand box bodies vehicles, as in retail distribution, raised; for side-loading curtain sided and flat bed vehicles, ground level. Separate loading baysforincoming and despatch —v(1): separate bays, together with vehicle marshallingareas, where manufacturing system involves differentcharacteristics between raw materials and finished products, with raw materials calling for side handling at ground level and palletised for despatch needing end loading. Similarly for large distri-

bution warehouse: bulk loads of single product delivered, mixed loads oforders despatched indistributors' ownvehicles; here segregationfor traffic management and materials flow in warehouse, particularly as vehicle handling peaks may coincide. Number ofloading bays, spacing and layout: loading bays must never be considered in isolation; mustbe related to circulation and check-off area behind them. Decision on numbers question ofthroughput patterns and availablearea next todockfor load preparation. Clearly ifvehiclescan behandledfasterwith pre-assembled loads, less loading docks required than for slower turn-round with material being assembled as loadingoperation continues. loading bay spacing and layout influenced by depth of manoeuvring area available and depth of load accumulation space behind dock. Choice of which should have more spacemust be basedon assessment of individual throughput demand.

It

o 10203040 m I I 3366 99132 ft

inwards:suppliers'bulk key: a loads bhighbay bulkstockpaflelsto alletbreakdown& repacleng er dorder selection& loadassembly edespatch loadingbay: s'disbibutionvehicle fl-way trafficflow glongtermtruck ar parking& s'maintenance

ods

2 Manywarehousescanusedockforincoming & despatch goods; in factories sharing type of loadingbay maynotbepossiblebutgoodsvehicle manoeuvringarcanbe common 1 Large retaildistributioncentrewith separate goodsinwards&despatch loadingbays

key:

longwheelbasengbichassistruck a2.8m b3.9m c4.7m d5.5m e5.lm f4.6m g26.8tntsmingcircle

4smmninparfdng:3mcentres

3

_-"n

reinendloading:3,3 mcentres 35 mpreferredmm spacing:3.8 mCentres 33mnabsolutemmnal3.8mcentres

4

5

3omdat5timcentres

6

I

15marticulatetruck a4.7m b5.7m c7.3m d8.3m efl.8m t7.8n1 g27miunmingcircleat 900fulllock

23 m(75 6 neverless than20nidepthevenifspacinggreaterthan tOrn

I 20

25

30

35

40

45n1

ntis distancefromface ofloadingthktoboratdary ofrnanoerenngarforsinglemovementtum-c&d

3

Calculating yard depth& loading bay spacingfor 15 m articulated trucks parked at 900 to dock 122m1n(for tTaflicflowA c0unterclockwise

19.flforlfl.8tractor/traileretc 168 for168tractor/trailer

VIA V I A V

t'

manoeuvengyr

loadingar

————

- -ltorclockwise. trafficflow A)

5

Typicalturningdimensionsforrigidchassis &articulated trucks maalo7kerticul

c

A tractor-trailerI

B

c

posftion w

'apron' space

10.7

3.0 3.7

14,0 13.1

122

3

146

43

128

A

£ £

-—

b

4

I

137

13,4

30

174

4.3

14,9 14.6

37

waitingar

Truckloading& manoeuvring, USAdimensions a loading, manoeuvring andwaitingar b& C apronspace requiredfor 1 move intooroutof position

Industry

283

Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS (cont) Spacing

Directly related to yard depth; conditioning factor: distance closely parked vehicles have to pull out before turning —.(1). Angled, raised docks reduce yard depth at expense ofnumber ofvehicles handledat 1 time: ground level drive-through bays reduce circulation width but increase length. Finger dock compromise for side and end loading where manoeuvring area limited.

Loadcheck-off/accumulationspace

Behind cross circulation aisle load handling zone (dock levellers with raised docks). Should have capacity of 1 .5 vehicle loads. space for broken pallets, relected loads, rubbish: at least 1 load area. Crosscirculation aisle4000 allows 2 fork-lift and for turnout from docklevellers. Keep thisarea clear ofcolumns.

end-loadingraiseddock: drawforwarddistance

Raised docks

Equip with docklevellerplates accommodate both changes in vehicle bed height as they are loaded and different types of vehicle. Standard loading dockheight in USA 1220, common with 1 200 in Europe: with European vehiclesgreater variationsinbed height.Dock levellers should not exceed gradient of 1 in 10withhighest orlowest vehicle.

Energy

Do not face loading bays into prevailing wind. Raiseddocks: use dock shelterswhere vehicle forms hermetic seal with bldg and segmentalor roller shutterdoor closes on to leveller when vehicle leaves. Ground levelor finger docks can be completely enclosed (straightthrough flow ortail in). Alternatively, hot orcold air curtainscan beused butthese not substitute for enclosure.

Security

Drivers should not be able gain access beyond dock, except in some distribution operationswith company'sownvehicleswheredriver arranges order of loading. Generally, raised docks with dock shelters provide inherent security: separate lavatoriesand access totraffic office should beprovided forvisitingdrivers.

finger dock: raised end& sideleading

Weather protection

If docksheltersor enclosed dockcannot be installed canopy required overloading area: should allow at least 5000clear height.

Gradients

Ground should beflat(except forlocal drainagefall) for lengthofvehicle in frontofdockor mm oflength of articulatedsemi-trailer.

checkoff buffenat 1.5toad

Heavy goodsvehiclemarshalling & circulation Segregate light vansfromheavygoods vehicles: to use differentdocks! partsofthe dock

equivalent

gafew foraccess frombothdirections

,I' \

Provide heavy vehicle waiting bays before loadingbayarea and clear of manoeuvring space Provide parking baybefore exit for drivers tocheck load security Circulation should beclockwise inrighthanddrive countries, anti-clockwisein lefthanddrive: iereversing into loadingdocks alwaysondriver's

21.5

------- __J Themore angleofvehiclefromloading dockreduced greaterreductionin yard depthbutlower numberof vehicles handled simultaneously in space 1

sid

7mcanopy L

:—-------

_

3800 mm

-

5000 nun

1100—1500

K 12.0 levelsection (55 ftinsomeliSAslaten)

2

-

II

ml

1220standard

3000typicalfor4000laming/ing levellerplate

aisle

Sectionthroughraisedloading dockfittedwithdockshelterforenergyretention: canopy(dotted)only ifshelteromitted

needed

284 Industry

Industrial buildings LOADINGBAYS: USA RAIL

1

Typical rail track spacingrequirements USA fence(if required)

leadtrack

J2.2railrightofway \ 3050 9140min

___

m1n_- __

rail servicedoor

7' tspurtrack 21

3

r

!, C-

a 61.0

truck loading

bldg

-'

parking 1 520 walkway

orlandscaping

I

0 F

______________

V

//

b

91

23.0—

12.2railright ofway

tWCI(

6100min —

rail spurinside bldg 2590from inside wall bldg

parking

loading

1

n

5, CS1I

co

c

j___________

520walkway

orlandscaping

J9l4osetback(Iandscaped) street right-of-way

bldg

91.4

parking 9.

.

1 520 walkway orlandscaping

street right-of-way

:

Sm!

.1111,!

25gOfrominsidewall

I loading

-.j F

—

bldg

parking

0

1520 walkway orlandscaping

I

5, V

Il

21 3 1 c

Is, IC) 61.0

stH

H

eli

railspurinside bldg

23—

I

f9l4osetback(landscaped)

Railservedbldg layoutsUSA arail in right-of-way, bldgset back,spuralongsidebldg brail ineasement, bldg set back, spur alongsidebldg, note:spur layoutrequires easement onadjacentproperty: canbeeliminatedby movingeastwardrail servicedoor &consequently point of switch crail in right-of-way, bldgonpropertyline, spur insidebldg d rail ineasement, bldgset back,spur insidebldg 2

2590 (typic&) -21.3

___________________property line&centreline of lead track 12.2 raileasementi I •

21

1

61.0

r1tZii!

146 setback (landscaped)

streetright-of-way

23 I .l

\

rail servicedoor

truck 61.0 loading

19146setback(landscaped)

leadtrack-

property line&centerhneleadtrack rail easement iit)mm spur track j_

_______________

2590(typical)

(—23.0—

ii.

—

—

Industry. 285

Industrial buildings

ci

Rental unit

WORKSHOPS Great variety in shape and size: workshops classifiedhere by location, circulation requirements —*p286, tenancytypes —p287, and technology theycan accommodate—*p288. Most ofdetailedstandardsand examples given thoserequired fortypical inner cityflatted factory (rental unit).

C')

Most common locations —.(1)—(5).

Domestic

1 garden

IK 1

1

or2 peoplecarryingonhobbyorpart-timeoccupation inextension

of

home

Educational institution

4

Standardunitswithsharedaccessinmulti-storeybldg

Ancillaryto large factory

2

Repetitiveprovisionforclassorgroupof 20—40 people

production

Small industrial estate

wc off workshop sto

I I

I

photo lab

I

Groupofnon-specificunitsfor range ofverysmallbusinesses

wood workshop

metal workshop

I onference

I 3

—

5

gar

Specialistworkshopsforusebystaffmaintaining company'splantorbldg itself

286 Industry

Industrial buildings WORKSHOPCIRCULATION

spaces/floorar

innercity suburbs&rural

distribution heavy goodsvehicles light commercial vehicles

m2

m2

Parkingoutsidebuilding

1/1000 1/1000

Elevatorsinsidebuilding

cars

1/400

1/500 1/500 1/1 000

light industry heavygoodsvehicles light commercial vehicles

1/4000

1/2000

1/1 000 1/200

1/500 1/50

1/1 000 1/150

1/500 1/30

cars

Standards depend on location as well as on type ofuse—.(1). Related toexternal parking and totenancies —.(2)(3).

Circulationwithin workshop

Derived fromtechnology used aswell astype oftenancy —+(4)—(7).

offspace light commercial vehicles cars 1

Parkingguide lines: USAstandards—.p263

4

Straightline: goodsin&outoppositesidesofplant; requires bldg with good accessboth sides:common inmedium-sized firms

5 Overlapping:similarto4 butformuchlargertypeoffirm

2

Goodselevatorservinglargegroup of tenancies: centralmanagement may neededtomaintainfreeuseofelevators at peaktimes

6

U-shape:goodsin&outsameside of plant; possible in bldgwithonly limitedaccess:commonwith verysmallfirms

3

Severalgoodselevatorseach of whichservesseveral tenants,whomust cooperatein its use

7

Convoluted: goodsin&outon same side of plant;sometimes necessary in bldgwith restricted access

forlargefirmswhen accommodated

Industry

287

Industrial buildings WORKSHOPTENANCIES: BUILDINGTYPE

ci

Indirectaccess—(1) Typeofbldg: shallow ormedium depth with cross wallstocreatevertical

C')

compartments. Type of management: individual firm's name displayed and each has unitwithownservices. Managementcould take 1 unitover forown use. Type of. small well establishedfirms requiring own identity. Subdivision: units have street (or yard) frontage, may receive visitors directly and have own stairs,elevators. Compartmentation: each bldg contains several tenancies divided by fr walls. Escape routes: each tenant has fr stairway: if area of high fire risk alternative means ofescape required.

Open plan —*(2) Type of bldg: shallow or medium depth with central corridor on each

1

level. Type ofmanagement: common receptionist: lifts/stairs/corridors from intermediate space to be maintained. Type of: small firms needing some security but less concerned withpresenting individual identity. Subdivision: unitsreached through internal stairsorcorridors common to several s. Compartmentation: each tenant separated from adjacent tenants by fr floor. Escape routes: each individual tenant has door to shared fr escape corridorwhich leads to fr stairway, second means of escape normally alsoneeded.

Indirectaccess

Shared spaceI —(3) Type ofbldg: deepplan.

Type of management: tenants share services and participate in management of accn. Type of : small expanding firms with compatible uses: allows for rapidchanges in sizeand staffing. Subdivision: unitsas suchdo not exist but tenants take space within largeenvelope having single front door. Compartmentation: each open area surrounded byfrwallsand floors. Escape routes: each compartment has directaccess or 2 or more fr stairways: may be necessaryprotect relevantdoorwayswith fire shutter.

2

Open plan

3

Sharedspace

Shared spaceII—*(4)

Typeofbldg:any building type. Type of management: head lessee relinquishes no responsibility for space: may provide telephone, secretarial services on time sharing basis. Type of : newly founded tiny firms (1—5 persons) requiring low overheads and mm commitments. Subdivision: space rented from another firm usually on somekind of licence. Compan'mentation: separate subdivision only required if sub-tenant represents high riskof fireorexplosion. Escape routes: considered same as for main tenant unless special fire risk.

A J

4

Sharedspace

288 Industry

Industrial buildings type

machine engers heavy light goods goods rrn

pit

elelevators

yes yes yes

yes yes no

yes yes yes

yes no no

yes yes yes

yes yes yes

no no no no no

yes no yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

no no no no no

no no yes no yes

yes yes no yes no

2sides

no

yes

yes

no

no

yes

2sides

no rio no

yes no no

yes yes yes

no no no

no no no

yes yes mobile

4sides 4sides

hydraulic lift manually operated lift platform hoist elservicelift scissorslift dock leveller

elbelt

conveyor gravity conveyors elwinch manual winch manual floorcrane 1

external fittings

access

3sides 3sides 3sides 3sides

WORKSHOPS:EQUIPMENTSPACE —(1) shows requirements for some suitable handling eqp for small premises. —.(2)(3) showtypical space needed per machine in tightly planned layout: does notnecessarilyallowforgeneral circulation,process sto or initial installation of machinery. —v(4) shows percentage of total area required foroperations invarious types of workshop.

4 sides

2sides 2 sides

mobile

Suitablehandlingeqp forsmallpremises

A

2

4 Space budgettingbytechnology

Eqpspace—.(3) eqp in commonuse

types

Ax B-.(2) workingspace per item

metal work machiningcentre jig boring& milling machine turret drill surfacegrindingmachine capstanlathe bar & billetshears press brake engraver

diesinker

weldingplant toolgrinder shaper power hacksaw punch press sliproll nIbbler

shearclamphead bandsaw workbench plastics

extruder vacuumformer blow moulder acrylic saw heatingoven

6.0 x 4.0 3.0 x 3.0 2.6 x 3.2 2.6 x 2.2 3.0 x 4.0 2.5 x 3.0 3.0 x 6.0 2.2 x 3.0 1.8 x 2.2 2.8 x 2.5 1.1

x 1.2

1.7 x 2.1 4.0 x 1.2 1.5 x 1.3

x 2.1 2.3 x 1.2 2.1 x 1.5 2.3 x 3.1 1.1

2.7 X 1.9

2 8 x 2.8 2.8 x 2.8 3 ü 4.5 3.0 x 50

06 x 1.1

woodwork bandsaw circularsaw surfaceplaner knot holedrill milling machine slot boring machine dove-taller

ter scroll saw drill press woodshaper radial arm saw

beltsander

veneerpress lathe polisher

carpenter'sbench printing lithographiress plate maker folder drill

3.0 x 5.0

4.8 x 7.9 2.6 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.2 4.0 x 5.0 2.2 x 5.0 2.2 x 4.3

x 8.3 x 1.9 x 1.6 2.9x 1.6 6.5 x 1.8 4.4 x 4.8 5.0 x 4.2

nailer

sole press heel press shapingmachine leathercutter patternstamper

1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 1.5 x 2.2 2.Ox 2.5 3.0 x 3.5 1.5 x 1.7

2.0 X 3.0 2.2 X 2.6 3.0 x 4.5

electronics instrumentbench

1.5 x 4.5

motor repairs each bay

30x 60

general compressor

0.75 x 1.2

2.5 x 5.0 1.5

x 1.8

1.2 1.2

1.5 1.5

1.5 < 3.0 2.0 4.2

photographic developingtank

2.4 x maxlength print 1.5 x maxlength print/2

3 Typicalspace requiredper machineintightlypackedlayout

footwear

7.0 x 14.0 1.2 x 2.2 2.0 x 2.0 2.0 x 2.0 1.2 x 1.2

1.4 1.6 1.6

guillotine gluing belt

enlarger

clothing layingup machine sewingmachine steampress ironing bar steamboiler

x

dustcollector furnace hot dip tank dryingcabinet upholsterypress forge kiln potter'swheel

x 2.0 x 3.0 x 2.2 3.0 x 7.0 2.5 x 3.5 0.9x2.1 0.9 x 2.1 1.8 x 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.7

Industry

289

Industrialbuildings 3 Mixed workshop:

WORKSHOPEXAMPLES

1

die casting; employs15;approx 150m2

Benchworkshop: furskins;employs2; approx 75m

4 Repairshop: electronicsrepair;employs2;approx47m2 2 Craftwork:

organ building & wood furniture; employs2;approx 175m2

.

general woodwork

sander

ri U

organassembly & wiring

ii —V

5 Machine workshop: lithographirinting; employs3; approx93m2

6 Small factory: women'sshoe manufacturer; employs47;approx 370m2

ci

c(I)

290Industry

Industrial buildings Workshopdesignfactors

Factors affecting fabricdesign and services requirementsforrepresentativecategories ofworkshop —(1). factorsaffectingfabricdesign

Service requirements

E

Factors affectingfabricdesign& servicerequirementsforworkshops 1

z

ma

a

poBe A

B

C

D

rjsssDiowniri timber furniture film production furs, skins film processing electronicrecording engraving toys, musicelinstruments metalwork,plating,casting clofhrig tight engineering valves,tools deskaceessories,plastics food processing pnnting

E

rnenufacturing stationery brewing spinning

F

electronicrepairs motorcar repairs bicycterepairs meamcaiprops

SERVICINGSTANDARDS Check all applicablebldg codes and municipalplanreview requirements. Fornew industrial bldg following standardsapply:

Electricity

UK: Each unit to be provided with separate 415 V 3-phase supply, including, sitednormallywithin production area,main distribution board, ofadequate capacity fornormallyanticipatedunitneed ofabout 70kVA, fitted with fused switchboard. (70 kVA units in range of 1 000 m2 and upwards need separateloadcalculations.)Lightingcircuitsto beprovided within offices and lay in appropriate locations. Power socket outlets to be provided in offices. Fused switch socket outlets to beprovided in lay where el sto heaters used. In offices —vp234 lighting wiring should followlikelyoffice subdivision and should finishwith fluorescent fitting but in lay and do should be batten ceiling typefitting. Provide external flood lighting atbackof bldg over service door wired to each individual unit to illuminate rear service area: may be supplemented by street lighting where layout permits. Note: no provision to be made in standard specification for lighting trunking or 13 amp ring main in production areas. USA:currentcharacteristics ofservice vary with process. El eqp forair conditioning may be required for some processes orlocations.

Telephone

Underground service ducttobeprovided intoground floortoallow easy cable connexion.

Gas/gascentralheating

Services to be carried into bldg and sealed off in production area. Supplycapacity to be designed toallow provision ofcentral heating to production and office areasto normalworking standards.Centralheating to be provided only when required at landlord's cost: may be in office areas for larger units using conventional hot water radiator system incorporating provision for hot water for domestic uses. Boiler to be sitedin production area.

Watersupply/plumbing

Cold water supply for domestic needs only to be carried into bldg; tenants'process orsprinkler requirements notallowed for: supplementary serviceto be laid if excessive need indicated. Cold and hot water supplies tobe connected to allwashing installations: hotwater supplied from either wall mounted el 3 kW sf0 heater (capacity54 I) or if more economic central hotwatercylinder having capacityapprox 351/basinor sink. All stotanks tobe adequatelyinsulated.

Drainage

Surface waterdrainage down pipes should have traps accessible from ground floorlevel and be locatedinpositions to avoidaccidentaldamage. Ample external surface watergullies should be provided in service yard to avoid waterstanding and grid channels should be provided across serviceyard entrance where levels ofyard could allow surface water to run off into bldg. Foul drainage should allow for domestic demand; sealed gully in production area for process effluent. Trade effluent certificate required for individual trade needs.

Ventilation

Mech ventilation tobe provided forwconlywhere layout makes impractical natural ventilation. All offices naturallyventilated. Productionareas needonlyhave separate provision for manuallycontrolled roofmounted extractors where chosen form ofheatingwill notachieve this result.Any extractor fans to be completely weather proofed and capable of being serviced at roof level.

Fire alarm

Alarm systems to be installed toeach unitthroughout office production areas. El operated systemwith manual initiation. Supplementary brief (program) to advise if provision to be made for sprinklers, smoke detectorsor emergency lighting. Hosereel pointsonly to be provided whererequired by reg or statute. In USA sprinkler design approved by state insurance commissionorfire

marshall's office. Industrial buildings references: —eBibliographyentries 031 036 052 053 164 177 178257280284301 305 331 332 333 338 341 346 348352 354 363 374 382 387418456 470 477480 481 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600601 602603604 605 606 608 616 627 634 642651

Industry 291

Laboratories ________

CLASSIFICATION Lab differwidelyin layout and service requirements according to use.

linkto adingunit &/orfireescape

aM

IL] eH

Classificationcategoriesincludetype ofdiscipline(eg chemistry,physics, biology), level ofstudy(eg routine, teaching, research),provision of eqp (egbenches, rigs), level ofservicing (eg wet, dry). Hospital lab —+p176

bE2]

TRENDS In past lab designed for specific, fixed use; now growing tendency advocate 'multi-purpose' where worker has permanent station. Rapid changes in technology create new fieldsof study and demand costly sophisticated eqp which must be fully used: consequent need for adaptable labspaces which may bechanged during life ofbldg. Most difficulties in adapting to change arise because lab benches, sto cupboards and piped services aspermanentfixtures can only be moved with considerable effort and disruption. 1 approach is design main structure and standardservices asfixed items with more specific variable items,including furniture, movable.

dE2i

ii

Comparisonof square& rectangularlab unitsofequalar showinggreaterflexibilityoffered bysquare layout arectangular unit (24.8m2) bsquareunit(24.5 m2)C2workers& sharedeqp d3workers&sharedeqp e4 workers&shared eqp in centralar 2workers&largerig 1

PLANNINGPRINCIPLES Most significant recent developmentsin planning: adoption of square rather than rectangular modules —÷(1) allowing for greater flexibility in bench arrangements with introduction of island bench unitsand freestanding eqp; use of movable table tops rather than permanent fixed bench units: variations in work top height as well as grouping of tables can be achieved to suit particular needs;

f

2 a banthropometricdata

governingbenchspacingforboth teaching& research type

bench h

seat h

w kneehole mm

vertical distance mm

floorto underbench sittingonly sitting& standing: women sitting& standing: men

3

700 850 900

425 625 675

575 575 575

606 800 850

INDIVIDUALSPACEREQUIREMENTS —*(2)(3) Ideally conditioned by critical anthropometric dimensions, eg depth of

work top being based on max convenient reach; may be some 600 in theorybut in practice worktopmay vary between 610 and 840. Work top length similarly may vary between 2100and 4600for researchstudent, depending on discipline and particular research requirements; can be reduced to approx 1 500/P where groups of workers share eqp. Work top heightmay varybetween lowchemistry benches at450above flocr level and 900 forbenches at whichworker stands.

Typical rangeofbench&seatI

_ILLIIJLL±IIILIJ

r;i

arrangement of heavy eqp, fume cupboards, wash-up etc grouped in central servicezones.

PLANNINGMODULE Working unit (group ofworkplaces) forms basic planning bay ormodule —(2b). Normal workplace can beconsidered as being approx 1600 x 800. Modulewidth may vary from 2600 to 5250; av approx 3000 to 3600, which allows 2 parallel rowsof benches with centre gangway giving room to between 2workers. = 2workspaces + centre ageway Modulew

2 x 800

3000—3600

I. hiflfTTTTTflrfl FtiIiiIL Li:'1 !Tn1T1t

1400—2000

Typical bldg dimensions include: modulew 3000—3600 moduled 5000—8000 corrw 2000—2500 3600—4200 storeyh

L.

4

Typical plan showing flexible lab with grouped central services (preclinicalsciencesSouthampton UniversityEngland) ArchJohn S BonningtonPartnership key 1 teachinglab 2post-graduate & research lab 3preparation& servicemi 4rmwith specialisteqp

5

Typicalplan showingrelationship of centralworkspace tolab unit (zoologydept Edinburgh University Scotland) ArchArchitecture Research Unit Universityof Edinburgh key 1 lay 2sto 3culture 4 research lab 50ff 6cold mi 7lecturelab 8instruments 9 post-graduate lab 10chromatology 11 centralworkspace l2warmrm l3darkrni l4secretary l5labl6radioactiverml7media preparationmi 18wash-up

I 16

ip

I 32

15

48

20m I 64

ft

292 Industry

Laboratories SERVICES DISTRIBUTION

—ip383—4 Sub-main distribution can be either offvertical ducts serving individual orpairs oflab ateveryfloororoffhorizontal ducts serving group oflab on everyfloor.Vertical ducts can be integrated with main structural frame, provideready access toservices onfloorthey serve, eliminate problem of fumecupboard ducting; butcanprove expensivestructurally if service potential not fully utilised. Horizontal distribution of sub-mains usually cheaper initially; but has not same adaptability and requires numerous connexions infloor.

Several methods of servicing individual benches available; need for

adaptability led to development of movable and pre-plumbed services connected flexiblyto floor points. Central service spine permits backto-backlayout of benches; service bollard allows benching laid out in 2 directions. However, studies of relocatable spine systems show new layout ofteninvolves extra costand disrupts activities in rm below since live supply of services to all possible connexion points prohibitively expensive. Overhead servicing by mast and/or flexibles more convenient and economic arrangement. Perimeter,peninsularand island layoutscan be serviced in any combination and spacing required. Access for main-

tenance and adaptation can be achieved with mm disruption offurniture and eqplayouts and confined tofloorbeing served. Valuablefloorspace can be saved since traditional floor-mounted service spine between benches removed. Furthermore, tendency overprovideto compensate for lack of flexibility in layout reduced.

DISPOSALSYSTEMS Drainage problem with overhead servicing: gravity ratherthan pumped systems simplest, with permanent grid of floor points. Lab wastes may carry corrosive agents orbe ofvery high temp. Drip cups, bottletrapsin borosilicate glass and chemically resistantptfe flexible tubing to outlets normal methods of dealing with suchrequirements. In any case waste runs should be immediately visible and accessible in rm towhichtheybelong.

or vacuum-assisted

Solid waste normally put in bins; but in hospital research or animal experiment lab incinerationofsoiled materialorcarcassesobligatory.

STORAGE Growth in project work and use of multi-discipline lab has increased amount and type ofsf0. Recent developmentstowardadjustableshelving and trays: movable sto unitsundertables more adaptable than fixed bench sto. Pressing needfor further space makes organisation and management ofsto major consideration. Categories include: central: special sf0 often centralised (eg workshop sto, inflammable solvents, explosives, poisons); best for large scale and/or expensive eqp; staff organisation and checking control important; local: frequent use of items necessitates regular local sto, limited in capacity; workplace: essential forpersonal eqp and project work material.

Flexiblelab arofscienceblock WellesleyCollegeMassachusetts USA Arch PerryDeanStahl Rogers 1

key

h

hotwater coidwater main waste g gas twp rainwater m W

wvp waste ventpipe te telephone& at le iume extract I lightingtrunking heatingpipes as air suppiy

3 Zoologydept EdinburghUniversityScotland: leftintegration ofservicesandstructure right sectionthroughdeptextension showing repetitive verticalsub-mainsducting 2

iFmn

400

-

wUP . LjL oljHlL worktop

sto

d

o

4 Overheadflexibleservicinginpilot project

LeicesterPolytechnic EnglandArch Leicester EducationAuthority

400

5

Sectionthroughscienceslab Polytechnic Sunderland England showing detailsof overhead servicing& its integration withinstructure ArchJo4in SBonnington Partnership

Industry

293

Laboratories SPECIALREQUIREMENTS Some operations need special eqp or techniques calling for particular controlled environment not availableorappropriate ingeneral lab areas. These include:

cold sto & lab

warm & incubator rm sterile/dust free rm dark rm fumeproducing techniques chromatography rm chemical distillation steam production vibration/noisy eqp animal rm radiation & x-rayrm

temp control important air locks & cleansing provision needed entrycontrol needed cupboardsusuallysufficient: largescale need special rm special rm: fume extraction extraction needed structural & plan isolation environment & security control screening & security

RELATEDSPACES

1 Detailsof lab benchesinscienceblockWellesley

Space for related activities needed in addition to general lab provision: staff, seminar, small off, lib, do, sto, plant, preparation, some or all of suchrm will be needed College

Massachusetts USA

FINISHES Floor: durable, easy clean and maintain, resistant to most chemicals likelybe spilled; ideally should be lointless or have mm tspossible. Such traditional finishes aswood blocks still preferred by s buttend to high cost. Sheet linoleum, pvc or rubber with welded orsealed ts and coved skirtings now more common.

Walls &ceilings:special protection notgenerally needed. Suspended ceilings provide smooth, light-reflecting surface with acoustic properties to whichpartitions can be abutted. Walls need to be washed down from time to time: blockwork should be plastered and decorated or sealed with sprayed plastics finish.

Worktops: traditionally solid timber, teak or iroko; laminated plastics faced board cheaper. Aswith floor multitude of finishes frompvctiles or sheetto vitreous tiles can be used, depending on type of work being carried out.

2 Mobile fumedshowingserviceconnexions

3

TypicalteachingarTeacherTrainingCollegeTeesideEngland

Laboratoryreferences: —.Bibliographyentries 039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349 354362 524571

a ci)

294 Industry

Farm buildings PURPOSE

partsper million hydrogen sulphideH2S

I

upper limitconsidered acceptableforman to breath duringworkingday

carbon

ammonia

NE-I3

dioxideCO2 5000

10

25

Design data presented here are based on human and animal requirements, animal housing technology including labour use, crop sto and processing, waste handling and legal controls.

Toxic gas limits illumination (lx) —.p25

2050*

stockyard calf nursery sickanimal pen pig/poultryshed

HUMANWELFARE

50 50

Man: environment

30_50*

milking ar

Dust concentration not more than 10 mg/rn3ofair

100 100

dairy

Toxic gases —v(1) Noiselevel not more than 90dB (A) per 8 hr-day exposure Avoid with dirt ifpossible Illumination levels —+(2)

20_50* 2050* 20_50*

vaumprm barnetc tractorimplements farmworkshop

100

* higherfigureapplieswhen nonatural lighting

CATTLE:BASICDATA

Illuminationlevels

2

Function of farm bldg to modify effect of climate on livestock, crops, agricultural eqp and man atwork. Housing also allows easier handling and storing of feeds, products and waste materials. Decision to erect farm bldg may also be influenced by other considerations, eg investment, taxation, personal motives etc.

Thermal requirements

Under UKclimatic conditions allclasses ofcattle can be housed at temp equivalent tothoseprevailingoutside. Protectionfromrain notnecessary forolderanimals (180kgliveweight) ifanimalperformanceonly criterion. But combination of rain, wind and lowtemp may lead to fluctuation of food intake. In high rainfall areas rainwater entering waste sto system can be excessive.

USAwide variations inclimate meanall classescattle cannoteverywhere be housed at temp equivalent to that prevailing outside. Except in temperate areas milking cows need protection in extremes of cold and

3

heat. In blizzard areas cows calvingand beef cattle up to 14—16 months old need shelter.

DimensionsofFriesiancows

type

age

weight

kg

youngfemales (heilers)

cows lightbreeds medium-heavy heavy

withers

body I

neck I

35

700

650

6rnonths

175

1000

1101)

— —

1year 2year

1150 1 250

1 250 1 450

— —

3year

300 450 575

1300

1600

mature mature mature

350—450 500—550 600—650

1140—1350 1 390—1620 600—620 1 320—1380 1 530—1650 630—650 1 350—1440 1 620—1680 650—700

atbirth

calves

hto

4

—

Typicaldimensionsofcattle; recently USAbeefcattlerevertedto longer back animal I

1100 1300 1500 1 600 1 700 1800 5

reachof mouthforvarious h of feed table abovestance 0

100

200

300

400

750 800 850

800 840 880 900 920 940

840 910 980 1 020 1 060 1080

910 960 1010 1030 1060 1080

940 990 1040 1070 1090 1120

880 900 930

Reachofmouthofcattle

Animaldimensions

Typical dimensions ofFriesiancows shown—v(3); otherclasses ofcattle Reach ofmouth basic criterion fordesign offeeding barriersand troughs —v(5).

Feed &waterintake

Cattle in UK consume 30—60 kg of forage or silage depending upon energyand fibrecontentof ration, and drink 35—601 ofwater per day. In USAwider variation in normal feed and water intake.

295

Industry

Farm buildings

a

CA1TLE

Wasteproduction

Cattle defecate and urinate indiscriminately:canonly be madetodeposit waste in particular places by useofphysical restraint,egcubicles. —*(1) showsquantities ofwaste produced by different classes of cattle

1200kg/rn2deadload 200 kg/rn2 live load

HOUSINGELEMENTS Housing systems canbeclassified bymethod ofcollectingand handling waste products. In slatted floor systems waste es through perforations in floor to be collected and periodically removed from cellar beneath. In straw-bedded pens dung and some urine absorbed by straw. Resultant farmyard manure must be removed periodically. In cubicle systems use made of inability of cattle to walk backwards up step.Raised cubicles can thereforeonlybeentered headfirst; dungand urine deposited into cubicle age, scraped regularly, or may be slatted.

Slatted floorpens

Slatted floorsystems eliminatebedding and save labour. Proper space allowances —(2) should be maintained to ensure sufficient animal treading action. Totally slatted floors normally used for beef cattle or suckler cows only. For dairycows useofslats limitedto cubicleages, feeding stances and circulationareas.

3

Reinforcedconcreteslatsforcattle

4

Slurrydraw-offpoints

125 slat laid with 40 gap suitable for all stock above 200 kgliveweight or 6—8months —*(3).Foryounger stockqualityand conditionofslats more critical: 25 or 30gap preferable. Slurry cellars should be flat floored with draw-off points orreceiving pits

for vacuum tankers orpumps at gable ends orperimeter walls. Sluice gatesliftedorpusheddown allowing slurryto fill receiving pit; overflow

lip system —.p304(4) also used. Sometimes necessary agitate slurry before emptying. For this purpose slats may have to be removed for access with recirculation/agitation pump. Some designs incorporate suspendedcentral age with several access points. Some pumps require 0.5 m sump to work efficiently. Examples of slurry draw-off points—*(4).

Sto capacities of slurrycellars —(5). Externalwaste sto—p301 (3).

animal

calf calf

store(stock) dairyheifer beef

age (month)

0—3 3—6 6—15 6—15 15—24 15—24

dairy heifer beefcow 24+ dairycow 24+ 1

wasteproduced (kg/day)

(m3/day)

5 7 14 14

0.005 (O.17ft3)

21 21

28

45

0.007 0.014 0.014 0.021 0.021 0.028

0.045 (1.6ff3)

Avquantitiesofwasteproduced bycattle floor ar weightof approx animal (kg) age (months) (m2/animal) 200 300 400 450 500 550

2

7 12 16 18 20 23

1.1

1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1

2.2

Spaceallowanceforbeefcattleonslats

weightof beast (kg)

floor ar

sto capacity (m3lbeast) forvarious cellardepths(m)

(m2/beast) 0.9

200 300 400 450 500 550

1.1

1.5 1.8 1.9 2.1

2.2

1.2

1.5

1.8

2.1

0.99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 1.35 1.8 2.35 2.7 3.15 1.62 2.16 2.7 3.24 3.78 1.71 2.28 2.85 3.42 3.99 1.89 2.52 3.15 3.78 4.41 1.98 2.64 3.3 3.96 4.62

5 Stocapacitiesofbelow-slatcellars

2.4

2.7

3.0

2.64 3.6 4.32 4.56 5.04 5.28

2.97 4.05 4.86 5.13 5.67 5.94

3.3 4.5 5.4 5.7 5.3 6.6

(I)

296 Industry

Farm buildings numberof animals

capacityofurinetankrequired(m3)

CAULE

540 kg beef cows

360 kg 450 kg beef cattle beef cattle

50 100 150 200

22 44 66 88

19

22

38 57 76

44

Build-up ofslurryatrecommended stocking densities 300—400/month, depending on type and level of feeding. Hay fed animals produce thick slurrydifficulthandle with pumps. In suchsystems high-level slats can be installed allowing tractor access for mucking out. Urine drained off throughdrainage shafts intourinetank. Urine tank capacity fordifferent numbers ofanimals —(1).

66 88

Tankcapacityrequiredfor2monthsstoof urinefromhigh level slattedbldg

1

Fortypical arrangement ofhigh-level slatted systems —(2).

Straw-bedded pens

Resting area bedded with 2—4 kg allowance/animal —(3).

2

Mucking out usually doneonce during and at end of housing period. Build-up of bedding overhousing period .—*(4). Walls mustbebuiltwithstandpressureofmuck and stock:225 blockwork with piers at3000 centres rising to height of 1 400 above max level of muck build-up suitable. Height should preferably be3700(mm 3000at eavesto allow tractor headroomformucking out.

High levelslats forbeef cattle

weight(kg)

(months)

200 300 450 500 550

3.0 3.4 4.0 4.2

7 12 18 20 23

lot housing period (months)

Space allowances

forcattlein bedded pens

build-upof muck(m) 3.4 ma/beast 4.0m2/beast 2.1

5 4 3 2

1.75 1.4 1.05 0.7 0.35

5

3

4.4

6

1

Whereverbedding next to feeding trough step or ramp should

total ar, lying &feeding(m2/animal)

approxage

of straw/animal/day. For space

be

provided allow cattle reach trough comfortably —(5). Floors should preferably be concreted butrammed hardcore may be used. Ifliquidto bedrained fromunderbedding concrete floor should have fall of 1:20. Concrete feeding stance above level of bedding area provided in part-bedded pens: saves some straw. Cattle may also be given access concrete area cleaned by scraping in self-feed silage systems. Silo floor should fall 1:30 away from feed face. Open scraped areas should fall 1:30away fromtroughs and covered areas. Urineand faeces together with bedding and feed residuals scraped to external slurrysto (midden). Tractor mounted orautomatic scraper blades normally used remove slurryintosto.

Cubicles

1.8 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.3

4

Build-upofmuck

at2stockingdensities (not USApractice)

In this system small quantities bedding (500 g/daychopped straw or sawdust) spread over resting area equipped with cubicles and raised 150 above age. Cubicle divisions —(6) should not hinder lying or rising movements ofanimals orallow animal to gettrapped orentangled in cubicle frame. Cubicles not often used for beef cattle. Keeping cubicle bed dry more difficult with male animals. Problem accentuated by fact that animals are growing. Cubicle system not suitable for bull beefproduction. Cubicle must notbe sowidethat smallestanimalto use itcanturn round and dungin it; but must be wide enough allow animal lie comfortably. Cubicles must be short enough ensure dung falls in age: but cubicles too shortwill not be used as animal will lie over heelstone or kerb. Adjustable head or knee rail used to reduce effective length of cubicle;adjustable side rails accommodatedifferent sizes of beast. Cubicle dimensions should be related toanimal weight—(7).

Step orramponbeddedfloor

Cubicle age widths (mm): slatted 1 800, solid scraped 2100. If age serves also as feed stance, mm widths 2500 slatted, 3000 scraped. Cross-es 1 800 should be provided if more than 25—30 cubiclesin line.

Calf pens Mm

space required —(8).

Divisions forindividual pens can be constructed from demountable and adjustable rails,or boardswhere completeseparationrequired. Divisions should bedemountable and easily cleaned and disinfected. Alternative to individual penstethered feedfence—.(9).

6 Cubicledivisionsforcattle 612

7 I& w cubicles as relatedtoweight

8

pen type

age (weeks)

mm

individual

upto4

1.1 (1.5

group

uptog upto8

Mm

uptol2

space (m2/calf)

180

-i

640

x 0.75m)

3660

1.8(1.8x 1Gm)

6casT

L1&

1.1 1.5mm

space requiredforcalf pens

9 Tetheredfeed fence

4270

Industry 297

Farm buildings CATTLE

C

Calf pens(cont)

In grouppens with bucket feeding pen front oftenequipped with simple manual trapping yoke.

1

Alternativeto buckets cascadetrough: allowssimplified pipeline delivery of milk with individual rationing.—(1)shows details ofcascadetrough: system suitable for larger scale operations where labour spent on feeding tasks often reduced to mm. Self-trapping yoke installed to control calves during feeding reduces subsequent cross-suckling. 'Automatic' feeders mix and supplymilk substitute feed to groups of 10—15 calves on adlib basis: allow more flexible labour routines but feed consumption (and hence cost) higher.

Cascadetrough

formilkfeeding calves

Feeding

weight (kg) approxage 150

2

Troughspacefor restrictedfeeding

300 400 450 500 550

mm

troughspace

(months)

(mm/animal)

5 12 16 18

360 520 600

20 23

620 640 660

J:L__ i5 jpj 300:otoer stock 250:youngerstock

130°

500 180

3

nmn

Feeding barriersforcattle

25

When feed rationed or restricted sufficient trough space must be provided for all animals feed simultaneously. Trough space requirements When teed continuously available (ad/lb feeding) notall animals require teed atonce.Trough-space/animal depends on typeof feed aswell as sizeofanimal. Lessspace required forcereal feed than forforage: grainor concentrates: 75—100/animal self-feedsilage: 100—175/animal mechanically-filled trough maintainedfull: 175/animal Feeding barriers —(3)essential prevent feed wastage. Self-trapping feeding barriers (yokes) designed prevent animal access tofeed,or restrain or releaseselected animals—*(4). Dimensions of trough and feeding ages for mechanised cattle feeding —*(5). Inclined floortrough allows animals reach further; subsequently less secondaryhandlingoffeeds required—.p294(5). Forunits housing over200animalsflat floor feeding age4400wide preferred: feed left outside reach of cattle can be pushed forward nearer to them using specialised tractor mounted plough or brush attachment. Feed residuals can be also removed using this machine. Feed bunkers for complete (mixed) diets—*(6). These hold2—3days' supplysince denser feeddeteriorates less rapidly.

j

Self-feedingbarrier

6

5

agesformechanised feedingofcattle

1600

:/LZ,//k

, 4

120

Feedbunkersforcomplete(mixed)diets

(1)

298 Industry

Farm buildings ages). Lower (inlet) area twice this. Ifdifference in height between inletsand outlets different from1 000, areas multiplied by height factor obtained from—(3b).

CATFLE Feeding (cont)

Typical dimensions ments —*(2).

ofmobile feeding eqp —(1);

turning space require-

Feeding stances should allow space for animals behind others feeding. Foradult cattle allow 2400mm forslatted stances,2700mm for solidscraped stances.

Watering

Should be 10—30 animals/water bowl. Water troughs should provide 0.02 m2 of water surface/animal or 300 of water trough frontage for 40—50animals. During winter water should be heatedto 10CC.Provision to prevent cattle fromdefecating intowaterdrinker required: install floor curb200highor rail about 300 fromdrinker; ordrinkers can be recessed into wall or covered with cattle operated flaps. Water bowls ortroughs usually installed at height 700—1 000: should be located where do not obstruct otheranimals feedingor movingto and fromfeeding area, and preferably wherespillage will notwetbedded lying areas.

Ventilation Natural ventilation suitable for ventilating all cattle bldg, including calf bldg. Fan-assistedventilationsystems only justifiedinexceptionalcircumstances eg USA in heavily fly infested areas to supplement fly spray system; exhaust fan system not continuous running but worked on times.Sizesofopenings fornatural ventilation basedonbldg floor area, weightof cattle and difference in height between airinlet and airoutlet. —*(3a) used to obtain area/animal of upper opening (outlet) from av weight of animal in bldg and total bldg floor area/animal (including

Example 1: 30 x 100 kg calves in bldg 750 difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/calf 75/30 = 2.5 m2 outletar 0.042 x h factor 0.7 = 0.03 m2/calf inlet ar double this = 0.06 m2/calf

x 10000 with 2000 h

Example 2: 100 x 400 kg cattle in bldg 10 x 30 m, 2500 h difference between inlets& outlets floor ar/animal 300/100 = 3 m outletar 0.087 x hfactor 0.57 = 0.05m2/head inlet ar doublethis = 0.1 m2/head Design procedures also available for bldg with single openings, eg open-fronted bldg, and slotted roofs (—+Bibl08). Type of ventilation opening can be chosen suit method of construction and size required. Simplest has continuous opening at eaves and open ridgeformed by omitting ridgecapping—(4). Mechventilation should notbeneeded ifnaturalventilation designed for in newworkorconversions. If required, provide capacityof 1.4 m3/h kg live weight= 0.39 I/s kg live weight. Design openings to provide inlet speed of0.5—1 rn/s.

Animal handling&veterinarysystems

Efficient handling systems essential for speedy and safe restriction of animals for veterinary, breeding or management purposes. Important elements ofcattle handlingand controlsystemsare shown—p299.

E S E '0 t0

S

0 1

Dimensionsoftractorwith fore-endloader&of forageself-emptywagon a

b hd,ffe(er'ceinIe&outlet

3 a arofridgeopeningasdetermined byweightofanimal &stocking density; bhfactorforcalculationofventilationopenings +24t

t/////////////Z '/,'2'

2

Turningspacesforfeedingmachinery

4

Open ridge:USA ventedridgepreferred

tff

8000 race

Industry

Farm buildings CATTLE

Animal handling(cont)

________

33°E1____ __________ 330[H____ 255El __________ l75:1 _____

torcingpen

IiII

Li

iii iiii iiIi '

I

it

I2I II Li

U

Isolation pens forveterinary treatment,disease diagnosisetcshould be provided. Pens (3000 x 6000) should be bedded: feed should be delivered totrough fromoutside pen; for dairy cows milking line should beinstalled. Drain separatelyfromother animal areas. Calving pens should be separate from main resting area; floor should be bedded; tractor access for mucking out required. Pen size 4000 x 4000adequate. Holding pens space requirements: beef cattle 0.95—1.4 m2/beast mm adult cattle 1.7m2/beast cows and cattle 1.85 m2/cow and calf

IiIi

IiLi

______________

:TT60

Forcing penleads fromcollecting pen to race;should befunnel-shaped and should hold not less than 12 cows plus calves or 15 adult cattle.

catwalk

crush & vetgates vet gates race

Single sided splay preferable, with 30 angle. Race(chute): 18mlong 680 wide internallyand 1 680 totop rail will hold 10—12 cattle. Catwalks should be provided on both sidesof race 760 above ground level and not less than 300wide.

—

crush J_______

J

3—way shedder

299

______

pen2 pen 3

Crush (squeeze chute): race terminatedbycrush which may be metal

proprietary make orconstructed in timber. Weighcratesometimes used ascrush. There should be goodaccess at bothsidesto head,neck, feet, underflanks and rear ofanimal. Crush should beunder cover with good daylight and artificial lightand provisionforhosing down whole area. Shedder gate: should be installed after crush wherever need to sort animals for weighing, separation for pregnancy, loading etc. Gates should be installed at far end of all holding pens allow recirculation of groups or individual animals. Dimensions of cattle handling systems —v(1), typical Iayout—*(2).

race

recircijlationalley catt race

1 Cattle handlingsystems: dimensions

Milking

In loose housing systems cows milked in parlour. Milking in cowsheds using bucket or pipeline not practised in new dairy units because of access

2

hygieneand high labour requirements both in milking and cleaningeqp. Examples oftypical milking parlours—v(3). Basic considerations which will determine type and size of milking parlour: max size of herd (allowing for future expansion) time allowance formilking (max2hours) max mean peakyield concentrate feeding policy use of dairy labour (1 or 2 men) capital available

Automatic cluster removal essential in 1-man operated rotary parlours toavoid serious overmilking ofcows. In UKsecondoperatorconsidered wasteful of labour since not fully occupied during milking. In USA second operator required forhandstripping.Selectingnumber ofmilking units complex matter: for advice consult local agricultural advisory service.

Cattle handling systems: typical layout

Design of parlour pit for operator should respect ergonomic limitations of operators. Location of milking jar should not hinderroutine tasks or obscure viewofcows.

3 Typesofmilkingparlour

abreast

hernngbone

r

I

LI

II

tandem

III

1 chule

tandem

''

300 Industry

Farm buildings CA1TLE length'A'

noof

Milking (cont)

Pit depth —(1 )(D) ideally 950 for tall milker, false floor being used for shortermilkers: compromise depth of750oftenused. Pit width—.(1 )(C) for2stalls/unit mm 1 515, for 1 stall/unit 1 515 mm for 1 operator and 1 828mm for 2operators.

cows

6 8 10 12 14

Use only high-level jars in pits less than 1 515 mm.

16

Parlour length —e(1)(A) 3050 + 500/rn standing.

20 22 24

18

Rotary pariourdimensions vary between individual manufacturersas well as with type and number of standing.—n(2) gives guide; use manufacturer'sdata fordetailed design. Collecting area: before milking cows moved from resting and feeding area tocollecting areanext milking parlour.Space allowancein collecting area should be 1.35 m2/cow, but 1.1 m2 usuallyadequate with straight herringbone parlours where initial batch of cows removed almost immediately. In rectangular yardswidth usually equal that of parlour. Cows should enter at farther end so that all movement in 1 direction. Circular yards make backing gate easier install: usually either full or three-quarter round. Capacityshould be coordinatedwith size of herd orgroup. When at grazing in summer herd maybegrouped differently or not atall.

6050 7050 8050 9050 10050 11050 12050 13050 14050 15050

Dairy: normally attached milking parlour reduce length of pipe runs. Should be sitedso that rear of milk tanker can be parked within 3000of door; adequate tanker turning space must be provided.900clear space should be left all round bulk milk tank(s) (mm 600). Space must be

provided for working and for eqp as required: washing troughs, water heater, cupboard, cleaning products etc. Ifexpansion of herd may take place space should beprovided for replacementoftank by largerone, or installationof second tank. 2600mm ceiling height may be required for use of tank dipstick. Wide external doorway (2000—2500) with no astragal should be provided for installationor replacementoftank. Tank capacity can be calculated by taking av daily yield and adding 40—50% to contain fluctuations and possible future yield increases. Alternatively, workfromfigures of 181 asdaily yield, to which 20% may be added to allow forall cows reaching peak yield at same time. Internal finish of dairy must be smooth and easily cleaned eg walls cementrendered and paintedwith chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint to height of at least 1 400; non-slip concrete floor draining to trapped gulley; rooflinedon underside ofjoistssothatitcanbekept freeof dust and cobwebs. Dairy must be lightand airy: windows one-tenth of floor area; opening windowsorventilators fly-proof; illuminationof 100 lx required. In USA reg require screened openings; lobbytype entryalso necessaryprevent flyspraymist contaminatinganimals' feed or utensils. Motor rm should be separate from dairy, area 3.5—4 m2. Provision for tractor pto to operate vacuum pump in power emergencies may be required. Office to accommodate table, wall charts etc should be sited with clear viewofparlour and area next to unit. Modern dairy unitshould have wc, changing rrn and rest rm for staff. Feeding: concentrate often fed in parlour from automatic dispenser, oftenfeed stored in loft over parlour. Sometimes bulk bin set outside and feedstransported to parlourbyauger. Footbath:provide forfootbathfarenough away from parlourexit prevent slow flow of cattle leaving parlour. In such situation footbath does not require to be more than 1 200 wide butto be effective should be at least 3000 in length and have drain outlet. Possiblearrangementof services in 120-cow dairy unit—*(3).

I

Herring-bonemilkingparlourdimensions type tandem tandem herringbone herringbone abreast abreast abreast

numberof standings approxdia (m) 16 12 18

7.6 13.5 7.0 9.2

14

6.1

20 30

7.7 11.4

8

2 Rotary milkingparlours: approxdia

3

Servicesin 120-cowunit

Industry 301

Farm buildings CAULE

:3

Bull pens

C

Pen can be sitednear collecting areasothat cows ontheirwaytomilking parlour may see bull. Stockman can thus observe cow behaviour and look formanifestation of heat' or readinessto mate. Feeding and watering of bull mustbecarried out from outsidepen. Wall, gatesand feedersmust beofsubstantialconstruction. Cowservice area should be incorporated within pen layout. Dry lying areashould slope to drain, usually raised by 50 from concrete floor and well bedded with straw or sawdust. Feeder should be provided with strong trapping yoke to restrain animal for routine veterinary treatment or restriction during cleaning. Refuge' must be installed ineach corner of pen—.(1). Tethering ringenables bulltethered independently ofyoke. Exercising yard (unroofed) oftenprovided next to bull pen (20—35 m2). Service pen should include foot rests to take weight of heavy bull especially when used with young heifers. Footrests are 2sloping timber ramps 225—300 wide, fitted to inside of pen walls. Length of rests approx1 500, height 530atrear to900 at cow'sshoulder. Typical layout and dimensions for twin bull pens —n(2).

External wastestorage

1

Slurry sto —ep295 304 requiredfor wastefrom scrapedareas in cubicle units oras extrasto for slatted units with shallow channels. Slurrysilos or tanks (above and below ground) lose moisture ony by evaporation. Dungsteads and middens designed drain off excess liquids and used for more solid waste, or help solidify semi-solid wastes(not used USA, where muck collectedbycontractors). Examples—n(3).

Bull pen refuge detail

Dairy cow housing Examples ofdairyunits—r(4).

2935

2 Bull pens:typical layout&dimensions

4

Dairyunits:typical layouts lagoon

dependson lagoon Capacity

310

IT

I

4—

channei\

\

,.f//fl/7

25

/////Z/ZZt7f///Zi/Z/////////

tank

3

spacing

Externalwastesto

ramp

//

flZ/ ///Z.

core

///////// / /

/110ramp

300

butylsheet

melden

(I)

302 Industry

Farm buildings Sucklercow housing

CATTLE

Beefcattle housing

Beef cattle normally housed in slatted, bedded or part-bedded pens, occasionally in cubicles. Linear plans usual, with pens arranged either side feeding ages. Pen depth determined by ratio of floor space —np294(5) 295(2) to feed trough length animal —.p297(2). Typicalplans

-a(1).

In some low rainfall areas possible house and fatten cattle in roofless unitson sheltered sitesorwith sheltered wall. These units have slatted pens or sometimes cubicles. Slurry sf0 must have additional capacity for rain falling on unit. Ifentiremale cattle (bull beef) kept pens must berobust with divisions at least1 600high: cubicles should notbeused. For safety ofstockmen all fittings, eg waterbowls, should be accessible from outside pens and goodanimal handling and loadingarrangements(race (chute) etc) must be provided: example of bull beef housing —.(2).

NB: beef cattle not normally housed in USA apart from loafing barns—.(6)

Calf production from suckler cows usuallyrelies onsmall, early maturing cow,well adaptedsevere environments.Provisionofcalf creep (nursery) pens (where calves receive food without competition from cows and rest)major design point of difference fromother formofbeefhousing. Cows housed in cubicles, bedded pens or slatted pens. In slatted pens allow 2.5—3 rn2/cow. Cowareas communicate with calf creep pens by creep gate through which only calvescan .Creep pens dimensioned according avsizeof calf, which depends on calving date—o(3). Should be visual between cows and calves in creep; inspection of and access to creep pen for supervision, feeding, cleaning waterbowls and mucking out (in bedded pens) should be good. Provide 1 waterdrinkerforevery12 calves.

If cows tocalve indoors, provide separate calvingarea, preferably straw bedded pen. Typical arrangements of suckler cow housing—.(4).

Calf housing

General arrangement of calf housing units—.(5).

e I,

tM14

126

3000

5400

4

I

1....

i,

36

_____

Beef housingunits:typical layouts

1

Vslattedpens creep

j

'L

I

J J

J

I cainp pen

4 Suckler cow bldg: typical layout

2

Bull beet unit layout

calvingdate

bedded pen (m2/calf)

slattedcreeppen (rn/calf)

springcalving continuouscalving

1.1 1.4

autumn calving

1.7

1.0 1.2 1.4

3 Sizes ofcalf creeppens

385 space

kiI

1f,anei r 6

Loafingbarn

5

Calf housingunits:layout

81

— tractoraccess

.1•

Industry

303

Farm buildings Thermalrequirements

Outside thermoneutral range of tempanimals either too hot, or will be wasting feed keeping warm because too cold. Thermoneutral range of different classes of pigs depends on level offeeding, type offlooring, number of pigs/pen and air velocity. —(1) shows ambient air temp related to 3 floor types, 3 times maintenance level of feeding and air velocity not exceeding 0.15 m/s. Thermoneutral zone of sows pregnant for 112 days, live weight of 140 kg undersame conditions as above: 11—25° for thin and 7—25° for fat animals. Pigs on low feeding levels should be kept at2—3°C higher airtemp than thoseon high levels. —*(2) shows relationshipsbetween feed,floorand mm airtempfor65 kg pigs. Thermalinsulation—p393—4

Animal dimensions

—°(3) givesbodydimensions ofdifferent classes ofpigs.

Behaviour:buildingimplication

Eliminatory: pigs defecate in discriminatory fashion,iewithin selected area usually determinedby location of water drinkers —p304. Every pig

tends defecate in own area within eliminatory zone. Important allow enough space ineliminatory zone, sothat atleast3pigs maydefecate at same time. Should less space be given likelythat some excreta will be deposited elsewhere, eqin lying orfeeding area.

Sexual: newly weaned sows should be housed near boar in orderto encourage sexual behaviour. Partition between sows and boar should be perforated, allowing visual and bodily .

Resting, eating & general movements: piglets spend approx 10— 20% of time suckling (15—25 times/day). Fattening pigs on dry ad/lb rations spend 5% of time feeding (8—12 times/day). On wet feeding only 3% of time spent at trough (4—8 times/day). In general fatteners (75 kg) would spend 80—85%of time lying, 15—17% moving about in pen, 3—5%eating. Abnormal behaviour: aggression amongst growing pigs manifested bytailand earbiting, sometimescannibalism.Savagingmore predominant among adult sows. Bldg designer can influence behaviour pattern by changes in stocking rate, group size or housing systems. Abnormal behaviour can be also caused by nutritional factors, genetic susceptibility, disease states, teething problems etc.

floor type

thermoneutralrange(°C) forvarious live weights(kg)

concrete perforated bedded

34—5 31—5 30—5

1.5

20 17—30 16—30 10—30

40

60

age atfirst parturition litters/sow/year number/litter born alive number/litter at 3 weeks avweightof piglet at 3 weeks number ofpigletsstillalive at 8 weeks avweightat 8 weeks total weight ofweaned pigs/sow/year farrowing index = daysbetween birth of 1 litter & next limit to larrowing index national avof farrowing index 10% ofUK producers with farrowing index length of lactation = anytime upto85 days

403days 2.0 10.5 9.0

5.9 kg 8.7 18.2 kg

300kg

133 days 195 days 230 days

pigsfattened as 40—90 kg porkers baconers 90 kg heavy hogs 120kg; USA 147—180 kg

Illumination Keep pigs in dim light: but at least 5 lux —4p25 should be provided for management and servicing tasks.

Feeding systems

Pig can be fed wet or dry meal either in ad/lb or rationed form. Typical systems shown in following scheme: ,bags—hoppers---trough ry m wheelbarrow—+handscoop—trough automatic conveyor—÷hoppers-—trough "automatic conveyor—+hopper/dispenser-—*floor Trough-{ 1automatiiped—*trough tank—.trough meaLm0be closecircuit communaltrough "(river feeding)

ea\

/

et

\

Waterconsumption Adequate supplies of fresh water should be available at all times.

Following waterallowances should begiven: Growing pigs il/dayat15kg liveweightincreasingto51/dayat 90 kg liveweight sows non-pregnant 51/day sowspregnant 5—8 I/day sows lactating 15—201/day 2 days sto ofwatershould be providedto ensure continuity ofsupply in emergencies.

animal

1(m)

w(m) h(m) rumpto

approx weight(kg)

breed

shoulder(m)

100

boar

1.95

0.32

0.85

1.1

135

Iargewhite

13—29 13—29

11—29 12—29

10—28 11—28

sow

1.5

0.75 0.85

1.1

135

landrace

1.85

0.35 0.4

1.2

158

largewhite

7—29

5—29

4—28

fattener

1.28

0.3

0.7

0.95

77

largewhite

weaner

0.9

0.2

0.42

0.7

50

0.72

0.17

0.33

0.58

40

largewhite 13 weeksold argewhite 11 weeksold

0.4

0.09

0.22

0.23

1 Thermoneutralzoneofpigs

piglet 3

2

:3

Pig husbandrydata-check list:

PIGS: BASIC DATA

Feed—floor —airtemprelationships for65kgpig

Approx pig sizes

2.5

7daysold

a(n

304 Industry

Farm buildings but also sawdust, peat, woodshavings etc, to faeces and urine. In general housing systems based on solid waste (farmyard manure) demand more labour for bedding tasks but no problems should occur where access, sto areaand run offdrain properly designed.

PIGS: BASICDATA (cant) Watering

Forvarious typesof drinkers and theirrespective water wastage—*(1). There should be 2 drinkers/pen in case 1 gets blocked. In general 1 drinker/6 pigs required. Bowl type drinkers should be sited where

Bedded systems

Straw bedding oftenused for pregnant sows (1.0 kg/day), boars and weaners (500 g/day) Bedded pensshould be at least3000wide.All internal partitionsshould be removable to allow tractor access for mucking out. Floors should be sloped 1:20 towards drain leading to sumpat side of bldg accessible for slurrytanker. Some bedded unitshave chain and paddle manure conveyor including loading elevator at one gable end. Manure removed twiceweeklyinto muck spreader and then tofieldsor sto(not usualinUSA).

faeces contaminationminimised.Pig-operatedflapscan be used prevent contamination. Variation on trough drinker sometimes used: 50—75 pvc pipe set in raised concrete floor and top cut open, discharging water into shaped concrete within concrete floor: water supply controlled with ballcock valvelocated atbeginning of line.

PIGS: WASTE

Wasteproduction

Slurrysystems

Pigs fed dry meal with adfib water produce quantities ofwaste asgiven

Pigs housed on perforated floors, eg slats, expanded metal ormesh; or dunging area onlyeither perforated orregularly scraped toholding tank. Faeces and urinestored inchannels below perforated floors. Channels emptied eithercontinuously oronce in 3months intoexternal slurrysto. Channels emptied periodically have sluice gateand receiving pit. Flushing system where liquid fraction of slurry pumped into tipping buckets holding several hundred I sometimes used. Flowremoves solid faeces and feed residuals intoexternal sto. Some slurrychannels have sump at end directly emptied with vacuum tanker. This system not recommended as oftendifficult remove solid sedimented at far end of channel. Continuous emptying ofslurry channels intoexternal storelies on hydrostatic pressure gradient which causes slurryto slide over lip into pit. Only narrow (1 000) channels not longer than 20 m should be used. Depth determined fromequation given —(4).

Wastehandlingsystems Typicalsystems —(3). Solidwastes produced byadditions of bedding material, usually straw, type ofdrinker

% of waterwastage

indirectnipple (bite type) directlyoperatednipple bowl

46 56 6 12

trough

animal

live

weight kg 15

piglet

weaner growing—finishing growing—finishing boar

Waterwastageof drinkers waste produced kg/day 1.04 1.9

30 70 90

4.4 5.8 4.03

125 170 160

drysow sow&litter

1

2

Waste (urine & faeces)producedby pigs

14.9

4.9

4

Continuousoverflowslurrychannel

y 1 6 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 38 1 1: 51 22 < slurry handlingsystem

lending system

I

a

I

c

b

d

e

I

g

S

3

7(Th

24

40

15

I

feeders Illliquidfeedingfronr fendingsystems: dry feedingon floor IIdryfeecting fromautomatic trough&bowls dry feedingfrombowls Vdry feeditrg fromtroughs

iv

3

Typicalwastehandling &feedingsystems

manureremovalsystems a partfyslattedIloor overslurry channelbdoabledungnigages with sohdfloors ccentraidungung agewithsolidfloor dserviceageovercentralscraper channel epartlyslattedfloor(gaps:251 overcentralscraperchannel partlyslattedfloor (gaps: 25>over sidescraperchamels 9partlyslatted floor (ranied 100>oversidechannels hpartly slatted fkjor(raised 100>over centralscraperchanrid

I

Industry 305

Farm buildings Sow & boarhousing

PIGS: MANAGEMENT Ventilation Forced orfan ventilation should be designed according to mm and max ventilation rate required, inlet air speed and subsequent air jet and air distribution pattern withinbldg. Free airoutput offans can be found from manufacturers' data sheets. Allowance should be made for resistance of ventilation ducts, usually 0.5—0.7 of their free air output. Inlet air speed or jets can be used to determine air movement within house: specialised technique and assistanceofspecialist should be sought. Pressurised systems usually blow air into roof space and use false ceiling ofglassfibreed on netting foreven distribution ofair. Air outlet often below slat level thus removing most air pollutants. In air extraction systems fans housed in central shafts terminating above apex or alternatively in side walls suitably baffled and terminated in neutral pressure area to minimise effect of wind. Location, area and numberof air inletswill determine air distribution and air velocities in bldg. Manufacturersoffans who specialisein animal housingapplications oftenprovide design assistance. ventilation rateshould be0.000052 m3/s per kg liveweight, summer ventilation rate 0.0003 12 m3/s per kg of live weight. Max airvelocity at pig level to be 150—200rn/s. Mm

—(3)(4) showexamples ofdry sow housing and service bldg. Sow stalls: w: 600—650 (if divisions open to 150 above floor level) or 700—750 (if divisions solid fromfloorlevel) I: 2000, with orwithout trough according todesign h: 900 gate forentryand exit ofsow: usuallyat rear floor:rear halfusually slatted. Boarpens: should extend to at least9 m2; 1 side of pen should be approx 2500 long; divisions should bevertical tubular railing 1 400 high, allowingboar observe other animals and general activities within bldg; vertical arrangement of railing prevents boars from climbing and jumping on to divisions. Farrowing: —a(5) shows farrowing crate and creep area for piglets. Function of farrowing crate prevent piglets from getting injured orcrushed bysow. Creep for piglets ofupto5weeks ofage should be 1.3m2 mm and from 5 to 8 weeks 1.75 m2. Mostof farrowing accn designed for weaning of piglets at5weeks ofage. Approx 1.0m2ofcreep areashould beheated. Farrowing house —*(6).

Withnatural ventilation systems air inlet area should betwice as largeas air outletarea. Air outletcan be either open ridgeor several chimneytypeextractors withflatcapping. Air enters through baffled inlets round wall, at least 1 000 above pigs. Ventilation extraction area should be 3.6 cm2/kg live weight. Air inlet area should be 7.2 cm2/kg live weight. Typical ventilation systems—(1).

Handling

Pigs, particularly fatteners, regularly weighed, usually by mobile crate/

weigherin feed age. Some arrangements have permanentservice

area for weighing, cleansingand veterinary tasks with holding area. Pig movement should be controllableby 1 man.

I

Pigs canwalkthrough 600 wideage.With 700 baconerswill be able turnaround. Mature sows and boars require 1250—1 450wide ages to turn round. Corners should be wider (900).Wherever pigs, particularly sows, required reverse round corners ageshould be increased by 300—.(2). For loading and unloading into animal road transporters provide ramp (1:7) with battens or deepgrooves toprevent slipping.

30.5

3500 250

4

I

r

Dry sow housewith boarpens&food sto

0

3

heated

Cr]_, ii

LJ 1

600

950

U

Typicalventilationsystemsforpig housingunits

j

1200

2750

5

Fan-owing pens:dimensions&layout

I I

-•

JiHHI

HI iii HI

I

11.6

ih111I 4200

1450

2 wofagesforsows

3

Drysow housewithboarpens

6

Farrowinghouse

11.6

C

(I)

306

Industry

Farm buildings liveweightkg

totalarm2 daily consumption of beddingkg

10—30 30—90

0.75

Group size & pen shape

0.3 0.5 1.2

11

sows

PIGS: REARING& FATTENING

2.5

Formation of stable social hierarchydesirable. Fattenerson ad/lb floor feeding should be kept in groupsof 15—20. Pigs lying down should coverfloor area, so that excreta will be deposited elsewhere (dunging area). With part-solid, part-slattedfloors, pen should be twice as long as widewithapprox900 wide slatted dunging area.

Individualspaceallowances &strawconsumption

1

08

c

Troughspace B

07 O

o 0, 04 6

2

..

— .—. .—-..-D .—- .—.. -_ —.. —-

.—

-.....

03

.... —.

02

.—

.—

Trough space/pig for ad lib feeding should be 100 and for rationed feeding300.

Spatial requirements

—.(1) shows individual space allowances for bedded systems, ie total floor areadividedbynumber ofanimals occupying it;—.(2)shows space allowances for systems with solidfloorand slatted dunging area. —.(3)(4)showexamples of rearing and fattening houses.

,

01

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

00 110 20 130 140 (kg) IveweiglrI

coverage 01 floor A oplimuni tourcoverageby 5019pigsitattenersi12-18 caIrtemp. B loose aboveabove26 c

c& duringsummertempup1026c 0:floorcoveragebelow 12 c 12—18

ett

c floorcoveragedurrngtemp

note dunqlngarentraat0 15—02 rn'/pg

2

I

Spaceallowancesforfatteningpigs

a

1

___k1 leedage

I

200k

1800

1000

l500

1800

000 j)

00

.

01L

3000

2O0,

[IHili 1100 1100 1200

1200

3

Rearingaccn

4

__L20 __ tng

4

wallsto _— ceIlIng --.-,

Fatteninghouseforpigs

ar _________

6000

4900 ________

6000

an Outlet

Industry 307

Farm buildings SHEEP

Feeding

Housing ofsheep prevents poachingofland, allows better management and labour use, can lead toincreased stocking rate on land, may release pasture for cropping and can reduce lamb mortality during lambing period.These potential benefits are offsetby high cost of housing as well as costof providing additionalfeed.

Space requirements

Individual floor space allowances forsheep —v(1).

Solid floor Sheephoused on bedded floor seem to have more foottroubles than those kept on timber slatted floors. Solid floor should be well drained consolidated hardcore with 150 ofstraw.

Hayracks and concentrate troughs required. —v(3) shows recommended trough length. Simplewooden trough with hayrack —÷(4) sufficient.

Water Sheep prefer running fresh water. This can be provided by trough equipped with overflow to drain: 600 x 300 water trough surface sufficientfor up to80ewes.

Ventilation Natural ventilation system based on 450 open ridge and 1200 deep spaceboarding with 100 boards and 25 gaps satisfactory. Sheep in open-fronted bldg can be protected bystraw bales.

Illumination

Slatted floor

Pressure treated timber slats rangefrom63 x 32to38 x 25with 20gap forlarger sheep and 16gap forsmallerbreeds. Slatsusually arrangedin removable floorsections 1200 x 2400. Slattedscanbeed on dry blocks for easy removal and so allow easy tractor access for mucking out. Floor joists 75 x 50should besplayed foreasierself cleaning and set at 450 centres. Depth of500 issufficient for 1 housing season waste sf0.

Illumination of20 lx—.vp25 required during lambingperiod.

Feedstorage

Feed sto area at gable end or close by should be provided to minimise handling time.

Sheep housing

Example ofslatted pole barn type sheephouse for 320 ewes—v(5).

Layout

Ewes preferlamb in groups rather than individual pens. Creep area for lambs after lambing can be provided. Feeding should be carried out in pen ages. —v(2) shows 2typical layouts. spaceallotment

type

largeewe (68—70kg) largeewe&lamb smallewe (45—69kg) smallewe&lamb ewe hogg

(m2)

slatted floor

solid floor

0.95—1.1 1.2—1.7 0.75—0.95 1.0—1.4 0.45—0.75

1.2—1.4 1.4—1.85 1.0—1.3 1.3—1.75 0.65—0.95

Floor spaceforsheep

1

4 Dutchbarn

Troughforfeeding hay&concentrate

polebarn

675

.1'

slaa spaceboarding

ding 9500 1600

i

—

frOugh

a

— I I

//

I

individualpens

2

Typicallayoutsforsheephousing

typeofsheep

trough1*

largeewes smallewes

475—500 375—425 350—400

hoggs

4800

1200 1 L

4800

4800

21.6

*

onself-feed silage100—250 adequate for allsheep

3

Recommendedtrough I

5

Slattedpolebarn sheephousefor320 ewes

12

4

308

Industry

Farm buildings SHEEP (cont)

j 46O

5000

900

1staggeredshedding(spieer)gates

[th deco

--_________

8 anti-wavegroove

thu1?ifi 3bath controlisland

ft

-Jllffii

—

dimensions

0

E F A B C 0 610 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1168 381 2743 1219 305 686 1245 381 3200 1372 229

955 1090 1365

Sheep handling

Sheepshedder

Handling eqp usually constructed from 950 high, 125 x 125 timber posts set at 1 500 centres with either complete dressed boarded sides or4 x 100 wide timberrails. Should consist of following:

(splitter)

1800 2100

appros capacityQ)

2

1

holdingpen: spaceallowance/eweand lamb 0.65 m2

shedder (splitter): width 460 and length 3000—5000; should have 2 A

staggered gates —v(1).

Sheep dip

Sheep dip bath and swim-around dipper often used when sheep enter bath on side-slideprinciple and walkout on ramp. —v(2) shows dimensionsand layout of such dips.

Drainingpen

2draining pens required side by side with shedding entryand guillotine exit gates —v(3).

Forcingpen

2 forcing pens or circular pen leading to dip with exit shedder gate

Sheepdip

required. Forcing pen usually8000 long and 900 wide with solid sides.

6700

Footbath race(trough)

Footbath race should be 10—12 m long, 900 wide at top and 350 wide at bottom —v(4). Typical layout for handling 200 ewes and lambs —a(S).

3

4

Sheepdrainingpen

/

-I

/_

drattingpen pens

taading pen

race& tootbath holdingpes

5

Sheepfootbathrace

-

Typicalsheephandling layout

POULTRYHOUSING Poultry houses should be well insulated (0.6 W/m2°C), equipped with fan ventilation, feeding,watering and mechanicalwasteremovalsystems. Deeplifterhouses suitable foralldomestic fowl. Layers normally kept in cages. .—a(6)shows typical designs for poultry houses.

Light requirements

Light levels of 0—20 lx —ap25 required; for most poultry control eqp for manipulation of artificialday length required.

Ventilationrates category

pertorated

f 6

-7600

pullets&hens

1.2 2.5 3.5

broilers

0.05 0.9 1.8

tkrorhosse

22

Typicaldesignsofpoultryhouses turkeys tan

naturalventilation eatractventilationsystem gabletan pertorated pvcdad

pentorated cmimg

_1'"<11_ .t"lii(k

orate __________ __________ outlet

7

Typicalventilationsystems, poultryhouses

weight max rate mm rate nit/h bird rr?/h bird kg

0.5

2.0 5.0 11.0

10 14 15

0.8—1.3 1.5 2 0.1

0.8 10 14

12

6 12 15 27

0.7

1.7

12 1.5

2.7

Ventilation systems &controls

Poultry house ventilation systems consist of light-prooted airinlets, air

distribution, outlets, fans and controlgear.—a(7) shows typical ventilation arrangements.

Industry

309

Farm buildings POULTRY

Space requirements: hens

a-

deeplitter

0)

system

density(live weightper unitof floor ar)

qualifications

rearing birdsfor laying (age 16—20 weeks)

19.5kg/rn2

floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp

upto3.2kg liveweight over 3.2 kg live weight

14.7kg/rn21 17.1 kg/rn2J

floor artoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp

broilerproduction units

34.2 kg/rn2

floorartoincludethat occupied byfeeding&wateringeqp

system

density(liveweightper unitof floor ar)

qualifications

rearingbirdsfor laying

39.1 kg/rn2

densityrelates to cage floor ar

adult batterybirds 3or more lightweightbirds/cage 3or more heavierbirds/cage 2birds/cage singlebird cages

39.1 kg/rn2 44 kg/rn2 29.3 kg/rn2 19.5kg/rn2

densitiesrelateto cagefloor ar: rnintroughspace 100/bird

system


qualifications

rearingbirds forlaying

9.8 kg/rn2

floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp

layingbirds

8.3 kg/rn2

floorarto includethatoccupied byfeeding& watering eqp

laying birds

cages

strawyards

Space requirements: turkeys rearing system


qualifications

broiler-typehousing

39.1 kg/rn2

floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&wateringeqp

tierbrooders

19.5kg/rn2

carry-oncages, hayboxes raisedonwire orslats,

34.2 kg/rn2

verandahs

pole barns

24.4 kg/rn2

enclosedrange ar

10m2/bird (987birds/ha)

floorartoincludeany aroccupied byfeeding&watering eqp

breeding density(liveweightper unit of floor ar)

system

on floors hens kept for insemination, hens 19.5kg/rn2 &maleskept togetherfor natural mating

maleskeptforartificial

qualifications

floor arto excludeanyfloor nest boxesbutto includeallothereqp

0.84 rn2/bird

insemination

in cages

29.3 kg/rn2 0.84 rn2/bird

hens males

in enclosed

range ar

16.7 rn2/bird (617 birds/ha)

hensshouldbe housed individually

310 Industry

Farm buildings SMALLDOMESTICANIMALS:DOVES

hayracksshould notexceed 20.Metal orceramictroughs used forwater and grain concentrate: should be fixedto prevent overturning. Trough

Specification

frontage 50—60/rabbitsufficient.

space requirements 0.4—0.5m2/pair dry and clean protected fromexcessive sunshine, windand rain safe from predators demountable forcleaning goodaccess for keeper

Pens

Location

Fur rabbits often kept in pens (2 m2/pair) constructed fromgalvanised netting —÷(3). Side netting should be sunk about500 belowground level to prevent rabbits from burrowing out. Pens should have sidesabout 600 high and be covered over with netting. At 1 corner of pen box consisting of 2 compartmentsforfeeding and nesting.In some instances penscan beraised 800above ground.

on SE-E facing wall, usually underprojecting eaves behind perimeter walland in roofspaces.

DOGS

Construction Dressed T&G boardingwith waterproofroof, internally2compartments, 40 wide top for roosting. Floor level 100 below entrance to prevent young fromfalling out. —(1) shows layout and dimensions ofdovecots. 1 with nest. Partition between compartments with

RABBITS

Spacerequirements breed

spacear

small

medium

0.56 0.72

large

1.2

Domestic kennels should be roomy enough allow dog stand upand turn round. Construction usually dressed timberwith waterproofroofing, eg roofing felt. Kennel should be demountable for easy cleaning. Floor should be raised 60—100 above ground level, often bedded with straw or wood shavings. Floor and roof can project in front of entrance, forming sheltered lying area. —.(4) shows typical design for medium sizedog. Professionalkennels—*p31 1

SMALL POULTRYHOUSES

hofcage

Poultry houses for layers should be situated in sheltered locations surrounded by fenced area allowing 15—20 m2/layer.

500 550 650

Design ofcages

Depth should be 800 for easy cleaning or catching rabbits. Cages usually arranged in 3tiers, raised fromground level by 150. Single tier cages should be800above ground level. Height oftop floorshould not exceed 1600. Floorshould beslattedwithtimberslats,30wide with 10gap: waste collected on sloped floor underneath, urine stored in collecting tank or bucket. —(2) shows details of 2-tier rabbit cages. Cages for nesting should have front half of floor area solid. Frame and walls of rabbit cages usually dressed timberprotected with timber preservative. Felted roofshould have good overhangsforweatherand sun protection.

Feeders & waterdrinkers Hay racks with small trough below usually fixed on front gates but should not occupymore than 1/3 of gate area to maintain good lighting and ventilation. To prevent young escaping gaps between wiresand

Internal space of 1 m2 sufficient for 3—4 layers. Volume of 0.65 m3 should beprovided per hen, with at least200 oflinear space on roosting rail. Rail should besituated about 1 600 high with gaps between rails of 400. Below roosting rail is waste collecting board which is periodically cleaned. Nests should be 300 wide and 350 deep; often located in groups along wall. Nests bedded with straw; if production control required, folding, self-trapping flapsfitted tonests

Feeders &waterdrinkers Hoppers or feedingtroughs with wire above trough to prevent hens

defecating into feed. Drinkers usually heavy containers 400 high with rail round.

Construction Hen houses oftentimber-built with felted roof and resting on concrete base with DPC throughout. Structure should be insulated; provide proper opening for air inlet and outlet for natural ventilation. Typical layout and dimensions ofsmall poultry house —.(5). .—\

k

i

hay

'IS

II

_______ ________

S

j

2000

550

______

Ji, 1000

hay

Layoutofdovecots

Ing

art)

I

Li

4

td 850

Dog kennels

840

4

L_J°° 1

1000

3

2 Tierrabbitcages

f

sheltered

______

I

__j

bed

S Smallpoultryhouse

pen

water

Furrabbitcages

Industry

311

Farm buildings KENNELS

concreteblock

Professional kennels include sleeping quarters in conjunction with adequate exercise runs. Area of individual runs varies according to breedand size of dog. Where individual independentdog housesused in each run construction should be wood with demountable roof (centre-hinged if large) for sanitary purposes. Floor should bewood mm 75 above ground with full ventilation between ground and floor. Burlap bags provide washable bedding and may be stuffed with cedar wood shavings for severe weather protection. Dog house entrance should be baffled against directwind draughts and driving rain, snow. Kennels with common shelter bldg, perhaps incorporating grooming and minor med services can be constructed economically of concrete blockwith poured concrete floor, which should be sloped to gutter and drain, providing easy wash down. Wood pallets with loose washable rugs serve as beds in eachenclosure—n(1 )(2). Fencing for exercise runs mm 1680 high should be fully fenced across top unless sides 8440 high. Gravelsurfacepreferedforruns but concrete more easilymaintained and offers better sanitation. All exercise runs should have full man gate with patentedkennel hardware. Mm run 1 070 wide and 3050 long. Food and water dishes stainless seamless steel mounted on runfencing with steel bands.

_______

}(}4 .

run

fUfl

1220

run

run run

t

run

run •

tredraln

gutter

__________________________________________________________

Layoutplanofkennelswithcommonshelterbldg

;IH

__________________________

___________________________

4__ Lj4I

2 Kennelswith commonshelterbldg aelevation

bsection

7000 1L

°hy — '

workbench

DUCKS

§

]

______

I

_______

Sb

ru

extrac/_lJ

_______________

__________________________________________________________

3 Layoutofsto&honeyprocessing rmforup to 100 beecolonies __________________________________________________________

i

GEESE Design similar to houses forducks: space allowance of 0.4 m2/goose required. Floor should be sloped to drain, damp-proofed and lightly bedded. Nests should be 600 x 650 and nest partitions 300 high. Entrance should be 500 x 500 equipped with doors orcurtain. Layout and dimensions of goose house for 30 geese or 3 geese and young

run

I

concretewalk

honeynpening &bottling

x

run

..

* ittgatesoperatebyinteriormechanism

Example of timberbeehouse set on stoneor concrete foundations for small bee-keeper —(4). Beehouse could be insulated for operator comfort.

Ducks sleep on floorswhichshould be dryand sloped todrain foreasy cleaning. Floor should be damp-proofed, lightly bedded with straw and open drain covered with timber slats 40 wide with 20 gaps. Space allowance of 1 m2 required for 3—4 ducks: 1 duckhouse should house nomore than 20ducks and 4drakes. Entranceintohouse should be300 wide and 400 high. Ducks must have accessto water. Nests should be 450 450 with 300 high partitions and placedonfloorwith no bottom so that ducks do not damage eggs as they enter nest. Good natural ventilation and lighting required. Water trough should be located near slatted drain. Structure maybe insulated.Typical layoutand dimensions of duck house—n(S).

fioorriraunU

!

Iift

_____

Though bees normally kept in hives beehouses equipped with sto and honey extraction and bottling rm sometimes constructed. In general 30 and more bee colonies would justify provision of sto and processing area. Sto area3000 x 4000should benext tocovered loadingentrance or patio. Honey processing area (6000 x 7000) should have outside door. Layoutofworksurfaces—n(3).

4

2700

6300

—/

I I I

nests I

I

3000

5

JlOOO

2300

Beehotisefor20beecolonies

sleepingar

Housefor30geese

LI IT[1d09

gutter

BEEHOUSES

6

sto I

I

Housefor20ducks

—

312 Industry

Farm buildings: crop storage GRASS

Towersilos

Glass coated steelorconcrete,hermeticallysealed sto torshortchopped (10—12) wilted grass (35—50% moisture content). Rapid tilling and emptying possible using blower-loader, cutter unloader, auger and delivery conveyor belt. Av density ot silage 1.2 m3/t. Estimated losses 10—15%. Silo dimensions vary from 5500—9000 dia and 12 to 21 m height. Site requirements: adequate soil load-bearing capacity, space for dump-box, access for tilling and turning of tractors, trailers and elevator loaders. Animal handling, feeding and waste removal should not be affected by tower filling operating. Space for future expansion may berequired.

Clamp silos

Usually openconcrete pools withdrainage ofslurry liquor topitholding 150 I/f of silage. Walls capable of withstanding lateral pressures of unwilted shortorlong cutgrass. Lateralwallsofrailwaysleepers (orties) held by vertical steel shores or columns, mass reinforced concrete or sloped timber. Detailed designs should be by structural engineer. Cut grass deposited onconcrete apron stackedwith tractor mountedloaders and compacted by tractor: compacted density 1.1 m3/t. Silage depth 2000for self-fed cattle upto3500fortractor cut-and-cart to cattle.—u(1) shows examples ofopenclamp and towersilos.

STRAW Baled straw avvolume 1.4m3/t; bales 1 000 x 600 x 500 weight 22—27 kg.Simple open-sided Dutch barns with dry floors positioned near livestock bldg with vehicular access adequate. Sometimes bale stacks orroundbig bales leftoutside. Loosestraw can be blown into barnswith space-boarded open sides. Mechanisation of handling difficult: av volume of loose straw 23 m3/t.

taneous combustion. Mechanisation of hay feeding difficult unless chopped, driedand ted as processed teed with other components of ration. Barndrying: cold or hot air reducing moisture to 20% used to ensure good quality hay during rainy weather. Hay in bales or blown loose stacked on wooden slats ormesh over main and lateralair ducts (600 x 800). Overall height ofdriedhayupto 3500in barnswith space boarded sides.

POTATOES

Bulk store

Bldg usually portal frame, 4800toeaves, insulatedto 0.5W/m2 °C with thrust-resistant wallsforbulk sto. Concrete floor with DPCstrong enough heavy vehicles; doors normally sliding, insulated (4500 x 4500) with personnel door. Ventilation system based on under-floor lateral ducts(350 x 350) at2000centres running at right angles to main air ducts. 75thick spaced timber slats used to coverducts. Surface 'A' frameducts cheaper but inconvenientduring unloading.Fanstosupply air flow of0.02 m3/s pert stored including mixing chamber for recirculation and thermostatic control system required. Bulk sf0 volume 1.5 m3/t; height up to4000.

Pallet box store Suitable for sf0 of different

lots, varieties or seed crop potatoes. If potatoes harvested directintoboxes less handlingdamage totubers. Bldg specification similar bulk sf0 but6000hightoeaves and of narrower span. Because nothrust on walls, timber frames and s oftenused. Ventilation based onfloor level ducts forair distribution and extractfans located at 1 gable end opposite air intakefan. Recirculation duct required to maintainair recirculationduring periods oflowventilation rate: usually of plywood suspended from ridge, fitted with adjustable apertures. Ventilation rate of 0.01 m3/s per stored adequate. Pallet box 1 200 x 1 800 x 900deepwill hold Boxes often stacked 6deep. Allow 3000 freefloorspace at 1 gable end.

it.

HAY Bale sizessimilarto straw. Av volume 9 m3/t; loose hay 12 m3/t. Dutch barn or pvc heavy duty sheeting required protect hay from rain. Good ventilation and moisture content below 2S% required prevent spon-

..eutemaichute

f

Goodsf0 management required to minimise:

bacterial rot& loss of colour moisture loss loss due tosprouting loss ofcooking qualify, and to prevent frostdamage —u(2) shows examples of bldg forbulkand pallet methods of sf0.

topcutter—auger

recircuiation

unioader

conveyorbeft

§

j .11

biower ioad

: 1

E

8 0 Ca

".>_siiaeiiuortank tO—40m

TI 1

Tower &openclampsilos

I

1

I

2

Bulk &pallet boxpotatosf0 bldg

4i2.O

+

Industry

313

Farm buildings: crop storage GRAIN top [conveyor

lop conveyor

evator

I

I

elevatoi L_

—

1 1

—r

outlets

-,

--

[T

n

portabie augerin tube

S

h1

_______________________

bottom conveyor(in trench:binoutletsover) longitudinalsections (alternativegrainflow)

top conveyorwith outletstoeachbin

trench

squarebins

square bins

Layoutsforgrainsto bins nomial mm

3000x3000

,

4500 high; slotted metal floor over plenum chamber approx600 deep (special slots canblowairtoliftgrain withoutmanual workintobottom conveyor)connected tofan rm(eloroil fired) by airduct, usually combined with bottom conveyor. Some circular bins have perforated sidesand central plenum vertical duct of < 1 000 dia —v(3). (ii) predrying: mostly by continuous floworbatch driers (el or oilfired) for < 10 t/hr. Former may need 10000 x 3000 x 2500 high plus perimeter access and Iatter3000 x 2500 x 4000 high. Intakepit—v(4) (from bulk tanker truck) slopes to elevatorwhich raises wet grainto drier (possibly through pre-cleaner) and/or to sto. Work space for drierand eqp may need 80—lOOm2. Elevator will need 2000abovetop conveyor, probably as penthouse (vented). Driers need dust extract pipe(s); intake doors should be 3500 x 4500high. (iii) refrigerated: betterquality ifgrain kept at 4.4cCbymeansofcoldair blown through bulk or bin sf0. Most layouts similar to warm airdrying: some have lateralducts at 3000centreswith external mobile refrigerator/ blower connected to each in turn.

—v(2) (more normally predried)

i) trench

blower-auger or overhead conveyor and emptied by portable auger; uninsulated roof; small gable vents; artificial lighting; doors 3700 x 3700. (ii) bins: (mostly for small quantities orvery mechanised units) —(1), square or circular thrust-resistant steel ortimbersides seton3500grid and 3800 high; usually bins roof; filled byconveyor under ridge, emptied by gravity and shovel into below ground conveyor or by floor sloped at35°. (iii) hermetically sealed bins: using glass-fused steel or reinforced 9 dia x 12 m plastics rings for wet grainof 25% moisture content; high (sometimes 18 m); reinforced waterproof concrete base; filled by blower throughtop dome, emptied by bottom outletauger.

Drying (i) insitu: forbulk, in principle generally asforpotatoes —vp3l 2; for bins

bottomconveyorin trenchorlunne crosssections(binsmay nothavesloped floors)

circularbins

Sto: wheat 13, barley 14, oats 2 m3/t. (i) bulk: withinthrust-resistant walls, usually steel, approx 2500 high, plus asbestos-cement sheets to eaves 1 200; waterproof floor, with grain coned upat30°to centre ofbldg; normal spans 14—18 m; filledby

normalmax 4575x3800

asbestosi roof

3 Grain drying&sto: radialflowbins inbarn

2 Grain drying&sto: nestof binswith roof: section

4

Intakepit

c(I)

314 Industry

Farm buildings MACHINERY& IMPLEMENT STORAGE

Circulationroundstationery machines automotive machinery space allowanceto side 1000 " " toside 600 high machinery low machinery all machinery all machinery

" "

" " "

toside tofront to rear

Machinerysheds

Open-fronted shedsadequatefor simple implement sto. Tractor, combineharvester and self-propelled machineryrequiring some daily maintenance should be kept in sheds equipped with sliding door, el light, watersource and preterably concrete floor.

500 500 500

Workshop

Static space requirements offarmmachinery description

h

w

I

tractor

2600—3000 1 400 1 800

1800

3200

2200 2200 2300 3500 2500

4000—6000

trailer manurespreader crawler

combineharvester truck

slurry spreader baler

drill mountedplough disc harrows/roller hayturner

2300 4000 2900 2200 2600 2000

1 800

2800 3200

1 200

1 400

800 1200

4300 2800

5500 3800 9500 8600 3600 6000 2800 2400 2400 2500

Fully enclosed, insulated bldg 4000 to eaves, equipped with sliding door, watersource, el light and power points, forge with chimney or point torel forge, operating pitwith gantry beamover, racks abovework benches. Outside concreted drained turning area and floodlight

Fuel store Oil-tanks to workshop

and turning area, raised on concrete walls to allow gravity filling ot machinery. Catchpit holding content of tanks desirable. Fuel stored in separate sf0 complying with conditions of reg and codes—*(1) shows example ofmachinery shed and workshop.

concreted

turningar

1

Stofortractor & implements with workshop

Farmbuildings references: —÷Bibliographyentries 108115118137288325333334335340341 347 348351 352 356357358359360363364365 415 582 589 601 646

Leisure

315

Sport STADIA:GENERALDESIGN

CD

Sportsdata on following pages compiled with help ofBritishSports Council TechnicalUnit for

C')

Sport: basic technicalinformationgathered from governing bodies ofsports and gamescovered.

CD

C

Activities divided into 3 categories: outdoor; those which can beplayedin common spaces indoors; thosewhich essentiallyneedseparate

orexclusivespace. Governingbothèscommonly specify dimensions for 3 standards of play:

international and national; county and club; recreational. In some instances standard dimensions available for olympic competition and forsports fordisabled:forthese dimensions forall standardhave not been included; unless specified they are inadequate for national

1

USA: segmental

2 Amsterdam:semicircular

3

Rotterdam: sides& corners curved;

4

standards.

Several sports subject tostatutory requirements for lighting, temp, playingsurfaces and eqp: always refer to Technical Unitfor Sport and to governing body.

NB for UK stadia, terrace and seating design, reference must be made to Guide toSafety at Sports Grounds (Football) Combined soccer pitchwith running track roundit conforming to recognised international athletics standards may determine size of sports area: basic shape ellipse—(6). Stadium usuallypartexcavated:earth so gained built up all round. Combination of grandstand with changing rm, shower, first aid rm and provision for police, fire service, , press, broadcasting now usually avoided (economy and hygiene). Dormitories fortraining courses in separate bldg.

forfootball only

Townplanning: stadia should be well integrated with surroundings, with easyaccess for traffic and supplies (rail station, bus stops, car parks etc). Neighbouring industries with smoke, smell and noise undesirable. Group together covered and open-air installations for different sports: if possible in town's

5 U-shaped plan

greenbelt.

6

StadiumatHanover Arch Hillebrecht Goesmann

Budapest:horseshoe shapeabouttransverse axis

316 Leisure

Sport: stadia SIGHT LINES In Europe axes

of stadia

usually NE-SE —(1) ensure most spectators

havesun behind them. According toVitruvius (1st century BC) rowsof seats and standing terraces should rise atsteady rate 1:2 for acoustic reasons also.Today useofamplifiers makes good viewonlycriterion for tiering. For staggered seat arrangement every other back row should look over heads of corresponding front rows: gives parabolic curve —(26)starting with rise of 380 and ending with rise of 480. Best views on long sideswithinsegment; hence stadia of this shape, first built by Hadden (USA), whichgive new and convincing impression.

2 Designforgrandstandofstadium for100000spectators(Nervi) asection bconstructionofsightlines

Visibilitydetermines sizeofstadium

1

2rows 2 rows

—

a

-4-

-1

b 150 for peoplewithhats 100 for peoplewithout hats edge of arena +22.3 constructionof sighttinesfor(a)

+12.7 +6.7

TRAFFIC Stadia should be near traffic arteries, accessible by road and rail, with projecting turnstiles sothat spectators candivide intostreams fordifferent entrances. These usuallyat half heightofgrandstand, giving access to rows higher and lower by ramps or stairs —(2). Calculate widths of ages and stairs according number ofspectatorsleaving stadium as all leave at same time in contrast to gradual arrival. According van Eestern's investigations 5000spectators at Amsterdam stadium need 420sto leave by 9500stairways (Los Angeles 720s Turin 540s).

To determinestair wtoevacuategiven numberof spectatorsfromstadium number of spectators withingiventime: stair w = departure time ins x 1.25 Stairs and corridorsflow times—p407—8 Check applicable codes and standards.

9500x420s= 0.8sor

1 spectatoroccupiesl000stairwin

in 1 S

95O002o

5000

= 1.25spectatorsoccupyl0000fstairwayw.

Heisinki

Rio deJaneiro

3

Circulationroutesin stadia

Fiorence

Arezzo

Leisure

317

Sport: stadia Standing terraces: proportion w: h400:200—v(4)—(9) Seatingterraces:proportionw: hfrom 800 : 480—v(11)—(1 7)

CD

C,)

After5 steps firm railings (crush barrier) Lower ageway all round

1

CD

250wide

Doubleand treble standing terraces nolonger built

spectatt_ _____________ 1

natural ground level

3

Sectionthroughstadiumwith partialexcavation,earthmound& superstructure

SectionthroughOlympicstadium Berlin ArchMarchBrothers

-

SEATINGTERRACES —

-

11 Woodenbencheswith plank

--

8000 -

6370

4-

6860

-.

6860

— 29.44 -—_______

-4

step

4—

2

900

780

—4

SectionthroughViennastadium 31

—i

780

i—

0

470

STANDING TERRACES 400 4—1250-—.-—4-—I 400

43304450

12 Woodenseatsonconcrete

Ox70 4 Steps withtimber reinforcement

I—

5

—-

330-450

I

1

760 —4

Angle steps

7

700

—4

450

14 Seatingtiers:d750 h450 w 500

6

I—

4-260-4---440 —.

per person 330—

13 SlopingRC deckwith stepsin concretetopping

uprights

Movableconcreteunits

I—

760

15 On timberframe asatStuttgart

—I

330—450l I330—4504

9. 8

Reinforced concretewith fallsto

drain

16 On metal bracketsset in

9

PrefabricatedRC unitsonsteel joists

concrete

17 Seatingwith backs

GRANDSTANDSECTIONS --i i20—.-72O--72O

_______________________________________________________ 10 Standingramp,slope 10%,6P/i 000 mm2

18 Normalrise,upper steps

19 Normalrise, lowersteps USA risers 152—460, treads610—762(660 usually satisfactory)

318 Leisure

Sport centres CD

ORGANISATION

(I) crcuiar track CD

7—

1

2

Dispositionofspectators large scale sports &

large scale sports

medium

medium

small

Spatial patterns &circulationindrysportscentre small

scalewet scale sports community &dry dryonly centre provision leisure/rec centre sports/rec sports/rec centre centre (wet& centre dry)

S.

pools 50m 25m

o

• ••0

20m

tree shape learner

diving

.. •

sportshall(s) large medium

o

small

small community ancillaryindoorsportsaccn practiceha weighttraining/conditioningrm projectileha squashcourts climbingwall indoor bowls billiards/snooker ice rink

theatre/multi-purposeha ancillaryaccn changing

spectatorseating: fixed occasional

informalviewing club meetingrm firstaid firstaideqp crechesto creche(alternative use, sto) saunasuite refreshments cafeteria bar vendingmachine

IS

• 0

.. •

outdoorgrounds grasspitches hard porous/synthetiitches floodlitpitches tenniscourts possible

5 0

•5 S.

staffrest rm staffchanging

0

•• •• 0 •

I0

reception off

SI essential

0 0 0

S

staff& management

key:

•• •0 •0

0 0 0 0

S typical/desirable

•• •• o

. ..

0 0 0 0

.• •. S 0 o 0

5

S•

•• .

•• o •o 0 0

0 0 •0

•• •• SI ••

0 S

•

0

IS 55 0 0 0 55

I0 S

S

•

55 •• 0 0

IS S

5 0

•• •S •• •• 5. 0

S. 0

.5

..

. .. .0 0 .0

0 0

•. •.

•. .• S. •S

I• 0

•1

S

S

S

•

. . 0

•• •I

0

.. .0 I •• 0 o I 0S •• S•

.

0

0 0

o o o o

0 0 a a

0 0 0 0

SS

•

•• S

Mainfeaturesrequiredfor6sizes of sports bldg:general recommendations onlyallbldgbeing influencedbyarserved,population &other resourcesavailable 3

Leisure

319

Sport centres EXAMPLES

bowlsha

iti -J 1

Dry &wet leisurecentreonschoolsite DunstableEngland

Sports centres for disabled —Bib639

2

SportscentreBridgnorthEngland:circulation &socialsppatially well conceivedegin entrance haglazedscreenallowsviewsintoswimmingpool, betweensportsha&squashcourtsglazed bridgeoffersviewintoeitherar

3

LargecomplexHarrowEngland comprises indoor&outdoorsportscentre,withpoolalongside&outdoorbowlsground

320 Leisure

Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE

courts of same kind;critical heights which in some instances degrade standard for which otherwise floor space adequate; need for some additional tree circulation space inside hail entrance.

—'(1) shows number of sport playing courts or other spaces which fit into various sizes ofsports orcommunity halls. Number ofspaces given foreach sportoptimum willfitintoundivided hall spacefor3 standardsof play:N internationaland UKnational;CUKcounty orclub;R recreational. Required mm space allowed for each takes into not onlyactual playing area but: necessary run-outor safety margins, team bench and officials'space round playing space which amount to overall areasused forassessment; where practicalsome overlapof marginbetween parallel

36.5x32x 32x26x 91 7.6—9.1

bowls)portablenoncompetitive rinks) boxing)trainingr'ings)

32x23x

32x17x

7.6—9 1 754 m2

6.7—9.1 736m2

67—76 554 m

)105x75

(105x56x )97x54x )85x54x

)92x54x 3995ff2

12600ff2

8925ft2

8175if2

7770ff2

5880ff2

5238ff2

nostandard

nostandard

nostandard

nostandard

nostandard

nostandard nostandard

2 C ±3)1*) R

2 N 3)1*) n

N

4

N

4

N

C

25—30 if)

22—25 if)

25m 18m 2Oyd 8

N

525m 18m 2Oyd 5

Nt

2

N

7

A

18m 20yd

2Oyd

3/4Nt/c 4

A'

4 6

N

4

C**

A

N

A'

4

A

3

A

3

A*

6

C

C**

9

N

N

4

N

6

C

A

12

A

9

R

8

N A

3

12

6

A

3 5

1

C

—

1

C

1

A

—

6

N

6

C

S

N

4

C

4

N/C A'

—

7 8

N C

6 8

N C

3/4 2/3

N

1

C

1

A'

1

C

1

A'

2

A'

N

—

C

—

C

1

1

2

— 1

N*

1

—

P

A'

1

C

C

— 1

A'

C'

1

A

1

4 6

N

2 4

N C

4

N A

1

A

A

1

N C

2 4

N

4 2

N*

2 6

N

1

2/4N/C 6

A

4/6C/A

4 6

N A*

2 4

N C

1

N

1

C*

1

1

A'

—

1

N'

2

A

microkorfball

1

C

1

C

netbat

1

N

1

A

2

C'/A

10 15/21

12

N 6 N C/C 10/15 C/C N

A

8

FtP

12

A C

2 4

1

—

N*

A

1

A

2 4

A

1

2

A

)56—65x41 )56x28x x 22 if) 22It) 2850—3455ft21555if2

nostandard 1

N

lSyd —

—

N

2 3

N A

C''

1

C"

2 6

N A'

C*

N

1

C*

N'

C

2

1

A

—

A

—

2

N

1

Nt

1

Nt

C A'

2'Nt/C

A

2 3

2

A

2

C

— 1

3

1

nostandard —

7

C/C

A

12

A

10

4

C''

4

—

A

—

A

C

C''

1

nt

1

A+t

C

2 4

A

N C

C

A

1

A'

—

P

—

—

—

—

—

1

A*

A'

C

1

2

A*

A

—

—

—

—

N A

1/2

A

—

—

1

N

1

N

A

2

A

1

A

3

2

2

2

A

C'

—

/

C

—

—

A

—

— —

— 1

— —

—

— C

1

—

— — —

N

— — miniBB —

/

N

2

A*

/

7 1

A

—

—

A*

—

—

— —

—

—

—

—

—

C/C

C"

—

—

1/2N/C

2

1

4 6

1

2

A

—

—

1

P

7

1

—

—

N'/C A

—

A'

miniBB

P

2 3

A'

—

A*

1

1

1

N

—

A'

2

C

Nt C'/A

1

A

1

2

—

3 4

3/4* N/C +1 A

P

C

—

A

N

C

4 8

A'

2 4

1

A'

7/9 14

4

C A

2

1

n

—

N C

A'

N 6 10/12 C/C

C

1 2

—

2

1

A

1

A

—

Nt

3

1

1

A

—

3

3

18m

A

1

—

N 6 10/12 C/C

—

A

1

C

—

8

1

A

V

I

keeptitmovement & dance;Yoga

1

1

1

12

voteybat

N

iBm lSyd

2 5

A

3/4' N/C +2 A'

—

P

mini-handball

tug-ot-war

C''

5

N C

trampolining

1

1

3)3*)

tabletennisc/c

1

A

1

9

lawntennis

no standard

x

A'

5

I

C

lacrossetemale

22—25 if)

N

R*

N

kendo

C**

N

12 14

karate

3 4

1 2

N

N

judo

iBm 2Oyd

C'/A

8

hockey

2

N

2

1

cricketnets

handbat

2

525m 18m 2Oyd

525m 18m

C

gymnastics)olympic)

22—25if) 4590ff2

22—25 if)

17,0—20.Ox 17.0x8.5 67 156 6.7 265.2—321 m2 144,5m2

3Om

N

5-a-sidetootball

486.7 m2

67—7.6 371.25 m2

25—30 tt)

1

)pistes)

6.7—76 429 m2

x 25—30 If)

2

fencing

x 6.7—7.6

(105x85x )96x85x

pitches

crickef6-a-side

29.5x16.5 26x16.5x 22.5x16.5

)120x105 x 30if)

6)2')A basketball

communityha

small ha

29x26x

832 m2

archery )l of shoot)

bton

space.

1168 m2

4 6

aikido

Fire: check fr reg and max component value; in UK halls 7000 m3 or over need DoE waiver; 'volume' can include unenclosed structuralroof

mediumha

large ha

sports

For most sports possible provide spaces for mix of 3 standards; in practice several differentactivities may beprogrammed at same time.

C"

A

Definitionofscales:max numberofcourtsrelatedtostandardsofplay:(forkey & footnotes—tp321(1))

6/7

1

C/C A

C'' —

4 8

C/C A

4

A

—

C'' 1'

—

C''

3—6

6—8 2

— 1

—

—

—

C/C A

4

A'

1

A

A

— —

—

A'

—

—

Leisure

321

Sporthalls USE OF UNDIVIDEDSPACE(cont) largeha

mediumha

small ha

36.5x32x 32x26x

29x26x

32x23x

32x 17x

9.1

7.6—9.1

7.6—9.1

6.7—9.1

6.7—7.6

1168n,2

832m2

7Mm2

736m2

554m2

(120x105 x 30It)

(105x85x (96x85x

x 25—30 if)

(105x75

25—30 if)

25—30 if)

(105x56x (97x54x

8925ft2

8175ff2

7770ff2

12600ff2

weight lifting contests wrestlin

x 6.7—7.6

486.7m2

22—25 if)

22—25if)

5238ff

5880ff2

6.7—7.6

6.7—7.6

429m2

communityha 17.0—20.Ox 15.6 x 6.7

371.25m2

265.2—321 m2

(85x54x

(92x54x

29.5x16.5 26x 16.5x 22.5x16.5 22—25 if)

4590ff

22—25if)

3955ff

17.0x8.5 6.7

144.5m2 (56—65x41 (56x28x x 22if) 22 It) 2850—34551f 1555ff

—

N

—

N

—

N

—

N

—

C

—

C

—

C

—

C

—

C

—

—

4

N C

2 6

N C

6

C

2 6

N C

2 3

N

3 8

C R

2 6

C R

2 6

C

2 4

C

2

R

12

C

R

A

Key:

N C A P

C/C ns

S

t 1

international/national standard county/club standard recreational standard practice aronly forfable tennis2gradesofmm spaceallowances forinter-county/inter-club standardsof play no standards have yetbeenlaid down arbehind shooting line belowsafety standardrecommended;acceptablespacecan beprovidedbyslightlengthening ofha; oresisting spaces may be usedforpractice belowmm space standard recommended bygoverning body concernedbut capableofproviding purposeful & enjoyable activity recreational standard where ha is less than7600clear hforbton & trampolining orless than7000forbasketball & volleyball; 6700 hsuitable formini-basketball & mini-volleyball county/club standard whereha less than 9000clearh

Continuation of —.p320(1) definition of scales

NB UK standards subject to revision. Current details availablefromSports Council Information Centre

STORAGE Inadequate sto space for sporthalls very common fault. Allow for full rangeof eqp needed. As eqp must beaccessible sto must be shallow (say 5000 max)and ideally placed along side of hall. Recommended mm requirements for3catagoriesofhall —v(2). Check list—v(3)

fixed

ceiling protectionfor lighting Climbing ropes& trackway climbingpoles&trackway speakers

track systemfordivision nets

• • • • •

cricket golf archery volleyball 5-a-side-soccer basketball

ceiling mountedbackboards &goals (manual

oreloperation)

(manual

oreloperation)

wallmountedbackboards & goals gymnastics asymmetricbars pommelhorse vaulting buck vaulting horse horizontal bars rings trampolinespotting rig parallel bars springboards,floors

boxing ring

gamesapparatus tennis volleyball bton

5-a-sidesoccer indoor hockey handball netball

3

Sportseqp checklist

• • • • • •• •

. .

movable

• • • • • • • • • • • • • .•

. .. .. • • .

sto ar m2 h access

large

112 75 50

medium small 2

sportsha

ha

Mm

7000 2700 2250

waccess 4500 4500 3600

sf0 requirementsfor3cate9onesha

sportsha walls scoreboard wall protection/padding seating fixings/recesses fire eqp protectionto services/heating wallspeakers floors

courtmarkings sockets&plates(fixed to floor orsub-floor)

fixed

. .

movable

.. . .

S S

•

.

ancillaryha ceiling

tracksystemforcurtains lightingsystems

•

activities judo & martial arts (mats,wallpadding)

.•

snooker

tabletennis fencing boxing

movement& dance(barre, mirrors)

.• •. .

floor sockets/fixings

•

boxing training weight/fitnesstraining weightlifting wrestling

markings

movablefloors/platforms

.

. • . .

.. • S

.

322 Leisure

Sport: outdoor

-

PITCHES

4.57m 48.8m 4.57m (15ft) (16011) (1511)

70yd)

110—155 m (120—i

True

-

V

'........

8

I

E

I--

I---

C',

8

Orientationdiagram:for purposesofthischartseasonsfor variousgainestakentobeasfollows (southernhemisphereexcepted): associationfootball&rugbyfootball 1 Sep—30 Apr; hardcourt tennis, basketball,netballallyear round; cricket,baseball,grasscourttennis 1 May—i 5Sep; pavilionsshould avoid SW-NWaspect (225°—3150)

H

I

I

9

Football,Australian

r..

I -J

Football,American

1

76.8—91.5

68m)74yd)

-

)

,

(84-100yd)

V 8

N

0

E

6 '0

t

N

I

rn-00 20m

II I E

I

I I I

L

000

1Dm 30m 40m 50m

70m

l

90m Isalety 1wai6ng line

se&end margins6m(20ft)

0

2Oyd(18.288) 3Oyd(27.432) 40ydl36.576l

10 Football,Gaelic

E

Ir'i

11

Handball

13 Hockey:forcounty&club matchesrecommendedpitch90 x 55(98½ x 60 yd),overallspace95

55-65m

SOyd(45.72)

6Oyd(54.864) 70ydl64.008) 8Oyd(73.152) 90ydl82.296) lOOyd(91.44)

wrunen

6

I

--

men

12

(60—70 yd)

Li

3 Archery,clout

Archery,target

Football,rugbyleague

54.9-73.15m(60-8Oyd)

54.9m(6Oyd)

8 11

x 60(104 x 66Y2yd)

---c

7m 69n1(76yd)

T

59.47m(66yd)

HI;

I E

lt

ItI;

IS N

LL

60m(66yd)

4

Baseball(Littleleague2/3 size)

E '0

Hill

Football,association:National PlayingFieldsAssociation recommendssizes:seniorpitches

82yd)

I

L

J

73(4590)m

l1Li (195—225It1nUSA( 6,,i

14 Football,rugbyunion

15 Football,Canadian 40m(44yd(

0 0

p

T

S 0 S

11

N "C

E

8

x

96—100 x 60—64(105—109 66½— 70yd);juniorpitches90 46—55 (98½ x 50—60 yd); international 100—110 64—75(109—120 70—

x

f

—

1

Camogie

x

E1

,.. side&endmargins6m(20ft) 6rn

6 7

E

5 Bicyclepolo

91—110 m(110—126yd)

H

lI;l

x

E

a,

L 16

Hurling

17

Korfball

323

Leisure

Sport: outdoor PITCHES 110m(l2Oyd) lOOm(lO9yd(

o

Lacrosse,men

1

Lacrosse,women:groundhas

2

nomeasuredormarked out boundaries

IIi

27.5m

27.Sm 275m (300yd)

3043m1

I

1

Ic In0

II

I I I

I

L 3

, II) 33m135yd)

4

'

-1-

H

/ / \\\ //

I I

0

LL

E

Polo

ii1

(ii \1I

IL'

Netball

alllines

E

50 wide

600 in

3

IrI

Ii

II

,

ix

frombad lineto po 1000

q

2m

128—183 m (140—200yd)

(l2

7

-

E.-

Tug-of-war

radius

E

**

850 inbetween

extension

,

marginatsides& ends1000;where spectatorsprsserttmix2000;dimensions aretoinsideoflines mm

6

Rounders

rope off

7

restricted 800

150

m

17m(l9ydl

46m(bOyd(

••\

recommen

Li" 5

(

tree throw line

1600

4.—

Shifty 42.1 m (46yd)

4

I

_T__i___I]i

Ii, 8

Curling

I

15 Basketball 91.44m(lOOyd)

160m1175yd(

// / / 20m(22yd1

Si

I L1

V

U

I

I-. E

16 Mini-hockey 9.14

m(30ft) 73m(240ft)

111

11

\\\\\\ 9

I

]1EIilhII 17 6-man football

Cricket

18 Softball 27.43—54.86

m(30—60 yd)

1 -*

usully about36.6 m(4yd)

risesiii middle 203—457 mm

ng

Bowls,crown

s"

}::::::::::::::::::::

L 12.2tn(4Ottl

19 Decktennis

doub

I

El .............v..... ___ 13.4m(44tt) 11.9m(39ft(

1.Sm(5tt( doubt

Ii

I I

i

'\.pJnior3.2m(10ft6in) sen,or:4m(13ft(

20 Paddletennis

IE 1

6

E

EE

324 Leisure

Sport: outdoor ATHLETICS 867gm

min9m

126.52w

7lanesat 122 85m

landingar(sandpit)

S

65m

pm 7

Longjump: NBlandingarat bothendstoavoidadversewind

straig6ct40.04m

straight25.01m 1

c:: I

wnway45m rnin4om

minim

7.3m

2 300mrunningtrack

200mrunningtrack

tIm (senior)

runway45m

9m (junior)

min4om

spInjump manrunup43m(47 yd)

-,

EJ__________________________

I landingar(sandpit) 8

E

81.6w

&

Triplejump(senior junior)

radius70 m

/o, /

mnn65m

I

...—

I

;

—

I

—

\

—

\

\\—--- —

176.91 m

9

—

.—

Discus& hammer:discusbase2500hammerbase2135 mingm

11 m (senior)

runway45m 40 m

9m(junior)

I:] I

mm

Ik ar I landing (sandpit)

75w

10 Combinedtriple & long jump 84.3gmstraight

radiussatetyboundary80-95 m

400 mstandard7-laneclub running trad: for6-laneall-weathersurfaces reduceoveralldimensionsby2440(approx overallsize 179 x 106m (193 x

116yd)); majorcompetition&regionaltracksrequireBall-weatherlaneswilh 10-lane sprintstraight:increaseoveralldimensionsby2440 (approx overall size 181 xlii m(198x l2iyd)

t._

I /i

I

El

crilI

4

2F -------

'

*-* 4m

Ii

>

\

, \- -

Javelin

Sm

ii

—s---

S

radius20-25m

f

.

iunway45m mIn4Om

L4_d

38.8 m

landingar(airbed)

ssm

5 Shot

6 High jump

runway365 m

---

4

12

Polevault

1i?

325

Leisure

Sport: indoor PITCHES

:

SE

U) a)

Q

FO

1—3m

I

0

Fc(

36m(ll8ft)

L______m ______ -J

353 n—9 59in)

6

(I 6lrn)2Olt) mm

5w

1m

'

9—lOm(30—331t)

1 m)3tt3in)

a

(4011 square)

7 I

bars

E

a,

msquareH• 3m n, _____________

Eti CU

CU

Cs

11J_

)9ft9in(

14 m

2omrunup)66ft)

4m(l3tt( runoti

I

I

L

7

J

Gymnastics,female

in,

262m(86ft)

Basketball:mm h7000(23 ft)—nalso p323(15)

o4 lie

a,

I

reboundwallsallround to2000(1220mm)

3

It

—

floorexercise

ID()

I

(89—20011)

E

1—2m

Micro-korfball

6 a C

1

h 7600(25 if)

asyrnetricT

--

27—60

36m(118 5)

—

irn

II

11

12 m(411)

Bton:

1—2 m

Lacrosse,female:pitchformalegame(not shown)46—48 x 18—24m(151—158ftx 60—79if)

S a,

0

-1-a

1—3m

lI E

I—IS

i3

o

a, E

r

'r .6

HC

16—18m(52—Sgttl

IS

Ia 12 Judo 3

2-3m

I

$

4$

18m)6Olt(

—

B Volleyball

—

I

—

mmn3Ornmax36m(99-ll8lt)

13 Tug-of-war

5-a-sidefootball

i7m(559in) a,

0.3ft)

S 'a

L a

(

(2 Cs

a,

I.)

a,

z ____________— 6.5m)21 ft4mn) 20mrunap(6f1)

4

I 65m )5lt5in)

runon

C-2

A-i

15—3m)5—i0ft(

36-44m(39-48yd)

a,

4m(l

Gymnastics,male: mm h 7600 (25 if)

i.5—3m)5—lOlt)

S

9

(2 E Cs

Wrestling(N nationalCclub Rrecreation)

I

=1

L

5

Hockey:teamsizesadjustedaccording to size

ofpitchavailable

Li

in

30—40m(98—131

10 Handball,7-a-side

\\

It)

14 Americanbowlingalley (mayhave anynumber lanes:usual mm 8)

15 Shuffleboard

326 Leisure

Sport: indoor PITCHES(cont)

E 0i

I

g

•::•:•:•:

raised

•:•:•:•:•::i

i I

E

1

Tennis

.F E

E

°r

'—

.- 0)

•:•:•:

:::•

rI•:•:•:• ,:•.•.•.,

.•:•:•:

I

7 Boxing:forcompetitioninaddition to ring& spectatoraccnfollowing needed: medexam rm, weighing rm, gloving-uprm, , lightingabove ring, watersupplytoeachcomer

I

14m(46ft)

F

15—2n (41111 in)

5 Fencingpistes 2

I

Netball

0-ibm

2.5(8ft)

6

(6'hftyt

I

(911)

ê

1 (3'/o—Sfi(

9m(301t)

8

Karate

9

Kendo

L1IJ

4

305m flhifl2m

(II ft6in)

3

6

Trampoline

Aikido

ATHLETICSTRACKS Resources for indoorathletics fall into 2 main categories: competition: provide forfull range ofcompetitivedisciplines; will provide for spectators training: (a) with some limited competitive use; (b) purpose built; (c) adaptations ofexisting sports halls. In USANational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) rules forcollege athletics, forotheramateur events Amateur Athletic Union (MU);some track and field events still measured in yards, feet and inches; many present tracks still in such measurements; new layouts generally in metresorotherSI units. European AthleticAssociation (EAA) specifies forindoor events:

Arena Shall be covered and heated and shall consist of track circuit, sprint straight, runways for4jumps, siteforshotputt.

Natureoftracks

Tracks andrunways surfaced with woodor suchothermaterialasallows normal use of spiked shoes; number of spikes shall comply with InternationalAmateur Athletics Federation rule 142 (4).

60 m hurdlesshall include 5 hurdles, h 1 060; 13.72 mfromstart line to first hurdle; 9140between hurdles; 9720fromlast hurdle to finishline. Female: 50 m hurdles shall include 4 hurdles, h 844; 13.0 m from start line to first hurdle;8500 between hurdles; 11.5 m from last hurdle to finishline.

60m hurdles shall include5hurdles, h844; 13.0 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle;8500between hurdles; 13.0 m fromlast hurdle to finish line.

Events

Runwaysfor long&triple jump & polevault:

wide.

Landingareaforjumps:in high jump and pole vaultlandingareasshall be in accordance with IAAF rules 201 (e) and 3 (d). In long jump and triple jump they shall measure 6000 long and 2500wide and shall consistof 300 in depth ofwet sand on synthetic track base. Putting theshot: sector shall be 450 but may be reduced bytechnical delegate ifnecessary to meetlocal conditions.

Othertechnical installations: all other technical installationsshall be strictlyinaccordance with IAAF rules.

Circulartrack 1 lap oftrack shall measure

160 m 200m in length. Eachbend shall be 35 min length and banked atanangle 100 18°. Eachstraight 35m.Where no raisedborder, measurementshall betaken 200 outward from inner edge of track. Track shall be 4000 6100 wide; shall include 4 lanes.

'

Sprinttrack

'

Sprint straight shall have

beyondfinishing line 15m.

6 lanes: width of each 1220;

/

,

—

consdecsurroundingindoorcyclingtrack

4or6nesat1 or mm w. 1.22or prefered

extension

Hurdleraces

Male: 50mhurdlesshall include4hurdles, h 1060. There shall be13.72 m fromstart line tofirst hurdle; 9140 between hurdles; 8860fromlast

hurdletofinishline.

40 m long and 1 220

45or40m bends 10

Requirementsforindoortrack

Leisure 327

Sport: indoor ATHLETICSTRAIMNG

CD

for athletes training indoors, with limited competitive use,

Provision

neednot includeexpensive 200 m banked tracks. Many events can be simulated if briefthought out inadvance with consideration of needsof athletes.

Needs

a

b

12 bton poie vaufl ihrowingpactice

gymnasiucs 1

bton(2courts)

345 athietics—longjump —Sprint

be considered at planning stage

of sports

4'—236in(77 tt6in)—4-.--.--———-—--428 m(140116cr)

: :• : :

2

of athletes should

centresso that this maior spectator and participantsportcan gain some of benefits fromindoor provision other sports have received —*(1)

pole vault hurdies

0

-4.-

13m(14¼ yd) combatsports

basketbafl—training gym & 2bton tennis 5-a-side football I I volleyball badniinlon ootball

iectures demonstraiions

14 basketball

5sid&oolball

: . : • :

I I

——

——

\

I

3j•5•,,_

4

polevaull -''--_./ rnaxrunup58m (63¼yd) longjump triplelump run up 55 m maxrunup 43 m

I

ngjump

/'\rnau

II

34 bton(2courts) pole vault throwingpractice long jump Sprintstarts 25 hurdles

/

basketball

tennis 5-a-sidetootbail volleyball ba&ninton

i i

-

run outi doorfor

4

4

3I

cage sdiscus. shot hamme

E —

-

throwing practice

urn

N

=

I

I

"Tjçh s

poe maxrurup37in vault'

2

L

diushot

/

I

L

throwing:

hiumpt8mH

2

I •

maxrun up 39m

\

—

—

1

netball

longjump tnpieJump maxrunup 55 in(60yd) maxrun up 43m(47yd)

I

——

/

—

lanes

Sf'

SportsstadiumtraininghaGateshead England: apermutations possibleathleticstraining 1

ofpossible activities bpermutationsof

WEIGHT& FITNESSTRAINING

multi gym multi gym abdominal shoulder unit conditioners squat conditioner

doordtscJ rack

transportarack

leg press

i

ng ar

[1

I

multigym-1

I

bench press

L d Er trolley

bench

11N

*

rackj

fl

fIam

.L. [1 [chine

rowing Units

purpose hyperextension

bench multi transports

ra,L'

,

Wristroller

step up bench

leg extension

_________ 15m(49ft3tn) flex

-.4--.-——

-r

, 8

C)

or

8 0 0)

blackboard multi-purpose betch squat racks -. gym 12 Stationwith [199 multi 7complete weight stack cycle II I dual 'ackboard OtH barbell fl_purpose bench

II

rack

Fiiin!

I dlck

or

iiceboard

irergometers

..wallto platform

[1

oor ymar racks

[rcise —-

—- - —

6000(lgft9in) —5 olympilate T

8 Lt)

cx

I I

Cc I,)

12! board 1

UUUIflb fl)

racks

2

FitnessrmatleisurecentreCramlington England

3 Conditioning&weighttrainingrmBunyanrecreation centreBedford England

I

(1)

C CD

328 Leisure

Sport: indoor SPORT NEEDINGOWN PITCHES/SPACES

-

ia

--

303(loott)-

!+

i1

tiiTighne

425m(141t) plan

-

303(1005)-

a

-: S

1

firingline

4N

425rn

—•—

H

i0 E

section

'0

targetzonel05m(3ftS4r)4

18288m(SOtt)

20

I

arar

SeCtion

[

303m

b

targetzone1.0m

b_

JE[ '0

sectIon

tiringhne

L

425rn)141t) largetzonel05m(3ft6in) plan

Projectile ha section & plan

asmall bmedium

Clarge

10 Rackets asection bplan

mlI

ILP

2archersshootto eachtargetboss

stopnet

9.754m(32lt)

—-:iiiii shooting waiting line line

targethoe

S N

2ni (65610)

l

range

2 Archery:international&nationalshootsrequire rangesof3025& 16m &20yd; forclub & recreationalshoots 13.716(15 yd)willdo: mm ceiling h3000 mm

37m(12ft3w1(

I

rolldowncarpetlstoneeded)

1 5m

125(4ft9iii>

-

33m(tOItlt)

ll

hall 125 1Sm

aE

Squash asection bplan: dimensions & surfacefinishescritical;referto governingbodies

6

32 m(105It)desirable3749m(123It)

3 Bowling:singlerinkinprojectile

—'0

7

IrE

Rugbyfives

1—

t

Billiards& snooker,agreedstandardstable: 3500x 1750 playingat

b

11

1185m6086

asection bplan

33.6O4rnl10tt3in(

S

N

14m(4fl6un( 67

E na

225

600(211)

mat I

__________

pumng

____carpet

si_I] =

I

liD C.,

I?

I

12 Golfpractice Real tennis: dimensionsofcourtatHampton Court England

8

II

33.5 m)llOIt)

_______ 4

9.lSm(30ft)

Bowling:4rinksmittforrecreation, 6 for

IIIl:E. ujj I

20.117m(66tt)

toumamerits

13 Cricketpracticenets; h3.650(12ft) 303m(99531n) -

a b

425m

4—-f

5

9

Cycling

11 hnngline

j

1.05m

targetzone 4_f U+Itbifll

Shooting,target, small bore a section bplan

14 Ice skating

Leisure 329

Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS

Waterarea—*(1)

Location: central, good public transport connexions. Rough guide to

changing nn—p336—7: accessible from hall,separated bysex; notinside pool area; 1 do unitll—1.5 m2 pool area; common changing rm as extra

provision: dispersed population (rural areas) 20—25 x 11—13 m within 25 minutes travel of 30000 people; partially concentrated (surburban areas and free standing towns) 25 x 11 m pool + learner pool within 15—20 minutes travelof30000people; concentrated population 25 x 13 m pool + learner pool within 12 minutes walking time of 30000 people.Usage/head ofpopulation: medium and small towns 3.5times/

year;cities 1.3—2.5/year. type of b coveredspace changingrm

small av large

2floors

changingrm 1 floor

m3

m3

30—40 40—55 50—70

40—50 50—65 60—80

1

Ratio of enclosed spaceto1 m2water ar

2

Circulation&groupingofelements

space.

Pre-cleanse:barefootage pastwctoshowers; 1 sho/8dospaces: sho space required 1.35—2.15m2; in some countries (eg Switzerland USA) use of cleaning ages with sho activated by floor or light beam.Throughshormto swimmingand teachingpools—*p335. Toilets: mm

2wc; male 1/15—20female 1/7—10; urinals 1/15—20 male.

public access

3

Baths at Hanover-Linden (design HochbauanttHanover):indoorbseparatedfrom outdoorbby 3submersibledoorswithfootbasins and 6 sti infront indoorswimmingb: pool 12.5 x 25m training pool6 x 12.5 m openairswimmingb: free-shapegeneralpurposepool 20 x 25 m divingpoolwith 10m stage 20x 20m changing:indoor49change-overcubicles, 600do & 5groupchanging rm;outdoor36change-over cubicles&1320cIa

exercise

sectiona-a

III II 176

o 36 Leisure&poolcomplexRoxburyYMCA USA Arch TheArchitectsCollaborative 4

9 12m ft

330 Leisure

Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS(cont) Heating & ventilation: water temp recreational pools 27°C, learner

pools 28°—30°, diving pool 28°; airtemp 1—2°abovewatertemp: changing rm, pre-cleanse, clothes sto not less than pool water; air changes: volume flow rate of0.15m3/m2/s ofpool water plus wet surround. Waterpurification plantfor heating,filtering, disinfection. Watercirculation: main pool 3 hr (if veryshallow withheavy bathing load every 2 hr); learner pool 11/2 hr; diving pool 6 hr; pH near aspossible 7.7 or 7.6, never outsiderange 7.2—8.0. Pool: width, length —*(3); water depth: non-swimmers 900—1 250, swimmers 1 250—3500,learnerpool 500—900. Mm depth forswimming 900.

a

_L

bh

Internal finishes: floors easy-grip and slip-resistant finish, glazed ceramic tiles, smallsize mosaic; pool surrounds slip-resistant flooring; pool bottomand walls: tiles, wallsurround upto2000tiles orwaterproof paint; upper wall areas and ceiling sound absorbent materials. Metal parts rust and condensationproofencased,no heattransmissionbridges. Plastics generally suitable. All fixings and fittings ideally made from corrosion resistant metals, egstainlesssteel, bronze, certainaluminium

i.l r ij

r1 L_J

r—-'

e

r

r—' L..J

25m

8.5 m(4lanes) 10.5m(5lanes) 13m(6lanes)

f

rL_J1

r'°' L_.J

17 m(8lanes)

r

r'

L.._l

.___J

I

r°r"T i___ L__I

33.33m

d

Typicalpool profiles: a&bfor 'in ground' pools c& for'aboveground' pools e 'in ground'steeltank 'aboveground'steeltank

f

international pool

S

•0

freeformshapepool separate deepwaterdivingpooi

S

S

•

5

5 a 0 0 0 a

• 0 5 0

S

0

•0

• •

informalviewing viewingaroverlookingpooi

0

0

0

21 m(8lanes:lullOlympicstandards) 25m

10-12 m(7ni mx)

•0

vendingmachines

firstaidrm

S

•

• • • S

sauna suite

a

a

a

•O

17m

0

•0 •

cafeteria bar

21 m

SOm

spectatorseating fixed rakedspectatorseating occasional spectatorsat poolside

refreshments

17m

leisure pool

pool

pool waterar 50 m main pool 25 m main pool

separate teaching/training pool 1 000 springboardmain pool recreational divingchutes wave machine

13m

national! local recrearegional pool tional/

S

0

I 600

5 0

I

I

stepsupto

600

posunound

lanero

I

600

2m

laneropepombOn 900

7m

900

I

900

2m

16¾m 20m

definite provision possible provision

2

Poolfeatures

3

Mainpool sizes:mostcommonsizesshownin heavierlines

Leisure 331

Sport: swimming Waterpolo

INDOORPOOLS(cont)

Playing area: for national/international events 1 800 deep; district! countyevents 1 500 mm; club/Amateur Swimming Association events in UK 1200mm. Dimensions—(2). Swimmingpools for disabled —*8ib639

Poolsforleisure

Main features of pools specifically created for indoor leisure and recreational swimming: lively, warm, gay interior; good quality materials; shallow waterwith beach edges; wavemachines; water chutes; artificial sun bathing; plants, trees, seating, refreshment areas forswimmers. Private indoor poo1s—p115—6

S E

N

1

Commonwealth poolEdinburgh Scotland MatthewJohnsonMarshall& Partners

asection bplan

Arch Robert

4

Typical'leisure' freeformpoolWhitleyBayEngland; plan Arch Gillinson Barnett& Partners

2

Dimensions

forwaterpolo

F—

20.0 50.85

3

IndoorbWuppertal:section Arch Hetzelt

H 5

Indoorpool Bottrup Arch Heinz Kisler

CD

U)

C CD

332 Leisure

Sport: swimming INDOORPOOLS (cont) a

/

//

1.-I.

b %

T'LI4

-1500-

7

I hydraulic

L

F1600

1

Springboard hydraulically adjustable 1000—3500 a plan 4800

Pooledgedetail

liftingplant

I—i 500-1

—I

bsection

pO$selehand-grip

drainage charerel 500

2

600

Springboarddetail

3

Deck-levelpool: edgesection

8

Pooledgewith Wiesbadentypeoverflow: restingledge &gangway in multi-purposepool

a

9

Longitudinalsectionof25mpoolwith9underwater lights

x

500 500mmmm surface ar max slope 10

b

4

10 Diagramof startingplatform: cable to timingeqp only built-inin major poolcentres

Moveablefloorstypicalinstallation a in raisedposition b lowered

Underwaterlightingin swimming,diving&multipurposepool 11

- IF-i sechona—b

a--''_IHEE,

:..:

150

5

Recessedshapedsteps

6

Glazedceramicsteps

Leisure

333

Sport: swimming OPEN AIR POOLS Location: sunny, not down wind of industrial plants, nuisance from smoke or noise.

Season:depends on climate. For NW Europe: 100—120visits/year, of which 40—60 busydays, of which 10—15 peak days

Perhead of population (depending on climate): 1 .5—3

visits/year.

1—2 m2 overall site area 0.1—0.2 m2 water area

Pervisitor 0.6—1 m2 water area

L9i

ogood viewing o badviewing 1

Viewingconditionsforend &side positiondivingboards

Changing rm for5—8%of population

Non-swimmerspool: separate in largeinstallations;depth 800—1 250; easy-grip steps for sitting at shallow end; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery.

Paddling pool: access by gentlyfalling ramp; free shape; depth 100— 400; floor surface of pool nottoo slippery. Waterchute:-_*p337(5) Pool construction: dense vibrated concrete or RC; inside finishfrost resistant tiles, paint (epoxy resin orother). Expansion tsdepending on construction Steps (a) corrosion resistant metal in 600—1 000 wide recesses (b) special shaped ceramic glazed unitsbuilt in—p332. Distance apart ofsteps 10 m; distancefromdiving tower 8000

Starting platforms: —p332 Guide line: vertical below starling platforms.

2

D'Albaroopenairbat GenoaItaly

Diving line: on pool floor, 250—300wide. Walk-through pool:3000 x 4000—4000x 6000: depth 300—400 with overflow.

Walkway round pool:

2000;

access.

5600 near diving stages and pool

Water circulation: 6 hr turnover when bathing load infrequent; 3 hr turnoverwhen load heavy. Water cleaning—*p337. Ancillaries:

3

Layoutofalpine bGloggnitzAustria

entrance with cash desk, centrallysituated laundry issue& sf0 swimming instructors' rm first aid rm (or doctor's rm) staff rm, separate formen & women eqp, swimming & sports gear, deckchairs etc, possibly with issuing counter changing rm, separate for men & women (communal changing rm, changing cubicles, separate rmforclubs& schools); family change wc sitedconveniently tochanging rm & pool pre-cleanse showers hand & foot wash basins plant rm: watercirculation & purification:boilers telephone, loudspeaker & clock systems with signaldevice adequate parking space off Showers, lavatories—vp335; changing rm—ap336 Desirable:roofed rest rm, sales rm, manager'sflat, broadcastingsystem. Garden swimming pools —*p114

4 Open airbinFrankfurt

334 Leisure

Sport: swimming DIVING POOL DIMENSIONS a

+F 100

IJo

+

E

J

-I-

mel 7500 p

5000 p

A-A4

1 FédérationInternationalede Natation Amateur(FINA) international standardsof diving:diagrams alongitudinal section bcrosssection

a springboards fixedboards

A

board h fromwater B boardI

C boardw D d of water at plummet E distanced D

im

3m

4.8

4.8 0.5

7.5m lOm 6.0 6.0

3.5 6.0

Sm 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0

2.0 4.1 8.0

2.0 4.5 10.5

2.2

2.7

3.0

3.0

3.0

7.5

10.25

11.0 4.5 2.5

1.25

1.5

4.6

9.0 3.5 2.5 1.5 4.6

3.0

3.2

13.5 4.5 2.5 1.5 3.4

2.75 5.0

2.75 5.0

2.75

2.75 5.0

0.5 3.0 5.3

maintained forward

F distancedD maintained to sides G clearanceforward H clearanceto sides I distanceto adjacent board J clearancebehind L clearanceoverhead M clearanceoverhead

w01srround necessary wdh 1000 springboard

+M •

N

H,

'F'

a

2 StandardsfordivingboardsapprovedbyAmateurSwimming Association (UK) table a competitivedivingtable brecreational diving(firmboards)

maintained tosides clearance overhead maintained forward

3.8 2.5

5.0

2.75 6.0

Notes: 1 tableincorporateslatestdimensionsrecommendedbyASA;includes column ofdimensionsfor7500platformh (considereduseful forhigh board training) 2 ± 100 tolerancepermissibleonnominalboardh: alldimensions should relate to centralpoint atfront end of diving board(s) 3platform thickness should not be 200 at Itsfront 4designersshould consider current standardsspecifiedbyFINAifpoolto be used fornational/international standard events; recommendedthat divingpool beseparatefrom mainpool: where not possible boardhotspringboardshould be confinedto 1000 and wheninuse arconcerned should be ropedoffto avoid swimmerscausing safety hazard

plummet

sectiotmof divingpoolstobe readin association with tables & 5

2.5 2.5 1.5

b A board hfromwater B boardl C board w 0 d of waterat plummet E distanced 0 maintainedforward F distanced D maintainedto sides G clearanceforward H clearancetosides I distance to adiacent board J clearancebehind K clearancebehindboard

L

1 m 1 m 2m 2 m 0.75 1.75 0.75 1.75 075 0 75 0.75 0.75 2.6 26 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0

3m

3m 0.75 175 0.75 0.75 325 3.25 3.5 4,5

5m 5.0 2.0 3.8 6.0

2.2

2.2

2.4

2.4

2.6

26

30

45

5.5 2.5 2.5

5.5 3.0 2.5

6.5 3.0 2.5

6.5 3.5

7.5 3.5 2.5

10.25 3.8 2.5

2.5 2.5

25

1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 0.8 0.8 08 0.8 0.8

1.25 0.8

0.8

1.25

3.0

3.0

to wall clearanceoverhead

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

Leisure 335

Sport: swimming SLIPPERBATHS,SHOWERS Slipper baths: in separate units; number approx 0.1 x pooi size (m2); sizesaccording todemand and number ofvisitors —o(4);space required

changing rrn

CD

(0

C

CD

Centreage width 3000. Side age width 1600.

Clotheshooks inside on freewall or inside door. Window cillabove bath Washable walls

1

I—

23

U,

650 1000

--

f-i 000 -

HI

Sho agesection&plan I—2000—i

I—

2700

—1900-1

—i

2Ii 1-2000--i

4

800 abovefloor level.

Hard finishon solid floorwith drainage; all corners and skirtings coved; all metal parts heavily galvanised; alltimberpainted 3undercoats and 1 finishing coat. Steam baths: individual cubicles, box baths or shared baths (steam baths), separate for men and women,orused at differenttimes. Separate rest rm 22°C, massage rm 30°, sho rm 25°with warm bath 22°and cold bath 100. Shapes ofbenches for lying on—o(6). Turkish bath —o(7): warm airrm 45—50°C, hotairrm 55—60° and sweat rm 65—70°, ading rest, sho and massage rm as above. Outer walls doublewith heated aircavity; ceiling slopes towardsoutside todrain off condensation. All fittings rustproof. Windows with treble glazing. El fittingswater tight. Saunas—*(5)(6)—p1 17338

Arrangementofsho&wcwithcirculationroutes

-

1

1 300 above floor level.

1-2000-1

-

(?) i—2000-l

Cubiclesizes

1200—.-

-

1000

rr Jo 'j......,400

T1H

4..

F- -+—

400

420 340

6 Bench typesforsteamb

5

StandardFinnish saunastove with boiler (alsosuitableforwashing clothes)

accordingto Finnish standards: 12000;steps& benchesofwooden battensnailedfrombelowsothat bodydoes nottouchhotnail heads

Functionaianaiysisof healthb bathr layout—o(4)

ab& bench bb&couch cbasabove d—easabove lasabove

8

mrii2

+ vestibule (1000) mm2

3800 5120 5220 7600 7600

5600 7800 7120 9600 9600

— vesitibule

Spaceneededforbath cubicles—.(4)

336 Leisure

Sport: swimming POOLCHANGINGROOMS i500'- 1000

1250

*-

1250

i-

1-.- 1250

Individual cubicles —v(lb): 1/visitor; size 1000 x 1000—1200;gross

—.

area ofchanging rm/cubicle 3—4 m2.

Cubicles to be used in turn: (a) with locker —a(la)(2)3—4 lockers! cubicle; (b) with supervised central do —v(3)(4); size and area as for

:

individual cubicle; desirable ratio approx 53%. (Very economical: itfew

cub,c'es cubicles

visitorscubicles can beusedsingly.) Bath cubicles—ap335(4)(8) Common changing rooms: (a) with central handing-in do —v(4); a

b

loot washbasins

Cubicleswithoutseparate shod &barefootages: with locker bindividual 1

ainterchangeable

Heightofchanging rm

f/

(\

---4 I

—— ± 0

I

0

+ 8 ±

j_ -'

(_\

1_i

ventilation

8 C,

—

fj J_

Oi

f\ /\ fi /\

,' 4.

4----;---4

f---1

,\

LI:'....

-4-4-

8

± 8

TWWThHH

I

t *4004 F 1500 400

400 F

: :::....:

_:

400

400

lemales

1— 1300 +1000-l--1300—

I..,.I.11111111

i_j I

"""ii"," iiiii—

I

,i.

•4

lernales

—1300 11000 -l300-4

1_

1500

5 Commonchangingrm: awith clotheshooks bwith lockers

2 Interchangeablecubicleswith lockers

I

2800.

-r

shodpasage

/\

space required/place 0.5—0.8 m2; (b) with locker —e(5b); space requirementas (a) + locker area, 3—4lockers/seat; locker size: 300 x 500— 400 x 600desirable ratio approx 26%; (c) without locker, with clothes hooks—v(5a); for groups supervision desirable; space requirement as (a); desirable ratio approx 14%.

I

,uslll,iuil.ui

.1.

3 interchangeablecubicleswithcentralattended do males I—.-

'F

UUiUiffltlJ clothesreceiving& issuing 1000

C,

interchangeable cubicies

4000

.—+—-

clothesissue ______________________

4.

a,

4000

,500

t3°°0 I

]

—4

504'

common changing

rm

1.

key

tool washbasin

availabletofemaies availabletomales

4

do

cubicles&common changingrmwithcentralsupervised Interchangeable

6

______________

outofuse

CiO5edslidingdoor

Changingarplannedsothat2centralspacescanbeusedat different times

by eithersex

Leisure 337

Sport: swimming I-130O-i-1000-1300--+- 2200

POOLCHANGINGROOMS

-1

Forpublic bldg essential find most economic staffing solution. Division

of interchangeable sections by sex can be varied by use of sliding partitions —ep336(6) or byswitching notice boards.

Av visitors 60—70%men 30—40%women Cubiclewith supervised do; interchangeablecubiclesformen & women;indicatorboard 0canbe switchedaccordingtodemand 1

F—750H-—750

]

T.S

-r

'

L

hooksfor clothes

Coatstandsfor interchangeable cubicledo

3

bench h 375; bench w 300 In open-air bathsper changing rm 40 s per section or area20 coat hooks on run of board forcoat hooks 3000.

shoes,

j30O

Space requirements —(2)(3): 500 bench/adult

400 bench/child

—H

foldingbench

m

Clothes sto: individual lockers orattendant supervised basket—.(4)sto —sp336(3)(4)

Ratio of total changing/clothes sto space per approx 1 .75 m2. 29

Cubicleswith proprietarys

inbaths atNordeney

Cubicles and clothesstand of timberor corrosion resistant metal with proprietary s —(3). Include changing needs ofdisabled s: 2000 x 2000 cubicle.

WATERCLEANING Purification, flocculation and disinfection ofswimming pool water: hygienically essential turnover period forindoor public pools: swimming pool 3hr learner pool 1/2 hr diving pool 6 hr Purification of river, surface and pooi water chemically byflocculationof organicsubstances to induce coagulationfollowed by filtration. Filterrm

sizes—÷(6).

Disinfection usually bychlorination. In asymmetrical pools arrange outlets so that complete through flow possible and no watercan stagnate in corners. For cleaning pooi floor, specially in open-air pools, remove sediment with brushes and suction sediment pump. Basketcoathangerwithshoebagforinterchangeable cubicles

4

capacity/hr aroffilter rm clear h offilterrrn m2

m

20—40

20—30

3.5

60

40 50 60 65

3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.5

m3

80—100 150—200

250 300 400

70

80

6

Spacerequiredforfilter installation;foropenairadd 50%

polishedterrazzo

120

I- t—

600

h—

I—

2030

5 Water chute BadKissingen

800

120

—t--i

—

338

Leisure

Sport SAUNAPLANNING sauna

fresh exhaustair exhaustair ax ussr under

entrance/exit

•

t

airb

I

Domestic saunas—xpl 17

Bathing time: 3 x 8—12 minute sessions, total for 1 bath 120 minutes. Rm forcooling (sho, hose, plunge) —x(2)(3)(9)(1 0)and airbath—x(3)(12). Natural cold waterpleasanter: lake orsea inlet (or snow).

Air bath: breathing in fresh cool air as offset to hot air, cooling down freshairrmH

she_a bI warn,fool

hosean

1

warmfootb essentiai,plungeboptional

Privatesaunadiagram

2

Domesticsauna—xpl17

body. Provide protection against peeping; seating; water cooling by hose withoutrose or/and plunge of approx 1 000 m3. Warm footbwith seating required.

Changing area: cubicles (oropen) fortwice number ofvisitors at peak times —(13); also ancillary rest and massage rm —x(12) for approx 30 visitors, 2 massage points; 1 rest rm for 1/3 bathers apartfromstaff. Room temp: undressing 20—22°C; pre-cleanse (coldwater) rm 18—20°; massage rm20—22°.

J

24—26°; cooling

—400

swlrmningpooi

-850

-

450

I— 900

3

Saunain swimmingha

9

10

Plungeb

2000

4 Planl—3P

±t.h 5

S

2—4P

Section—x(9)

I

Publicsaunasuite Ashtonunder-Lynepool England Arch TechnicalUnitforSport 11

6

3—5P

OT 500- 500 p600

1 refreshments

1—600--I

changingml pre-cleanse hoserecess piungeb 6 warn,footb 7 sauna 8 freshairb 9 restrm 10 massage 11 cash desk

2 3 4 5

I 7

l—.-—3750 —Ii-—-4280 —-41.2000

Saunafor1—3Pt section 12

11— 4250 —44-.-— 4000

Saunafor 30Pt plan

IP changingrm pre-cieanse& wc sauna coolingmm restrm freshair massage

8 Saunawith indirectheating (Bemberg):section

13

1

nTlsizesegfor30P 0.8—1.0m'IP 0.3—0.5m'/P

0 5—06m'/P 1.0-1.5 m'/P 03—0.6m'/P 0.5 m'/P 6—Bm

Arrequiredper P& mi sizes

changingmi pre-cleanse sauna coolingIn, massage

restm,

xi'

24—30 9—15 rn' 15—18rn'

30-45rn' 12—iBm' 9—lBrmi'

lob, iav,corr

99—144m' +21—35m'

air b bench

20—50m' 120—17gm'

Leisure 339

Sport: tennis COURT REQUIREMENTS Playing space needed for court—(1): h of net at centre 915, at posts

h 4000; 2.5 wire 40 mesh. Artificial lighting 10 m h at long sides. Scale of courts to population: regular players av 2% oftotal; ratio courts/players 1:30 to 1:35 very good, 1:45orover poor; new courts 1:30. Additional space amounting to 25% ofplaying spaceneeded forcar park,children'splay area, paths,bldg etc. Surface: exceptionally smooth, hard and pervious to rain: must attract very little dust and be dazzle free; materials: grass, cinders, plastics. 1 060; netting enclosure

10970 1370

3

Drainageplansfortenniscourts

end margin

h= 11.0

enclosure

9000 enclosure dimensions international&national county & club recreational relating to standards officialchampionships recommended of play minendmargin mm

sidemargin

6400

6400

5490

3660

3660

3050

36580x 18290

enclosure size for 1 cOurt mm

h

36580x 18291 34750x 17070

wiorcourts

33530

31700

waddedloreach additionalcourt

15240

14630

in 1 enclosure

7000

—6400 4

Playingspace neeoed forcourtsofdifferent standardsaccording to requirementsof(UK) LawnTennisAssociation

11.89

1

Coveredcourt h

I

2000I

14.0 10.0

i'2000.i

10.97-

'f

fl! -

—36.57-

16.27

I neth800

(TeTh

:.:.:.z.L.:.;:.:!:!r:..t.:.J.:.:.:.:

a

2 Dimensions& shapesforcoveredcourts—(4)sections alongitudinal bcross

5 Children'scourt

340 Leisure

Sport SKI JUMPINGSLOPES

pian

/ Sketch forconstructionofskijumpslopes

1

Following symbols should be used: Djstance fromparapet of lower referee's cabin ofhorjzontal 'd' beneath edge of platform: D x tg 16°—20°. Cabins should be located stepped along diagonals formed by line fromplatform edgetoend of point 'D'. Upper sideof floor of individualcabins lies 1 000—1 200 beneathparapet. Diagonal oftowertoaccess oftrack should be7°—i0°sothatreferee can properly observe entire flightand landing. As manystarting pointsas possible should be locatedon run up distri-

P

datum point table point K critical point (end of Slowingdown section & startof runoutslope) B endof landing runforvaulting M slowing-down section (distancefromPlo K) Mi distance from P to B L distance fromedgeof slope to P Li distance fromedge of slope to K H verticaf projectionof L N horizontal projectionof L H:N ratio ofverticalsto horizontals a slopeof platform b slopeof jump-off trackat datum point(P)upto criticalpoint(K) C run upslope Ri radius of bend fromrunupto platform R2 radius of bend fromlump-off to run Out R3 radius of bend fromplatformto jump-offtrack Iofplatform U partof runupinwhichspeed no longerincreases E partof runupinwhichspeed increases F OveralllOfrunup(F=U±E+I) A lofrunout Vo speed at platformedge in rn/s D horizontaldistancefromplatformedge to lower part ofreferees tower 0 distancefromjump offtrackaccessto referee'stowerfront edge TP

buted evenly along length E15 whose distance should amount to about 1 000vertically. Bottom starting point: E — E/5.

widthofjump-offtrackat K: L1/7 + 4m.

Mm

Remarks

All slopesgivenin oldgrading (360°). If transfersparabolic, thenRi and P2 smallest curves on thoseparabolas.

I

Withnatural runup, sections mainlyused should be marked every2000 to help locate starting point precisely.Gradients on platformand several pointsin curve between run upand platformend should be recorded on both sidesbyfixedbuilt-in profiles so that even non-experts can determine correctand precise profile when jump being worked. Profile markings should be applied along jump-off profile both sides down torun-out, allowingexact snow profileto bedeterminedparticularly in deepsnow. Jumps with L more than 5Dm should not normallybe built with Vo of less than 21 m/s. Jumps with Lover 90 m not approved by Fédération internationale deski (FIS) (except foraerial skijumps).

Standardsforchiefparts of platform:

H:N 0.48—0.56 Datum point of platformcan bedetermined:

Li —M, wherestandardsforMare: 0.5—0.8Vo forplatforms up toP= 70m

P M M

Mi Ri R2 R3

I

U

A

0.7—1.1 Vo forplatformsuptoP = 90m 0—0.2Vo

0.12Vo2—0.i2Vo2+ 8m 0.14 Vo2—0.14Vo° + 2Dm profile selectedforfront structurewhich best meetsangleof flight 0.22Vo 0.02Vo2 D 0.5—0.7x Li to loweredge oftower 4—5Vo on horizontalrunOut 0 0.25—0.50x Li

medium &largejumps

L

E

C

E

L

c

C

8—10

30° 35'

40

U

25 23

21

4.5 3.3

32 28 25

T

7—9

6—8

Vo =0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42 0.4

0.38

b

.1.

9—12

C

4O U

I

Vo

05

0.48

b

53.0

51 0

35—37

58.5

562

665

64.0

61.5

750

722

695

66.7

81 0

780

750

72.0

65.3

630

60.8

23

71.5

69.0

24

77.7

5.5 25

840

52

8.8

46

21

71

58

49

9.7

48

22

80

65

54

10.6

5.1

89

72

60

114

53

99

80

67

125

15

20.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 18,0 17.5 170 30—34

111

90

74

140

5.7 26

902

870

837

805

77.2

5.1 3.5 16

96.3

930

895

860

82.5

915

87.7

25.5 24.8 24.0 23.3 22.5 21.8 21 0 3O—35

124 100

81

150

5.9 27

39 32 28 5.8 3.7

17

31.0 300 29.0 28.0 27,0 26.0 250

33—30°

137 110

88

16.0

62

46 37 32 6.5 4.0

18

36.5 35.3 34.0 32.8 31.5 30.3 29.0

33—30°

52 43 37 7.2 42

19

42.0 40.5 39.0 37 5 36 0 34.5 33.0 34—37

59 49 42 8.0 4.4

20

47 5 45 8 44.0 42.3 40.5 38.8 37.0

2

056

0.52

44

€a

8—10 0.54

62

smalljumps

c

C

3O 35'

Dimensionssmall slopes

34—37W

28

.1.

36—30°

37—30°

38—40°

3

Dimensionslargerslopes Example: accordingtoterrainfollowingdataapplyto LI &H:NegH/N =0.54; C = 35°; L = 87m; intableyouwillfind L = 87&incolumn to left Vo=26; at

somelevelbeneathc=35°,E=gOm,U=14&T=5.7;F=E+ U+T= 90+ 14 + 5.7 = 109.7m: skijumpwith dimensionsdifferingfromabovecan beapprovedbyFIS but in suchcasesdesignermustgive writtenreasons

Leisure 341

Sport SKIJUMPING SLOPES 5

a

if"

I

I

juniorlumP

_

4

LI

!6

I 5

,

Olympicjump

___________________

0

b m

6

12

18

24m

40

40

40

ott

vi Olympicjump

1 Skijumpsat aGarmischPartenkirchen b HolmenkollenNorway: 1 start 2 run up 3take-offplatform 4 run out 5grandstand 6umpires towers

ICE RINKS Hosed ice rinksinsomecountries ontenniscourts, rollerskating rinks

and similar large areas (surrounding wall h approx 100—150); water layer20; drainage forletting out water. Artificial ice rinkswith refrigeration system 25 below screed. Pump system with deep freeze salt solution or cold air chambers (usually ammonia compression method) —e(3)—(5).Sometimes combination of rollerskatingrink summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink winter (Dec—Feb). Refrigeration system25—50 below top of rink surface (not possible on terrazzo).

Standard racetrack: 1300m, 333.3 m,standard400m: measured500 in fromedgeoftrack—e(2). In double track system each track 3000 5000. Ice hockey—ep342. Bobsleigh runs with pronounced camber madeofice blocks atcurves. Spectators preferably oninside curves, otherwise protective mounds of snoworstraw bales. Toboggan runssitutated on N-NW-NE slopes, preferably in hollow: I 1 500—2500m; incline 15—25%;w 2000.FIat finish orrise inopposite

w

direction, camber at curves, obstacles protected with straw bales or snowmounds. Walk-up alongside noton run.

400mracetraclc 2xosntralaxis= 2x111.94= 223.88m innercurve =25.5x3.1416= 80.11m oulercurve =30.5x3.1416= 95.82m

25 111.94 —20.97

70

P/

CrOSSIng

//i! ,-5000 m_/'/'/

20.97—1O00m

41 3000m

startls0Om

7.957.76 innerlane

----.-

)

JcringPxtradsw

from70m

=0.18m

crossingstraight

2

Standardracetrack 400mI 100

insul--— ahon

_.....f

sub-concrete concrete

seamlesspipes distrbution rods in 75 concretemd trios-salt steel

prig

elf felt

endline m

2'

reinforcement

crease protectiveordIe radius2000

gravel

3

Artificialice rink: layoutof refrigerationsystem(brine)

4

Detail ofsurfacepipes

5

Detail

ofembeddedpipes

6

Longcurlingground

342 Leisure

Sport ICE RINKS (cont) 0

m-nee

targetground

l()

run-ott— sideline ——

I

1000

0

.LI —I

.Le5aO

Curling —(1): ground 42 m; w 4000 (30 x 3000also possible); intermediatetracks(strips) 1 m; pitch ends 600. Starting and aiming areas surrounded with easily crossed wooden barrier on3 sides. Scottish curling—e(2): field 142m;target area (tee) 03650. Tocentre pointoftee 38.35 m. If ice poor, reduce to 29.26 m. Curling stone: weight19.958 kg, circumference 914,h

ofcircumference. Icehockey—o(3): ground 1/8

26 x 56 m, 30 x 61 m. Goal1830w, 1220h; may be played

around back. Pitch requires wooden barrier

1200h—u(3).

Figure skating: rectangular rink 26 x 53 m 30 x 60 m. Combination ofrollerskating rink in summer (Mar—Nov) and ice rink in winter (Dec—Feb).Cold pipe system 25—50 beneath

a

track surface —*p34l (5).

ROLLERSKATINGRINKS

2

1

Scottishcurling rink

Sportstracks rollerskating hockey—.(4)15 x 30— 20 x 40 m 25 x 50 m figureskating

2 Play tracks

lOx 10—

20 x 20m.

Impact board 250 h, 30 above track, 800 parapet along allsides, 2000chain-linkgrid at narrow end (to catch ball), surrounding walking areas 1200; 50—100 deeper. ts 5—6, slope 0.2%. Surface wateringuttersorditches, frost protection layer

200 —*(4).

Construction Asbestoscement s 15; laid on squared timberor on sand bed. Concrete tracks, 100— 150 according to type of bed, tless ifposs-

ible, but imitation ts may be incised 2—3 wide.Space tsevery 25—30 m, gap width 15.

1000—2000

Hard concrete screed, 8 on fresh concrete base (20 mortar if possible to take up stress between screed and concrete base).

I

.+_5400-÷--5000_1

I

I

2

Cementscreed withadditives 1—10. centre

1215

1000

1 I

jj

200

a ptnalt4 point I

Ib

Iu I

I I 30-40m

4

Rollerskatinghockey

Thnx\n

rollerskatetrack

30m

N9 cxi,

5

teamchangingrm

L=rr

ArtifIcialice& rollerskatingtrack

vc

E

o Cs

Terrazzo, polished, 15, t rails of brass, metalalloyor plastics, only forindoor tracks. Castasphalt trackson fixed base, as normal.

Leisure

343

Sport: golf SITE Courses generally cover between 40 and 60 ha. Most popular those amongsand dunes or on heath land, neither hilly norflat. Well-drained arable land generally suitable; in UK government grants may enable more expensive works beconsidered if derelictortipped land reclaimed. Golf holes need proper safety margin: should not closeroads or throughnarrow tongues between houses.

LAYOUT—(1) Normally 18 holes: often prudent start with future extension.

9 holes while

providing

Site round club house 1stand 10th tee, 9th and 18th green (preferably infull view), putting green, practiceground, car parks, entrance and serviceaccess. Ifprofessional's shop separate,place onway to first

Fairways

Width normally 30—40 m. Start 100 hole: 60 m (90 m on boundaries).

Rough Carry rough:tee to fairway Marginal rough: to either side of fairway,generally with mown band of semi-rough' of approx 10 m before trees, shrubs etc.

Bunkers

Sand areas averaging perhaps 100 m2 but of all shapes and sizes. To influence play determineoptimum line, provide options and penalise mistakes.

tee.

Area dictates total length absolutely; contour, natural features obstacles affectitmarginally.

and

Expect about 5300 m from40ha 6220 m from60 ha

Par is rating of av professional performance and yardstick by which measure skill, errors and course difficulty: applied to each hole and totalled for 18—.(2).

Tees May be combined on av length course but may be separated into championship, medal, club, ladies at progressively shorter distances. Allow300 m2 (400 m2 at par 3 holes).

a

Greens —(4) Size tosuit approach shotand need to spread wear by changing holes: say400 m2 to 600m2.

3

agolfclub b golfbag

Cgolftrolley

1

Golf courselayout(GolfDevelopment Council) strokes

par!

usuall

hole

m

3 4 5

110—1921—2 290—410 440—500

1

1

1

2 avm

2 Parvalues

2 2

par

75

72

71

67

67

3 9 6

4

5 13 0

4

11

12

4 10 4

3

1

m from men's tee. Playing width!

6310 5580 5120 5120 6760

4

Typicalgreen: 59m2

344 Leisure

Sport: equitation INDOORSCHOOLS

Location

Preferably attownedges directily connected bybridlepathtowoodland, pasture, heath-land orotherhacking-out —v(1).

In past ridingschoolsusually grew round existing bldg, eg adding to stablesof old house, building asbestos-clad barn structure over riding area to provideall-weather teaching.

Siting & access

1

Countrylivery stables& riding school

size ofopen trackwi frontofschool:70.0>' 100.0 clearhot largeschool:11.2 clearhot smallschool 8.0

-.

If' >partrmabove douhie>'andsclosed inatapprox5600 above

0

both gangways&stan arwith lanternround top hot bldgabovestandings 2400, gangways4600; litbylanternabove increasedhover gangways

Essential requirements for anysite: goodaccess for heavy vehicles aswell ascars access toopencountry and/or bridlepaths adequate el supply adequate watersupply, possibly including fire hydrants loose boxes should be protected fromprevailing winds low-lying sites whichcatch water and are usually frostyin winter to be avoided stable smells sited awayfrom adjacenthouses turning space for horsebox trailersand for loweringramps side and rear, with space to load and unloaddifficulthorses;tuming space also required formuck lorry —vp345(1)(2) access for fire appliances; requires roads mm 3600 wide capable of ing pumping appliance laden weightapprox 101, with mm turning circle17 m dia mm clearance height 3600, forhay lorries 4500: all gate openings mm width3000clear space to convert barn or erectpurpose-designed indoor school; nun land requirementwith outdoor installations —vp3454ha.

Planning& layout Planning of installations breaks down into 3 main groups: instruction, horse management,—vp345.

Traditional plan usually arranges loose boxes looking inwards to courtyard with only covered way in front of each box. Later development: totally enclosed loose boxes arranged either side of corridor enabling themtobeserviced bytractorand trailor circulatingthrough block—v(3): disadvantage extra cost, including extrafire precautions; horses can become bored withoutoutside view. However, betterworking conditions forstable girls;ventilation can becontrolled toeliminatedraughts; easier tomaintain even temp; quieterconditions canbeadvantageifsite near road or railways.

Othergeneral principles: preferable school not so near stables that voice of command from instructors canbe heard and sodisturb horses atrest; riskoffire in stables necessitates special planning consideration: straw sto requires mm 1 hrfr from other parts of bldg, or fire break at least

4500recommended.

Consult relevantcodes and standards.

Spacerequired Size of indoor school

dictated by ability of fast moving horse turn 10.0—11.0mø. Many differentstandardsofcovered school. UK National 24.4 m, large enough contain Equestrian Centre has riding area 61 international size arena and hold dressage and showjumping events, with seating for300along 1 side.At other end ofscale possible provide suitable area underDutch barn, ofwhich sidesonly clad for 3000from eaves, with wattle hurdles enclosing floor.Whatever standard of bldg essential indoor ridingspace be 42 x 22 m to give40 x 20 m clear floor space required forelementary dressage, allowingfortiltedkickingboardsurrounding walls.

x

— _____________ hay sto

20

19

18

17

seroce 16 yard

-

i_

14

13

12

11

wof school floorfor single circuit accordingly: 12.0 m wof school floorforgroups: 15.25 preferably 20.117 m I ofschoolfloor ratio 2:110w eg40.0:20.0 I can be increased: 20.0 x 60.0—80.0

yard

10

muck container feed

x

military school: 18.29 54.86m h ofbldg: 4000—5000

-

Information based on requirementsof British Horse Society (BHS), British Show Jumping Association(BS,JA) and Fédération d'EquitationInternationale(EEl)

2

II n ii

tack

Ueichange

ue=amity box

Ii

im —I -r

entrance

Plan of Lea Bridgeriding schoolLondon Lee ValleyRegional Park Authority Arch J M VBishopMGQuinton 3

Leisure 345

Sport: equitation RIDINGCENTREPREMISES 10.0 7.O(7.0 I 2500 landrover &trailer

I I

t6.01.11.o i0.O

horse box

fl7.oI

Instructional: indoor school and areas—u(3)(4); outdoor manege—e(5); grass paddocks (mm 8000 m2); outdoorshow jumping ring; outdoor dressage area; cross country training area; clubrm/lecture rm/canteen; sf0 forjumps, cavaletti etc(approx 5% activity area).

6.0 manure container

2

1 Clearancerequiredfor

Clearancerequiredfor manoeuvringlargecontainertruck

manoeuvringhorsesintotrailer/box

62.0 60.35

42.0 40.234

I

riear_

I ..L

mm

JL-_ I

riding space

Vehicle and loading areas—+(1 )(2)

— ====1 I I

temahona

Horse management:stables (loose boxes —a(6)and stalls); utility box: grooming, clipping, shoeing, washing, treatment of cuts etc (size as loose box but without fittings except tie rings); sick box (approx 3500 x 4500): should be away fromother boxes but within sight of other horses; door should be in 2 leaves for horse to look out or be enclosed if requires complete quiet; sling suspended frombeam with block and chain may be needed: 1 250 kg max loading (for heavy draught horse); larger establishments may need completely isolated boxfor infectious diseases. Feed sto —u(7), feed rm, tack rm—u(8)(9), tool sto; hayand straw sto: Dutch-barn type structure; size depends on number of horses and method of buying: year's supply of hay most economic way to buyas price rises steeply during winter; straw price not affected so much therefore sto less critical. Datato determine size required: for 1 horse approx 9 kg hay/day, 1/2 bale straw/day; weight: 1 bale hay approx 23 kg, 1 bale straw approx 18 kg; bale size approx 900 450 x 450: approx 10% extra volume should beallowed ontotal storequired forair circulation and remaining stock when newload arrives.

x

Ridingschoolar: mm hneeded forjumping4000, 5000 preferable; doorw 2300in twinsliders;ifspectatorseating needed will beadditional to riding ar; judgesbox &collection/mounting aralso needed 3

33.2

f—18.3-4

01

J

E

1'

manege ring

365

101a

&

rail fence surround

C at

ra

5

48.857.81

•

I

a

tm

C

0

cinder all-weather welldrained surface

E

5

Mucksto: traditionally openbunkers with brickorblock wallson4sides with opening approx 900 wide on 1 side: concrete floor should drain towards this opening with gully outside. Size depends on number of horses and management.Allow approx 5.6m3/horse/week. After month

volume reducedapprox two-thirds. Skip-type containersrecommended: various sizes depending onnumber ofhorsesand frequency ofremoval. Veterinary sto: bandages may be kept in cupboards or pigeon-hole racks. Leg bandage measures 127 wide and approx 75dia. Medicines and poisons should be kept inseparate cupboardsand clearly labelled. Smithy: possibly 10—15 m2 in large centres otherwise space to park mobile blacksmith.

istration; reception off; manager's off; staff rm; first aid rm; lavatories; changing rm; garaging for horse boxes, tractors and trailers; resident accn formanager; residentaccnfor grooms and/or stable girls; plant rm (boilers, el switchgear etc); workshop.

Manegering entrancefrom stables

—24.4—25.9-—'f

3500

4 Indoorshowjumpingarenawithcollectingnng,warm-up&practicejump space:formounting/collecting ar allowfor20—30 horsesat 3.5—5 m2each

Jo

2hatterhooks metal channel protective ping to door

ca

______

/

11tiering

j{

fallonmanger floor

painted brickwork

a

hayrack

straphinges

tie ring forhay net

'feedsto 1200 I

I

L_1

_______ .—i

skunitL

shelfoer hot & cold

halter hooks

e

bucket taps over gulley

bridleracks ceilinghung bridlecleaning+ hooksfor

girths

r

+

ce4nghung dr'jing rack

7

Feed sto:size dependson numberof horses &methodof buying feed (sacksor bulk); each bin capableof holding 101 kgoats, 76kg bran, 178kgcubes

8

enirancefromyard

holders

ullnose\

automatic drinking trough or

x

j•x900 ______ _________

entrancefromyard

b

brick

tiering for horse

iJ_ racks

kick-overlatch

mange

150O 3500

r_-4&oboiIe°

8

ii Ivanisedmetal screen

3500

iop

with units

3500 saddlehorse r—49000451)

ragchesfS.f1 ffsosk ----8500 cleanrm draining

Planoftypicaltack & clean rm; in larger establishmentsseparate cleaningrm desirable; BHS recommends1 tack rm/15 horses;valueof tack requires rrnspecially securefrom burglars

o

[___///

saltlickholder

r

9 Eqp storedintackrm includes: saddleson racks anotlowerthan700 fromfloor nor higherthan 1800,600 centres;stirrups& leathers;bridleson

C

Typicallayoutforloosebox: mm intemaldimensionsponies 3000 x 3000, horsesbelow 16handshigh3000x 3500, horsesabove16hh3500 x 4000; recommendedh approx3000—4000; ifinternal corrneeded mm w 3000recommendedfor usebyservicing vehicles&as means of fireescape; stallsmm 12700,mm w 1 800; mm age betweenstalls1 800 asection belevation lan

6

a

b

racks b 1 600abovefloor;head collars,girthsonhooks 1 800 above floor;blankets, rugs,sheetsusually storedingalvanisedsteelchests(may be kept in generalsto)

346 Leisure

Sport: marinas DEFINITION

water

Liwater

d

bJFJJW

/

land

TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT Landto water relationship —'(1): land locked —'(4), built-in —'(5),

®eO Landtowater relationship: a land-locked d offshore e island 1

a

N

semi-recessed, offshore, island (constructed in open water: special case).

Tidal situation:

bbuilt-in csemi-recessed

//////////

L1!IJJ b%'//////////

0

non-tidal: variations ofwaterlevel 1000; usually easy for people and trolleysand simple connexions between onshore and offshore service systems; tidal: substantial changes of water level; difficult connexion between pontoons and land for people and services; construction difficulties almost inevitable.

Site selection factors:legalproblems; transport systems; potential for future extension; construction options and methods; geological, hydraulic, climatic; soil and sub-soil; orientation, physical features, erosion, possibility offlooding; engineeringnetwork onshore; materials stability; tides, currents, navigational requirements; pollution control; labour sources; effect of marina on existing environment during construction periodand after completion.

125 250375 500w

4J0

Marina's main role provide shelter from wind, waves and swell of ing craft; access to moorings at all states of tide with space for manoeuvre; tieing-uppoints for boats with services, eqwater, el, telephone, television, refuse collection, fire fighting, sanitation, public address system; sanitary needs and amenities for yachtsmen, eq wc, sho,changing and drying rm, entertaining,sporting activities,shopping; car parking; eqpforlaunching, lifting, manoeuvring, repairing, maintaining boats; other bldg directly relatedto boating.

800120016005

2

Energy-absorbing slopesinside HantsholmharbourDenmark

3

Pontoonlayouts: astretching from land bstretchingfrom breakwaters cstretchingfrom floatingelements

OFFSHOREBOAT HARBOUR COMPONENTS Area needed: craftsizesvary: I 4.8—21.3m (USA 4.3—24.4m), beam 1.8—6.0m (USA 2—6m); areas ofwatercalculatedon basis ofplanned numberand sizeof craft moored, pontoon layout, types ofberth. Depth ofwater: mm 600 (USA 610) plus max draft ofvessel at lowest astronomical tide, 300 reserved for stilting, 300 for clearance, If too shallow atlowest tidedredging necessary. Channel: leading to entrance 20—30 m wide; main channel within harbour area depends on number and sizes of craft ing through at any 1 time, mm w 18 m. Entrance:protectionrequired from ingress(waveenergy tobeabsorbed before choppy conditionsarise inyacht basin)—'(2); suitableprotection: spending beaches, rocks or concrete blocks moulded to appropriate shapes, piles.

Pontoon layouts: well selected layout very important; main choice limited to pontoonsstretching from a land, b breakwaters, c floating elements —'(3). 9

50

10

150 200w

150 300 450 6006

4

Yacht basinChichesterEngland: land locked, 1000berths

Berth types—'(6): a stern toquay, iettyorpontoon bowsto piles (poor for embarking); b same but bowsmoored to anchors or buoys (notfor

tidal marinas); c alongside finger piers or catwalks, 1 craft each side (convenient for embarking); d alongside quays, ietties or pontoons, single banked; esame upto 3 or4abreast (disadvantageofyachtsmen on outer climbing overinnercraft); fstar finger.

central square

kb Hto

5

MarinaPort Grimaudbuilt onreclaimed marshland:900 flats each withberth

6 Types ofberth

k

a

Leisure

347

Sport: marinas COMPONENTS(cont) Locks: oftenhave more than 1 compartment; should maintainconstant water level on 1 side,other side varying withtide; capacity decided by peak use; waiting pontoons either side lock recommended. Pontoon design: often used to carryservices and to lighting units, lockers, refuse collection points, fire fighting devices; service bollards oftenprovided: boats/bollard 2—6;sewage collection points for boats recommended either as holding tanks or as outlets connected with vacuum sewage system leading to onshore network. Mm w main access pontoons 2000with fingers 500 wide;if total pier I over 100, 2500wmoreappropriate; mm wfloating pontoon 2500. Pontoon types: fixed: for non-tidal marinas; fixed deck (timber, aluminium, plastics decking) resting on structural s (piles most common);serviceducts usuallyunderdeck; floating:for tidal marinas or where structural difficulties occurand son bed not feasible (eg deep water, geological conditions); deck fixed tofloating unitsand so kept at required level above water; floats of steel, plastics, timber, concrete, polystyrene, filled with lightweight material (eq polystyrene) or left hollow; pontoons held in position by dolphins; in exceptional cases may be anchored to bed; connexion to land byhingedbridge,ramps, lifts, hoists, collapsible steps. Breakwaters: rubble mound: mainly forsites with relatively small tidal variations; alternative concrete blocks moulded to shape: not appropriate for more extensive structures; with relatively shallow slope (1:2 to 1:3) rubble mound occupies largewater area otherwise available for craftor otheressential uses; vertical face: concrete walls (constructed in open sea conditions as mass concrete

or buttress structures): efficient when built, difficult

to

constructand maintain;

caisson type: precast concrete cylinders (either hollow or filled with

sand) resting on sea bed; circular shaped cusps between units, positive contribution towave energyabsorption; floating: usually considered for sites with great depth of water and relatively mild conditions; sometimes act as secondary protection or primary barrier, reducing sea impact before waves reach main sea defence.

Fuellingpoints:considered desirable but not required by authorities

(UK); floating tanks not usually accepted. NB fire risk prevention at pointsofflexibleconnexions between tanks and floating pumps. Pollution control: in non-tidalmarinaswater circulationcertainlyrequired but hard to achieve. Sanitary accn for yachtsmen essential (travelling distance 100 m); provide refuse disposal units close to craft as possible; pollution culverts may alsobe needed. Onshore elements: car parking: ratio cars: boats 1:1—1:2; not too farfromcraftforyachtsmen and their eqp; sanitary accn; recommended mm either 1 wc and 1 shoeach sexper20 berthsor 1 wc, 1 urinal, 1 hb, 1 shoper25men, 1 wc, 1 hb, 1 shoper25 women (max occupancy of harbour estimated 6O%; suggested ratio men towomen 2:1);

yacht clubs: floor ar/P 1.0—5.0 m2: club rm, lay, drying rm, bars, restaurants, meeting rm, indoorsports, off, information centre, sleeping accn, caretaker's flat: hard standing, boat sf0, repair shop and other elements related to boat maintenance and handling; should have suitable device for boat lifting and launching and easy connexion toroads; freeareas formanoeuvring; fuel tanksoftensitedclose to boatyards; ancillaries may include customs, coastguards, lock keepers, insurance brokers, car hire, travel agent oft.

njjiiii_j.I [DDfl .I

-l—la

4

1

Boat sto with hoist

MarinaentrancedesignBrightonUK

5 Stoforsmall motor boats Sto

bar lecturerm

club

C

2 Main componentsof lock ter

d 6 Floatingjetty with housing superstructure Brightonmarina: section

3

Slidingcaisson& dockentrance

7

Clubhousedesign StokesBay sailingclub Gosport UK: aWelevation bgroundfloor cfirst floor dsecondfloor

Sportreferences: —Bibliography entries003006 046 083 183 205 212 297 355 384 388 475514515516517537538549585586587588639

1 CD

(I)

C

CD

348 Leisure

Theatres REGULATIONS street

--

overt otherwise

audience

v

i:I

1•age >

stage

-&

age >40

40

court

'1' a9o4

I street

!ih1: 4O

Reg concerning theatre and cinema bldg and schemes not rigid inUKor USA:concern public safety; must becomplied with to obtainnecessary licence; should be discussed with licensing authority atearliest stage. Principles applicable world wide;main task ofarchitectachieve balance between commercial, artistic and spectator requirements, and design scheme which complies with 'means of escape' and differential detail safety reg.

For consents required in UK in addition to theatre or cinematograph

Street

Distanceto adingbldg if theatre street 1

age

Ito

licence—.Bib300 301 328 329 346 347 361 363 591 598 599

2

Distanceiftheatreparallel tostreet

For USA—e local bldg codes

Organisation

Theatres may bedividedinto 3 parts—e(4): reception: entrance, booking hall, foyer, cloaks etc auditorium stage: main stage, wings, back of stage, scenery sto, workshops, dressing rm, rehearsal rm etc Parts vary in content and size depending on type drama, revieworcinema.

of theatre: opera,

Situation: Bldg for public entertainmentmust be sited allow

3

Distanceiftheatreliesbetween blocks

4

LayoutofViennaStateOpera

concert opera

.

revtew

. cinema

audience

leavearea more rapidlythan requiredleavepremises.Check requirements at earliest stage. —v(1)(2)(3)for typical dimensions.

Audience arrival times —s(5) extend from 15—30 minutes, departures 5—20 minutes.

Pwaitingin booking ha Pbookingwithin20mm

6% before

performance queuingforadvance booking ticket control time, ifarrivingbycar seating % ofPleavingseatsat interval time requiredfor leavingseatto

foyer time intoilet time fromseattodrive,excludingdo waitingfor taxisortransport

10% 20%

8% 2—15mm 1 mm 4—12 mm

2—15 mm

100%

— 1

1 mm

6—9 mmr

4 mm

—

50

75

4 mm

4 mm 6 mm 6 mm

1 mm

5mm 1—15mm

1—15

mm

2—5 mm

mm

— — — —

S Tableafter Burns-Meyer& Cole(—oBibi52) giving% ofP&time inmm needed reachorleaveseats,asmeasured inUSA

111111 JI

EU

cio/P

Car parks

—vp248—50. Capacities usually determined by planning authority. Site vehicle entrance away from theatre entrance. Include covered areaforsetting down engers.

Exits mustall openoutwards and comply with requirementsfornumbers and travel distance. General rule for numbers (UK) 1600 width for250 visitorsor partthereof with mm of2exits —.(6)(7).Ramps not toexceed 10% in UK; can be limited to 5% incontinental Europe. Cloakrooms—v(7) Modern systems include self-service lockable coathangers orlimited length counters with mm number attendants.

Stairs—v(8) —°p408 Must complywith exitwidths requirements.Ifwidth more than 1 800 should be designed as double stairs with central handrail, 2 x 1100 ie 2200 wide. Risers not exceed 150, treads mm 280.

Foyers fortheatres can be 100—500 m2/P;for cinenias space required for circulation and exitonly,unlikely be more than 100 m2/P. Toiletsin accordance with licensing requirements; also —eBibO92. USA reg for exits, stairs etc vary: example—a(1 0).

v'l000for2OP befler2000&more direct imght&

+

oecitiiation 1100—l_00

IAI

6

Corrw: llOOforuptolOOP, 1600forup to 250 P

7

Exit&clo maxtravel

refreshment

fire-proofwail

distance within assembiy space Im)

rim

occupancy group classification

L/1

f-la

ffJ f-2

ofwI

capacitylP/unit

doorsoropenings aisle

primary

Secondary

& from from stairs cross assembiy safe & aisle space Sr escalators

26 30 53

38 38 76

80 90 400

50 80 400

100 125

500

60 80 320

ramps corr, safe ar, exd ageways

80 100

425

'unit 560

/corr

i-ia: enclosed theatreswithstagesthat

theatreswhichprohibit

mayhave scenicelements,i-lb.enciosed

use of scenic elements onorabove stage: f-2, outdoor

assembly spaces

8

Stairs:llOOforuptolOOP;

1600 forupto 250 P; centre handrail requiredover 1800w

9

Providelob betweensmoking& non-smokingar: doorsto openin directionofexit

10 Determinationof exit&accessrequirements: extractfromNewYorkCity bldgcode

Leisure

349

Theatres CD

SIGHT LINES

C')

Typical seated spectator—(1) Eye height: 1120± 100 Tread of seating tier (rowspacing) 1: 800—1150 Head clearance C: C1 = 65: mm clearance/row, assuming spectator will see between heads row infront (every-other-row vision) C2 = 130 allows av spectator see over head av specator in front (every-row vision) Rise R —*(2): difference in height between adjacentseating platforms Floor slope: Arrival point of sight(APS) —(2)(3): intersection of highest sightlmneat focal planepositioned 50above stage platform Distance: horizontal distance from eye ofseated spectatorto APS D1 = distance fromeye offirst row toAPS = distance fromeye ofgiven rown toAPS Elevation: vertical height ofeye ofseated spectatorabove focal plane E1 = vertical height ofeye offirst row abovefocal plane = vertical height ofeye ofgiven rownabove focal plane = 0 establishes max stage height allowable, ie 1 060

CD

C

E

Constant rise floor slope —(2): sight lines from rows parallel; APS determined by intersection of sightlinefromlast orhighest row at focal plane: T T

R=-E1+(N—1)+C E1

D1=—E1+(N—1)C

=t(R—C)—C(N—1)

N = number ofrowsin seat bank. Iscidomal floor slope —(3): exponential shape of floor slope results from generation of sightlines fromsingle focal point orAPS; iscidomal floor slope makes more efficient use ofgiven total rise:

2

Constantrisefloor slopes

Type and scale of performance will dictate range of performing area sizes —*(4). May be desirable enable performing space accommodate variety of performing area sizes. Containment of audience within130° angleperipheral spread of vision from performer at point of command will help promote maxvisual and auralcommunicationbetween performer and spectator. Largest performing area should fall within boundary defined by 130° angle of peripheral spread of vision from seats at ends of front rows —(5). Limitofcentreof action defined by 60°angle of normal, accurate, polych romaticvisionfrom seatsatends of front rows. Pointofcommand should logically fall within centre ofaction. Boundary limit of seating area ofauditorium might be defined by given constant angle of peripheral spread of vision to sides of given stage opening. Limits ofboth30°and 60°angles of peripheral spread of vision tovarious openings illustrated —(6).

3

Iscidomalfloor slopes

A 8.5m B 10.7m C 12.8m D 14.9m E 17.Om

4

Rangeofperformingar

5

Relationstiipbetween performingar&seating

6 Viewinganglefields fromstageopening

350 Leisure

Theatres AUDITORIUM

movable (flying &/or hinged) auditorium ceilingcan beused tovary seating capacity insingle ha

Auditorium longitudinal sections shown —.(1 )—(6) have same numbers of rows. Max D:H balcony overhang proportion recommended: 1:1 for concerts, 2: 1 foropera, drama. Flying balcony may allow greater D : H ratio by allowing reverberant energy reach rear seats frombehind. Last rows should have clear sightline to central speaker cluster. Balcony overhangs positioned clear of projection beam. Max sight line angle frombalcony to stage: 300 Convexand irregular surfaces aid sound diffusion. Domes, vaults and other large concave surfaces may cause acoustic problems. Higher ceiling for longerreverberationtime asrequired forconcerts; typical hall volume: 20.5 m3—35 m3/audienceseat. Lower ceiling forshorter reverberation time as required for drama, speech; typical hall volume: 7.5 m3—14 m3/audience seat. In halls used for concerts treat stage and audience seating as 1 volume. In multiple-use halls this condition achieved with hard orchestra shell which must be demountable for full useofstage forscenery. Acoustic requirementsmay dictatethat reflective surfaces at ceiling of orchestra enclosure extend out above audience seating.

6

3flying baic

traprm

seatwagon sb

ar/musician 1—1.5 m2

7

Typicalorchestrapitliftdetail

max seats: 12—17(l4typ) USA 18—30 modifiedcontinental 14—22 UK

8

Multipleaisle seating

max seats permittedperrow: 49;unlimited incremental increase in row I sometimespermitted asfunction ofincremental increaseinrow spacing

9 'Continental'seating

Leisure

351

Theatres SEATING Sizesdepend on type of chair and determine chair spacing. Decide on chair style at outset. Traditional chairs require mm spacing at 840 and are 500 wide—*(1);mostcommon USAdimension 530. Modern chairs vary considerably: can need1 400 spacing and width of 750. Standing space —+(2) formerly normal not usual in modern theatres. Seating usually laid out in straight or curved rows; in some theatres angled seating tried —e(3). Seating radius centre point best established by trying alternative positions. Short radius enables whole audience face centre of stage but this must be drawn to ensure adequate circulation spaceat front stalls sides.

I- 840—1000H

I Allseatsfixedtip-up chairs

(exceptinboxes);armchairseating needs1400 x 750spaces

2

Standingroom, unusualin modem theatres

BALCONIES 2000

r—

Theatres with 1 balcony (frequent in USA) —*(5) can give better sight lines than multiple —*p350, reduce staff requirements, simplify exits, increase spectatorconvenience. Sometimesmovableceiling.Very deep stalls under balcony .—(5) tend to limit upward sight line. Multiple auditoria have become common —e(7). Containment of sound in each auditorium major problem.

—1

:

FLEXIBLESEATING—aIsop135 H—

3

Angledtip-up seatsgive elbow

room

2400

—

4

Boxesmay have 10chairs& clear way toexit

Divisionofauditoria intosmaller rm bysliding folding partitions common in conference centres; more difficult in theatres with stepped floors. Consider closing off areas of seating to provide smaller capacity; to provide full flexibility folding seating areas can slide away to expose level floor —spl35(4). Loose seating used on flat floor gives very poor sightlines:musthave temporary fixing. Stoaccnforloose seating must be provided;1 000folding chairs need 20—36 m2stospace. 9

24 25

50

1

8

5

5

24m

15ft

m

75 ft PUIHHHIIIH0011_

5

Section rough auditorium ofAmerican1-balcony theatrewith ambulatory&view intorear stalls: equal seatvaluesostandard prices possible 6 HamiltonPlaceOntarioCanada aorchestrafloor b1St balconyfloor Arch Garwood-Jones

7

Concertha Helsingborg Finlandwith 2ha1 aboveother a longitudinal section bplan of large ha Arch S Markelius

key 6 upperlob 7 upperpart studio theatre

8 meetings 9 orchestrastage

10 dramastage

11 reCeiving 12 ott& entrance 13 dressingrm 14 rnecheqp

0 3 6 9

12m

10 20 30 40ft

352

Leisure

Theatres mm

normal max

m

m 10

drama

8

review

10 10 12

musical opera 1

11

12 18

STAGETOWER Dimensions governed by stage machinery, increasingly complex to speed scenery handling and changes. Small stage withoutside and backstage —(2a). Shifting scenery by hand with trained staff 3 mm; with 'jacknife'trolleys15sec—9(2b); ifsideand backstagewith traverse

rn

12 14 15 25

trolleys10sec—(3).

Revolvingstage

Stagew

Discwith 2—3 sets—(3) 2 discswith at stage centre Reciprocating segments —*(2c) Ring stage withcentreupstage—(2d) Ring stage withcentrein house—*p353

I

r--t—l

2A I

Stage tower

Widthofstage twicestage opening —÷(3). Depthof stagefromfire curtain 3/4 stage width, height to rigging loft

i i

L_i

underside

medium height of auditorium

+

height of stage opening

Fireman's rm 800wide,2200 high scenery at each side of stage,with viewandexittostage; escape route also required. Width of corridor at stage level 2200, otherwise 1 500. If stage (without side and backstage) larger than 350 m2 width of corridors increases by 150/50m2. Exits fromstage areas should beplanned provide readyegress from all parts. Include at least2 exits ofwhich 1 must lead to openairthrough

a

unventilated lobby. Mm widths should comply with reg. Exit requirements frombasement and dressing rm areas similar, ito be independent of stage area and 1 from dressing rm should also lead directto openair.

Workshops(locksmith, carpenter,paint shop) connectedbyfirelobbies

to corridors. c

d

Diagramsshowingvariousways ofsetting&handlingscenery

Scenery sto atstage level 1O% ofstage area. Heightof scenery stoapprox6000—10000. Rigging loft: space overstage used for hanging scenery and lighting eqp. Between loft and roof construction allow 2100 head room. Adequate ventilation equal to 10% stage areatobeprovided by haystack lanternabove loft. Varies fromcode to code USA.

Fire curtain:stage must be separated fromauditorium by fire proof curtain ofwire-woven asbestos clothstretched between top and bottom steelpipes, asbestos plates fixed tofireproofsteelframe orsheetmetal fixed to fire proof steelframe. Hand release to operate fire curtain and

drencher system over. Both automaticand hand releaseusuallyrequired in USA. Curtain must be in 1 piece; should move vertically and should close completelyin 30 seconds.

3

Diagrammatilan of stage towerwithtypicaldimensions

Diagrammaticsectionofstagetowerwithtypicaldimensions

Leisure 353

Theatres MULTI-FORMTHEATRE Ring stagewithcentre inhouse-.-(1)—(5)Aimsatintimateconnexion of audience and actor; brings play amongst audience in contrast to

peep-show' stage. These methods call for modern stagecraft. Actor

playssurrounded by his audience —(2)(4)(5) without curtain and with little scenery. Auditorium may be round, square or rectangular —(4). Instead ofsceneryuse canbe made offilm projection.Revolving stages —(2)(3). Revolving auditorium —*(2)(3).'Theatre in the round' (arena type)where common stage omitted —(5). Combined 'arena' &'peep-show' stageAsarena theatresidewalls of auditorium have rolling orsliding outs which line upwith cyclorama and thus enclose space. As 'peep-show' theatre proscenium arch put between auditorium and stage.

1 Arenastage:groundfloorplan Arch Kreisiinger& Rosenbaum

2 'Total theatre' withrevolving centre: plan shows bothpositions: after Gropius

Theatre references: —4Bibliographyentries 015 034 113 114 152266298309340343350 351 352361 408409413475556572626

3 NewLondonTheatreDrury LaneLondon: revolving stage&frontstalls with adjustableh seating; canbe eitherin theroundorproscenium Arch Tvrtkovic& KennyChew&Percival

I

KleinesHausTheater Mannheim ()with adjustable seating

a peep-show'stage withorchestra bdouble-sidedarena stage carena stage allround ArchG Weber

5

Arena StageTheaterWashingtonDC USA upperlevelplan Arch Harry Weese

6

Circle level Olivierauditorium National TheatreLondonEngland Arch DenysLasdun

Plan at balc level TyroneGuthrieTheater(three-quarterarena) MinneapolisUSA Arch RalphRapson

354 Leisure

Cinemas —also theatres p348—53

Techniques& regulations

Very similar to theatres. Old requirements (UK) for open space round cinemas stillapplicable—(1 )(2);architect mustdiscuss requirements at earliest stage. Use of courtor mall access becomes more common in comprehensive schemes, but unless courtfully fire protected may not countas exit—(3). Consultrelevant codes and standardsfor all details.

Doors & corridors

mended. Limitto sightangleof35° above horizontal produces distance to screen on centre line of 1.43 x height fromfront roweye level totop of picture—*p357(4). Seat sizes finally determine layout dimensions —*p350—1. Vertical sight lines determined in similar way as for theatres—p349 except that each spectatorshould have clear viewto bottomofpicture. Side seating at front limited byangles ofsightto screen —p355(6).

Widthsmust match exitrequirements. Doors toopenoutwards against exit flow in corridor and to be free of fastenings except panic bolts. Projections forhandrailsup to75allowedintoexitwidths butdoors must provide clear exit dimension measured fromdoor face to frame when standing open. Doors generally required to befr and selfclosing —'(5).

Accesstoauditorium

Srcases

Now often considered necessary in commercial cinemas. Various theoriesusedto divide total seats needed. Ratios of 1:2or2:3 fordual cinemas; ratiosof1:2:3 fortriple cinemas; progressionofseat totals for larger multiples. Basicrequirement: givevisitor choice of programmes andenableoperator judge business potential of each film soas showit in auditorium ofcapacity to match public demand. If film playing to half capacity audiences can be transferred to smaller auditorium or vice

Must also match exit requirements —p348, clear width being measuredbetween walls orwalland balustrade—*(6). Not less than 3 risers permitted; not more than 16 risers in straight flights. Max of 2 successive flights without turn allowed provided number of risersreduced to 12. Landings attop, bottomand between flights should equal width required. Stairrisers(UKcode) not to exceed 150, treads atleast 280; USAcodesvary. Stairs —'p408

In stepped seating can be from beneaththrough vomitory orfromrear, each to crossoveraisle. Side and rear aisles add toease ofaccess and supervision ofaudience.

Multipleauditorium

versa. Seating capacities vary between 100—600 chairs: generally regarded (UK) asmm and max auditorium sizes—(7).

Seating

Layoutssimilar totheatres—*p349—50,except seatblocks donotnormally exceed 14 chairs. Spectator convenience improved for continuous performances; salesofconfectioneryimprove when accessfrom seating increased. Modern chairs, some of which have nottip-up seats, need greaterspacing, Distance fromscreen to front rowofseats determined bymax allowable anglebetween sightline fromfirst rowtotop ofscreen and perpendicular to screen at that point: max angle 30°—35° recom-

Sales, staff, projection and service arrangements can be as for single cinema —*p355—7. Ventilation andacoustic separation must be provided. Single projection rm to link all auditoria preferred but automation and closed circuit tv to monitor programmes make possible separate eqp in conversion of old properties.

!

0

•i\\

street

t1o

:i.;:;;II;I.1i1r... 6OL120 1courttotaketotal

tierofspectators street

1 Cinemas with morethan 2000 seatsshould haveexits on more than 1 publicroad,orbesituatedin courts

i3i3

Cinemaswith less than2000 seats shouldhaveexits on public road; maybe incourts—(3);for ages—(4)

street

pa11t1 : I:

1

court.

ii!

3

Cinemascanbesituatedoff street butmayrequirealternative exits

slope1:1O. radiatorsin tire proof rise

eys auditonum

5

's15O tread

door'must openoutward

Door&corrwtocornplywithreg —p348:doorstoopenagainstexit flow

6

direct light& —ventilation

1.1

1.

Wofstairstoequaiexitw —p348:flightsnotlessthan 3 risers not morethan16, l2if2flights without turn

7

CinemaPutneyLondon: multipleauditona; partofcommercialbldg, with high levelcommonprojectionrm

Leisure

355

Cinemas Cloakrooms

Not standard requirement inUKcinemas: ifprovided should beplanned notto obstruct exits or normal circulation—*(1)—sp348.

•

Projectionrooms

Used to be divided into separate compartments for rewinding and projecting film with dimmer rm, battery rm, switch rm, spotlight rm, workshop and staff and storm, each 6—10 m2forming suite—e(2)(3).

column

1.6

::...:.-.::::-:::•::.......g ......•.....

F::::::::•:•::-::::::::•::::::: 1

1.1

Modern automated systems take about same space and require rewind bench to giveoperational flexibility.

Arrequiredfordocounter —vp348:notusualinmodern cinemas amplifier & tapedeck 1

Type of eqp to be used should be established at outset tofinalise detail dimensions. Provided non-inflammable (safety)filmonlyused exits can beinternal —n(4): if inflammabletimused 1 exit mustleadtoopenairand haystack lantern must be provided, with opening area of 0.19 m2for each 640 m of film used and stored in rm. Exit to public area must be through ventilated protected lobby. Circulationspace for servicing and access must be provided round eqp; front wall length of 5500 x rm depth of 3500is av size. Plan staircase and door widths to allow for access of eqp; risersshould not exceed 190 treads at least250. Mirror projections and observationused where space limited, and before automation became available —(3). With mirrors 1 projection rm can serve multiple cinemas located vertically; but as general rule better avoid mirror projection. Picture ratios vary with film systems: operator mustdecide whatrequired —n(S).Advance techniques employ variable height and width pictures; as size of arc lamp used determined by picture area max effectobtained byusing differentratios ofequal areas.

portholesassmall

P\

canopy

arclampextract switch gear rm

Diagramofprojectionrm; ifwindow installed ensuredaylightcannot reachscreen aplan bsection 2

Using70 film makes possible bigger area screens. Normally accepted max screen widths:for 70film 20 m, for35film 13 m. Screen sizeshould be largeas possible up tothese maximaorwidth of

Projectionrmingallerystructure, observationthroughmirrors:with 35 mm also projectthroughmirrors 3

seating whichever least; ratios ofwidth to max viewing distance should befrom 1:2to 1:3—v(6). Advisable inverysmall cinemasaccept ratio of 1:2 to enable standard focallength lenses to be used and avoid very small pictures. Wider pictureswould requirespecial lenses. Tocalculate picture widthobtainablefromgiven lens:

4

Internalprojectionrmwith mech ventilation

w=

film frame apperture w x throw focal Iof lens

Inanamorphic (Cinemascope) projection same formula used multiplied by2. 1:1.37 normal 1:1.66paramount 1:I.75mgm 1:1.B5columbi 1:2.2 todd ao (70mm) 1:2.34cinemascope

5

1:3.25 cinerama

Commonfilm ratios:useadjustable maskingto screentosuitpicturesizes

\/

with vertex zoneii perboia \—asyniptote pointonScreen iso-defo,rTlatlon zonelimit lutes zonei: y=0.3x'—H' zoneii: = H=screenh

y

6

Curved directional screens originallydeveloped to overcome dispersion of reflected light from flat screen. Modern cinema with betterscreen material able to use curve of screen to reduce amount of apparent distortion to sidesightlines. Too much rise onchord cangive problems with focus over whole picture area. Screen radius usually between 75—100% of projection throw; rise on chord should not exceed 10— 12% ofchordwidth.

i

ii'

flatscreen—seatingzonelimits zone i: y= ±(0.5W—yO.33x'

—

H')

Vii)

where, \/0.75W'+3H'

zoneii:y= ±(0.5W—

where, 0.25W' +3H'

Filmprojectionplanning: viewing pointonscreen:line of iso-deformation =boundaryof seatingarfor which spectatorswillseesame apparent distortion: hyperbolashapedefined in planbyasymptotesfrompointon screen; zoneIdistortion existsbutnot noticedfromseatsfallingwithin hyperbola: mm horizontal distancefrom vertexof hyperbolatoscreendeterminedbylimitationof verticalanglefrom eye of firstrowtotopofscreento max of 30°—35°;zoneIIdistortions noticed but toleratedfrom seatsfallingoutsidezone I;zone Ill (seating placed beyondlimit ofzone II) distortionsof projected imagenottolerated&viewerwillrefuse

curvedscreen—seating zonelimits iso-deformationzonelimit tinesmost easily plottedbygraphicalmethod: plotiso-deformationhyperttoiaIronpoint on screen& rotateaxesaboutcentre ofscreencurvature

seat placedhere: viewing flatscreen: seatingarrepresented by arcommon to spacewithin 2 hyperbolas;arinzone Iforwide projectedimages lessthanzone Iforpointon screen;seatingarforzone IIforwide imageonflat screen maycorrespond approxtozone Ipoint onscreen viewing curvedscreen: zoneI arforgrvenscreenwcanbeincreased by curvingscreen;appropriatecurving willcause overlapof hyperbolasdrawn from sidesofprojectedimagesoastodefinegreatercommonseating ar

CD

(/)

C CD

356 Leisure

Cinemas Generallayout In addition topublic areas must include staff and service areas: boilerhouse el substation

m2 25—30 28—38

m2

plenum chamber kiosk stockrm manageroffsuite 3 sto rm switch, battery, workshop &staffrm

ice-cream sto 20 staffrm 45 projection rm 19—25

20 10—15

or

38 28 40

Lighting systems

Provideinaccordance with detail licensing requirements: decorative lightingand anyrequired spotlights toauditorium dimmed to showfilm, otherpublic areasmaintainedwhile spectators use bldg; cleaner'slighting to auditorium and foyers: auditorium system used as emergency lighting under managementcontrol; USA emergency lighting operates automatically if main fails; maintained lighting to auditorium and exit boxes throughout bldg: designed provide illuminationofseatingareasand gangwaysduring film programme (no light to fall on screen or walls); New York City code requires aislesand crossings have mm 5.35 lx at all times;

2

Cinema in Oslo:groundfloorplan showing circulationinlateral arrangementwith double-sideddo ArchBlackstad& Dunker

safety lighting to all public, key staff areas and exit boxes throughout bldg: must be kept on as part of maintained system; should main el supply fail safety system must be able provide sufficient light allow public and staff leave bldg safely; N American and continental Europe practice provide separateemergencylightingsystem which only illumines on failure of main supply: notpermitted in UK.

other el systems includefire and burglaralarms, speakerwiring, internal telephones, induction systems forboth deaf-aids and managementcall, closed circuit tv, emergency public address and main switchgear for controlofheating, ventilation, projection and stage eqp.

box oft

Heating—*pl 6385—9 Ventilation&air conditioning—*pl5—16392—4

Heating and ventilation for public entertainment bldg developed as licensing authorities required higher ventilation standards. In UK fresh airventilation requirement basedon number of persons accommodated and varies from 70—93 m3/hr/P in auditorium and extract system for 75% of input air. Where air-conditioning installed at least half this quantity must be fresh air, with up to 50% filtered and recirculated.

3

CinemainMadrid:diagonallysituatedincorner bldg withmosteconomic useofspace &goodshapeofauditorium; ground floor plan Arch Gutierrez Soto

Foyer and toilet systems based on normally accepted standards —xBlb347.Toilets affected bylicensing requirements. staff

Incoming air must be heated; plenum system generally used with air supply at screenend and extract divided in auditorium rear corners to avoid vitiated airbeingilluminated by projection light ray. General parts ofbldg can be heated by lowpressure hot water system.

cix

Filmdisplay

In schools, universities, hotels and other bldg 16 eqp used; when approved this does not require separate projection rm, provided clear space maintained round eqp. Regulationsfor space requirement vary from 900 to 2000. Picturewidths up to6000possible with suitable light source; anamorphic (Cinemascope) ratio varies from 35 to 1:2.66. Commercial cinemas in USA and UK have used 16 eqp but in UK picture and printquality notgoodenough. —xalso lecture theatres p135

:J1fl projection

exit

cio-l-

sidegangway

exit

't

stair to gaiiery

.

stage podium

screenJfl artists

[

cix-4--

-

auditorium

(orchestraLfil exit

wc

-

I

.

I sidegangway

LI

. fresh-

j, exit

I

4—

street stairto gatery secondaryentry & stair toprojection

1 Circulationdiagram: stageaccnnotnormallyneeded; exitstosuit seating capacity

4 Cinema in Turku Finland: 590seats ArchBryggman

I

Leisure 357

Cinemas Screensystems

Cinema screen in past titted into adapted theatre; today increased picture size (Cinemascope, Cinerama,Todd AD, Circarama, IMAX,for small cinemas closed circuit tv) determines interior design. Traditional cinemas—.(1a)had small pictureswhereas3-projectororiginalCinerama system .—°(lb) involved spectator with 30.5 m screen. This sured by new single projector IMAX system with 70 film used horizontally to enlarge frame size and provide 36.5 m picture, seating being placed closescreen preventing whole picture being seen without both vertical and horizontal movement of head; callsforspecial projector and auditorium; used in Canada and USA.

a

Circarama system using 11 projectors gives full involvement but no seating practicaland handrails necessary prevent audience tailing over —°(3): used very successfully at Disneyland. Further development used in theme parks and now in Experience theatres world wide: audio-visual technique ofautomated multiple projection of still pictures with auditorium effects and multi-track magnetic sound systems. Closed circuit projection tv system feasible with electronic line enhancement; gives picturesof 2430x 1 830. With Eidophor' screen sizes up to 9 m x 12 m possible. Development in progress in USAand UK.

1

Sound systems

Have developed considerably; problems of handling magnetic sound recordings on film being answered by Dolby encoding optical system. Stereo across screen and to front and rear provided on 70 film with 5 rear screen speaker tracks and 6th track forauditorium speakers. Wide screens and side sound sources can produce acoustic problems: generally for cinemas reflected sound paths should notexceed directpaths by more than 15 m—.p18395—7.

atraditionalcinema bfororiginalCineramasystem

2

Civiccentre in centralrestricted position forces placingofhaforvarious uses (cinema,concert,exhibition, museum, theatre)aboveone another: spaciouscentrallob,foyer&stairsshared Arch Cassandra Athens

3

Circarama:screencircular (370°);11 synchronised projectors producecoherentpicture; example;Expo Brussels

yroihonray cenireiune

betternot toeeceedtO

I

+

—keepeyepoinitor saeen frame

sighthnesfromrearsears

tobottomofyiciure

sight tine angiesvary

raker

t v

to screen= .43 hfromfront .f_.___distaflce eye ieneitotopofscreen

4

Basicrequirementsforauditorium levels; rakenotnecessarily limited to 10% & 5% in USA

358 Leisure

Drive-in cinemas Curved layouts give maxof360 carspaces and individual speakers foreach car. Usual layouts on principle of amphitheatre forboth individual and multiple schemes. —(1 )(3). Sizesover 1000 carsunusual.Multipleschemes more acceptable to operators. Some original situations in N America rebuilt to include dual, tripleorquadruple layouts. Situation on highways usuallyaway from residential areas. Should be sited so that lights froming traffic donot disturbspectators or throwlighton screen.

Layout should provideview of picture at not more than45°from screencentre; rampsshould be designed so that spectators can see over cars in front —*(2). Distance from screen to front rowwith large screen often more than 50 m. Carholding areasavoid trafficjams on highway. 2 double ticket booths normal mm: 500 cars need mm

20minutes toenter. Exitsshould

be away from entrance. Cars may leave and entersimultaneously between programmes. Screen size varieswith overall capacity: 30.4 x 13 m normal max, 20% of distance to rear

Drive-incinemainfanshapewith singleramp, shownforright-handdrive traffic;projection bldg obstructsviewfrom2rowsto rear 1

sightlines to bottomof screen—cars titledupto maximise viewthrough windscreen&over cars infront

-

2

• 6100 2OO

1

o

Children's playground and outside seating provided in NAmerica. Surface waterdrainage catchment pooi oftensitedin front ofscreen. Projection bldg in centreor at rear, includes

--

—

0 pole with loudspeakers &elheaters

—-

-

cars normal mm. Should face between E and 5, making possible earlier evening performances. Heightabove ground depends on site profile, determines angles ofcar ramps.

0 3400

increases with steeper carramps

Dimensionsfordoubleramplayout: singlerampscommoninUSA

workshop, sto, switchrm, soundand projection system. Can includepublic toilets, restaurant and office. Max projection throw 137 m nor lessthan2 x screen width.

Sound reproduction best with speaker taken into car from poles spaced at 5000 centres. El fan heaters may also be on poles. Some N American operators also have air-conditioning by underground ducts with flexible car connexions.

Floodlighting provided for intermission;

hooded roadway lighting maintained through performance.

3

Dual drive-incinema:1 projection rmfor bothscreens makes possiblestaggered startingtimes;all other services(eg ticket off,bar,lay) used tly

Cinema references: —Bibliography entries 084 098 099 113 114 129328329339 347 426 598 599

359

Leisure

Museums Irecepton

restoration

registry

sto

CD

Forshowing worksofartand obiects ofculturaland scientific interest rm

C',

must:

ensure protection against damage, theft, fire, damp, aridity, strong

curator

research lecture rm

gallery

check-in entrance

1

ROOMS

2

Sectionofgallery litfrom 1 Side only, bottompartindirectly, attenuatedlighting

Layoutdiagram

spotlight

sunlight and dust; showworks in best light(in both senses ofterm): normally achieved by dividing collection into objectsforstudy(egengravings, drawings) kept in portfolios and stored in cupboards (with drawers) about 800 deep and 1 600 high; objectsfordisplay (eg paintings, frescoes, statuary,ceramics, furniture) Exhibits must be so placed as to be seen without effort: calls for selective and spacious arrangement, with variety and suitable rm shape and sequence.

So faraspossible each group of pictures in 1 rm orsequence ofrm and each picturea wall to itself: ie number of small rm. These also provide morewall space in relation to ground area than large rm, necessary for big pictures: rm size depends on picture size. Normal human angle of vision (54° or 27°up fromeye level) achieved with well lit pictures 10m away = hanging height of4900above eye level and about 700 below it —(5). Only withlargepictures isthere needforeyetotravel from bottom of frame up above angleof vision. Best hanging position for smaller pictures: point of emphasis (level of horizon in picture) at eye level

m

3

4

Installlightingsothat anglesof incidencecorrespondwith natural light

Typicalcross-sectionfor museumofnaturalhistory

ribbed glass frosted glass

,

screen

N'

S

N

_____

"

__________

k>1 j 100 I-

5

-

largest hanging surface best 5.6 hanging surfaces between

950&3.6

3—5 hanging surface space/picture 6—10 m2 ground surface space/sculpture 1 m2cabinet space space/400 coins Calculations formuseum lighting highly theoretical: quality of light what matters. Experiments carried out in America therefore more important (—÷Bib561). In recent times continuous increase in use of artificial lighting, instead of constant variations of light experiences even with N lighting —*p360.

GENERALLAYOUT No continous circularitinerary butwingsleadingoutfromentrance. Side rm forpacking, despatch, transparencysection, restorationworkshops, lecture rm. Museums sometimes in bldg originally designed for other purposes.

1)

6

Ideallylitrmwith uniform lighting front both sides,asworkedoutby S HurstSeager(-.Bib561)

Well-lit exhibitionhabasedon Bostonexperiments

1001

(Th

i

>

I27/' iLl

T1

900r

27°

2.0

1.0 1.5 500e

h

7 Field ofvision:h&distance

8

a

0.1

1000

0.5 0.6 0.75

10 Paintingstowithdetachablesteelmeshframesonwhichpictures can behungasrequired&be readyforremovalatanytimeforstudy

Size & distance

outerwallof glass optional

J.

AAAA1iAWA1,AI I

Exhibitionrmwith side lighting: suitablehangingsurfacebetween 300 &600 with mih of6700&dlih 2130forpicturesor3040—3650for sculpture,ascalculatedfrom Bostonexperiments 11

9

Exhibitionrmwith folding screens(designK Schneider) allowsgreat variety ofrmarrangements

ox+iöo-+io.o'

—,

12 Exhibitionrm withsuccessful

useofavailablespace:s

betweencentralpillarscanbe rearrangedbetweensas needed;ifouterside-wallof glass installedwindowarrangementof innerwallcanalso bevaried

CD

360 Leisure

Museums LIGHTING Daylight as lightsource givesmm overheads. Overheadlighting: advantages,independentof orientation, not affected by overhanging trees or neighbouring bldg, easily regulated (lamella ceiling), little reflection, light more widely spread over exhibit area; disadvantages, strong heat build-up, risk of damage from water and condensation, only diffused light. Window lighting: viewout (relaxing), rm easily aired and kept ateven temp, better light on groups and individual exhibits, illumination of showcases fromback.

4 Main floor Wallraf-Richartz-Museum Cologne

Arch R Schwartz&Bernard key 1 rest rm 2 rm reaching to overheadlight inupperstorey 3side-litrm 4side-lit recess

1 Section& light sourcesMuseumofWesternArtTokyoJapan Arch LeCorbusier

a lightsource

b

2

Section

a-a

&light sourcesMuseoCiVKOTurin Italy ArchBassi& Boscheth

b-b

5

Joan Miro FoundationBarcelonaSpain hasrampextendinground all4 sides ofsculpturerm allowing worksto beviewed fromvarying heightsand aspects;note useofskylights-.section afirstfloor plan sections Arch Sert Section key 1 sculpturerm 2 ha 3print mi 4balcover groundfloor 5 telwith sculptures 6ha 70ff 8director'soff 9restm, lOprintarchives

b

3 Section&light sourcesMuseumofModem Art Rio deJaneiroBrazil Arch Reidy

Leisure

361

Museums 2 VancouverMuseum Canada Arch ArthurErickson key

EXAMPLES

14

TTjm1' [1]

n-i

[III

[111

r

—

L.

L

gairer'

1 entrance 2 lob

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

off/seminarrm rampedgallery greatha small objectgallery theatre

visiblestoar lounge 10 outdoorcourt

[Ii LII [Ii

r-i r1 r, :

:

r-

-

-r

r1

-

gallery

0

EEEJ

-

- -t :

:

__________ _____

L.

b

W4EEI1. gallery

L

apaceanum

F4iii

jJ auditorium

vvvvv

ri L1 im

I—I

3 C

1 CenterforBritishArtYaleUSA asectionatB—*le bthirdfloor csecond floor d firstfloor egroundfloor ArchKahn

rii 'v"" I

ir'wri Ia..rJI

I

vvvvv[

Air &Space MuseumWashington USA asecond floor b firstfloor C groundfloor Arch Hok

Museumsreferences —*Bibliographyentries 040318385476612

Page blank in original

363

Components INTRODUCTION Components bringstogether various categories ofconstruction data intended asan aid to the ofArchitects' Datainapplying the principlesand examples given throughout the body of the book. Underthe general heading Services' are guidelines on the spaces needed to install, operate and maintain systems of distribution, heating, ventilation, thermal and sound insulation, lighting. Thereafterfollow practicalcriteriaforcertaincomponents: doors, windows, corridors andramps, stairs, escalators, elevators.

practices are presented in detail in Ramsey& Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural Graphic Standards —Bib 549.

Conversions As anaid to readers whodo not workin metric units ofmeasurementa listofconversion factors and a setof42conversion tables introduce the pages on services systems.

Data here presented are based on the latest Britishand European research and are not directly applicable by those working in non-metric units of measurement. The material presented and Materials the approach to its presentation are thought to be of general Values to be given to physical characteristics ofcommon building interestto architects in America as in other continents; but USA materials have been brought together inatable which follows the practices differ in somerespects from what is given here. Such conversion tables and precedes 'Services' .—p384(1).

364

Conversions FACTORS metric

'imperial'/US

length 1.0mm 25.4 rnrn (2.54cm)

0.039 in 1 in

304.8 mrn (30.48cm) 914.4mm 1000.0mm(1.0 m) 20.117rn 1 000.00rn (1 km) 1 609.31 m area lOOrnm2(1.Ocm2) 645.2 mm2 (6.452 cm2) 929.03cm2 (0.093 m2)

0.836rn2 1.0m2

0.405ha (4046.9m2) 1.0ha (10000m2) 1.0km2 2.59 km2(259 ha)

1

ft

lyd

1 yd 3.4 in (1 .093yd) 1 chain

0.621 mile 1 mile 0.155in2 1 in2 1 ft2 1 yd2

1.196yd2(10.764ft2) 1 acre 2.471 acre 0.386 mile2 1 mile2

volume 1004J mm3 (1.0cm3; 1.0 ml) 0.061 in3 16387mm3 (16.387cm3; 0.01641; 1 in3 16.387 ml) 61.025in3 (0.035 ft3) 1.01(1.0 drn3; 1000cm3) 0.028 rn3(28.32 I) 1 ft3

0.765 m3 1.0 m3

1 yd3

1.308 yd3(35.314 ft3)

capacity

1.Ornl 1.0 ml 28.41 ml 29.57 ml 0.473 litre 0.568litre 1.0 litre 1.Olitre 3.785 litre 4.546 litre 100.0 litre 100.0 litre 159.0 litre 164.0 litre

0.O34flozUS 0.035 fI ozimp 1 fI oz imp 1 fI oz US 1 pint (liquid) US 1 pint imp 1.76 pint imp

2.ll3pintUS 1 gal US 1 galimp

21.99 gal imp 26.42 gal US 1 barrel US 1 barrel imp

mass

lOg 28.35g 454.0 g (0.454 kg) 1000.0g(1 kg) 45.36kg 50.8 kg 907.2 kg (0.907 t) 1000.0kg (1.0 t) 1000.0kg(1 .0 t) 1016.0kg(1.016 t) mass/unit length 0.496kg/rn 0.564kg/rn (0.564 t/km) 0.631 kg/rn(0.631 t/km) 1.0kg/rn 1.116kg/rn 1.488 kg/rn 17.86 kg/rn

length/unitmass 1.0rn/kg 2.016 rn/kg

0.035 oz (avoirdupois) 1 oz (avoirdupois) 1 lb 2.205 lb 1 cwtUS

cwt irnp ton US 0.984 ton irnp 1.102ton US 1 ton imp 1

1

1 Ib/yd 1 ton US/rnile 1 ton irnp/mile

0.056 lb/in (0.896 oz/in) 1 oz/in 1 lb/ft 1 lb/in

0.496 yd/Ib 1 yd/Ib

metric mass/unit area 1.0g/m2 33.91 g/m2 305.15g/rn2 0.011 kg/rn2 0.013 kg/rn2 0.224 kg/rn2 0.251 kg/rn2 1.0 kg/rn2 4.882 kg/rn2 703.07 kg/rn2 350.3 kg/km2 (3.503 kg/ha; 0.35g/m2) 392.3 kg/km2 (3.923 kg/ha; 0.392 g/m2)

'imperial'/US 0.003 oz/ft2 1 oz/yd2 1 oz/tt2 1 cwt US/acre 1 cwt imp/acre 1 ton US/acre 1 ton imp/acre 29.5oz/yd2 1 lb/ft2 1 lb/in2 1 ton US/mile2 1

ton imp/mile2

density(mass/volume) 0.593 kg/rn3 1.0kg/rn3 16.02kg/rn3 1186.7kg/rn3(1.187 t/rn3) 1 328.9 kg/rn3 (1.329 t/rn3) 27680.0kg/rn3 (27.68 t/m3; 27.68 g/cm3)

1 b/yd3 0.062 lb/ft3

lb/ft ton US/yd3 1 ton irnp/yd3 1 1

1

lb/in3

specific surface (area/unit mass) 0.823 rn2/t 1.0rn2/kg 29.493rn2/kg

1 yd2/ton

0.034 yd2/oz 1 yd2/oz

area/unitcapacity 0.184m2/l 1.0 rn2/l

1 yd2/gal 5.437 yd2/gal

concentration 0.014 kg/rn3 0.017 kg/rn3 1.0 kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 1.0kg/rn3 (1.0g/l) 6.236 kg/rn3 7.489 kg/rn3

58.42 grain/gal US 70.16 grain/gal imp 1 oz/gal imp 1 oz/gal US

mass rate offlow 0.454kg/s 1.0kg/s

1 lb/s 2.204 lb/s

volume rateofflow 0.063 I/s 0.076 I/s 0.472 I/s 1.01/s (86.4 rn3/day) 1.01/s

1.0 1/mm 1.0 1/mm 3.785 I/s

4.5461/s 28.32 I/s 0.0038rn3/rnin 0.0045rn3/rnin 1.0 rn3/s 1.0 rn3/s 1.0rn3/h 0.0283m3/s

velocity

1 grain/gal imp 1 grain/gal US

1

gal US/minute

1 gal irnp/minute

ft3/rninute 13.2 gal imp/s 0.264 gal US/s 0.22 gal imp/mm 0.264 gal US/mm 1 gal US/s 1

1 galimp/s 1

ft3/s

1 gal US/mm 1 gal imp/mm

183.162 gal US/s 219.969galimp/s 35.31 ft3/h 1 ft3/s

0.005 rn/s 0.025 rn/s 0.305 rn/s

1 ft/minute 1 in/s 1 ft/s

1Dm/s

3.28ft/s

1 000.0 rn/hr (1 krn/hr) 1 609.0 rn/hr (0.447 rn/s)

0.621 rnile/hr 1 mile/hr

365

Conversions metric

'imperial'/US

fuelconsumption 1.0I/km

1.01/km 2.352 I/km 2.824I/km

acceleration 0.305rn/s2 1.0 rn/s2 9.806 m/s2 = g (standard

0.354 gal imp/mile 0.425 gal US/mile 1 gal US/mile 1 gal imp/mile

itt/s2 3.28 ft/s2 g = 32.172 ft/s2

acceleration due to gravity)

temperature X°C

x(X—32)°C temperature interval 0.5556K

1K=1°C

energy

(X+32)°F X°F

1°F 1.8°F

1 Btu/hr

1 calorie/s

7.233 ft lbt/s) 1 horsepower 0.986 horsepower

0.317 Btu/(ft2hr) 1.0 Btu/(ft2 hr) 1 Btu in/(ft2hr°F)

i.OW/(rn2.K) 5.678 W/(m2.K)

0.176 Btu/(ft2hr°F) 1.0Btu/(ft2 hr°F)

thermal registivity 1.0m K/W 6.933 rn K/W

0.144 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in) 1.0 ft2 hr°F/(Btu in)

67.07 kJ/(m3 K)

0.239 Btu/(lb °F)

1.0Btu/(lb°F)

0.015 Btu/(ft3°F) 1.0 Btu/(ft3°F)

specificenergy

1.0 kJ/kg 2.326kJ/kg 1.0 kJ/m3 (1 kJ/l)

1.OJ/l 232.1 J/l

0.093 ft-candle (0.093 lumen/ft2) 1.0 ft-candle (1 lumen/ft2)

1 apostilb 0.000645 cd/ft2 1 cd/ft2 1.0cd/in2

force

iON

8.897kN 9.964 kN

1.ONrn 1.356 Nm 113.ONrn 253.1 Nm 1356.ONm 3037.ONm

pressure 1.0Pa (1.0 N/rn2) 1.OkPa

100.OPa 2.99kPa 3.39 kPa 6.9 kPa i0O.OkPa 101.33 kPa 107.25 kPa 15.44 MPa

0.2251bt 2.205 Ibi

1.0kipf(1000lbf) 1.OtonfUS 1.0tontimp 0.067 lbf/ft 1.0 lbf/ft 1.0 tont/ft

i.Olbf/in 1.Olbfin

0.738lbfft 1.0 lbf ft 1.Okipfin 1.Otonfin 1.Okipfft 1.Otonfft 0.021 bt/ft2 0.1451bf/in2 1.Omillibar 1 ftwater 1 in mercury 1.0 lbt/in2 1.Obar 1.0 standardatmosphere 1.0 tonf/ft2 1.Otonf/in2

6.933 Btuin/(ft2hr°F)

thermal conductance

specific heat capacity 1.0 kJ/(kg.K) 4.187 kJ/(kg.K) 1.0 kJ/(rn3 K)

.0 cd/rn2 10.764 cd/rn2 1 550.0 cd/rn2

moment offorce(torque) 0.li3Nm(113.ONrnm)

0.738ttlbf/s 1.0kilocalorie/hr 1 ftlbf/s

0.144 W/(rn.K) 1.OW/(m.K)

luminance 0.3183cd/rn2

1 Btu 1 kilowatt-hr 1 therm (100000 Btu)

1.0W

thermal conductivity

1 lx (1 lumen/rn2) 10.764 lx

1.Ocalorie 7.233 ftlbf

ftlbt

0.293W

1 W/m2 3.155 W/m2

illumination

1.0 N/rn 14.59 N/rn 32.69 kN/m 175.1 kN/m (175.1 N/mm)

1

intensity ofheat flowrate

refrigeration

force/unitlength

1.356J 4.187J

1.163W 1.356W 4.187W 1 kgf rn/s (9.807W) 745.7W 1 metrichorsepower (75 kgf rn/s)

12000 Btu/hr = ton of

1.0 kgf (9.807 N; 1.0 kilopond) 4.448 kN

0.239calorie

power (energy/time)

'imperial'/US

refrigeration 3.517 kW

1

1.OJ 9.807 J (1 kgfm) 1 055.06J 3.6 MJ 105.5MJ

metric

0.43 Btu/lb 1.0 Btu/lb 0.027 Btu/tt3 0.004 Btu/gal 1.OBtu/gal

Metric systemreferences: —Bibliographyentries010012 127135228473479494495531 610

366

Conversions TABLES

Listoftables

1 millimetres toinches

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

2 decimals ofinch to millimetres 3 inches & fractions ofinchto millimetres 4 feet &inchesto metres 5 metres tofeet 6 feettometres 7 metrestoyards 8 yardstometres 9 kilometres tomiles

kilograms to pounds

poundstokilograms 31 kilograms per cubic metre to pounds percubicfoot 32 pounds percubicfootto kilograms percubicmetre 33 metresper second to miles per hour 34 milesper hour to metres persecond 35 kilograms forcepersquare centimetre to pounds forceper square

10 milesto kilometres

11 square centimetres tosquare inches 12 square inches to square centimetres 13 square metrestosquare feet 14 square feettosquare metres 15 square metrestosquareyards 16 square yards tosquare metres 17 hectares to acres 18 acresto hectares 19 cubiccentimetres tocubicinches 20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres 21 cubicmetrestocubicfeet 22 cubicfeettocubicmetres 23 litresto cubicfeet

th

cubicfeetto litres litresto gallons imperial gallonsimperial to litres litresto gallons US gallonsUSto litres

inch

36 poundsforceper square inch tokilograms forceper square centimetre

37 kilonewtons persquare metre topounds force persquare inch 38 poundsforceper square inch to kilonewtonspersquare metre 39 wattsto British thermal unitsperhour 40 Britishthermal unitsperhour to watts 41 wattspersquare metrekelvin to Britishthermal unitspersquare foot hourdegree F

42 British thermal units per square foot

hour degree

F to watts per

square metre kelvin

TABLES

millimetres to inches

mm

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0.04 0.43 0.83 1.22

0.08 0.47 0.87 1.25 1.65 2.05 2.44 2.83 3.23 3.62 4.02

0.11 0.51 0.91

0.16 0.55 0.94 1.34 1.73 2.13 2.52

0.2 0.59 0.98 1.38 1.77 2.17 2.56 2.95 3.35 3.74 4.13 4.53 4.92 5.31 5.71

0.24 0.63

0.28 0.67

0.31

1.02 1.41 1.81

1.06 1.46 1.85

1.1

2.21

2.24 2.64 3.03 3.42 3.82

0.35 0.75 1.14 1.57 1.93 2.32 2.72 3.11 3.5 3.9 4.29 4.69 5.08 5.47 5.87 6.26 6.65 7.05 7.44 7.83 8.23 8.62 9.02 9.41

In

0 10 20 30 40 50

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

0.39 0.79 1.18 1.57 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 3.94 4.33 4.72 5.12 5.51 5.91 6.3 6.69 7.09 7.48 7.87 8.27 8.66 9.06 9.45 9.84

1.61

2.00 2.4 2.8 3.19 3.58 3.98 4.37 4.76 5.16 5.55 5.94 6.34 6.73 7.13 7.52 7.91 8.31

8.7 9.09 9.49

4.41

4.8 5.2 5.59 5.98 6.38 6.77 7.17 7.56 7.95 8.35 8.74 9.13 9.53

1.3 1.69

2.09 2.48 2.87 3.27 3.66 4.06 4.45 4.84 5.24 5.63 6.02 6.42 6.81 7.21

7.6

7.99 8.39 8.78 9.17 9.57

2.91 3.31

3.7 4.09 4.49 4.88 5.28 5.67 6.06 6.46 6.85 7.24 7.64 8.03 8.43 8.82 9.21 9.61

6.1

6.5 6.89 7.28 7.68 8.07 8.46 8.86 9.25 9.65

2.6 3.0 3.39 3.78 4.17 4.57 4.96 5.35 5.75 6.14 6.54 6.93 7.32 7.72 8.11

8.5 8.9 9.29 9.69

4.21 4.61

5.0 5.39 5.79 6.18 6.57 6.97 7.36 7.76 8.15 8.54 8.94 9.33 9.72

0.71 1.5

1.89 2.28 2.68 3.07 3.46 3.86 4.25 4.65 5.04 5.43 5.83 6.22 6.61 7.01

7.4 7.8 8.19 8.58 8.98 9.37 9.76

9.8

367

Conversions in

0.000 mm

0.0 0.01

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

0.06 0.07

0.08 0.09 0.1

0.254 0.508 0.762 1.016 1.27 1.524 1.778 2.032 2.286 2.54

in

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.0254 0.2794 0.5334 0.7874 1.0414 1.2954 1.5494 1.8034 2.0574 2.3114

0.0508 0.3048 0.5588 0.8128 1.0668 1.3208 1.5748 1.8288 2.0828 2.3368

0.0762 0.3302 0.5842 0.8382 1.0922 1.3462 1.6002 1.8542 2.1082 2.3622

0.1016 0.3556 0.6096 0.8636 1.1176 1.3716 1.6256 1.8796 2.1336 2.3876

0.127

0.1524 0.4064 0.6604 0.9144

0.1778 0.4318 0.6858 0.9398 1.1938 1.4478 1.7018 1.9558 2.2098 2.4638

0.2032 0.4572 0.7112 0.9652 1.2192 1.4732 1.7272 1.9812 2.2352 2.4892

0.2286 0.4826 0.7366 0.9906 1.2446 1.4986 1.7526 2.0066 2.2606 2.5146

1/16

/16

1/8

1/4

/16

3/

/I8

9.5 34.9

11.1

0.381

0.635 0.889 1.143 1.397

1.1684

1.4224 1.6764 1.9304 2.1844 2.4384

1.651

1.905 2.159 2.413

1/2

/16

/8

14.3

15.9

11/16

3/4

17.5 42.9

19.1

/8

13/16

15/16

mm 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

25.4 50.8 76.2 101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 228.6 254.0

1.6 27.0 52.4 77.8 103.2 128.6 154.0 179.4

3.2 28.6 54.0 79.4 104.8 130.2 155.6 181.0 204.8 206.4 230.2 231.8 255.6 257.2

4.8 30.2

55.6 81.0 106.4 131.8 157.2 182.6 208.0 233.4 258.8

6.4 31.8 57.2 82.6 108.0 133.4 158.8 184.2 209.6 235.0 260.4

7.9

12.7

36.5 38.1 39.7 41.3 58.7 60.3 61.9 63.5 65.1 66.7 84.1 85.7 87.3 88.9 90.5 92.1 109.5 111.1 112.7 114.3 115.9 117.5 134.9 136.5 138.1 139.7 141.3 142.9 160.3 161.9 163.5 165.1 166.7 168.3 185.7 187.3 188.9 190.5 192.1 193.7 211.1 212.7 214.3 215.9 217.5 219.1 236.5 238.1 239.7 241.3 242.9 244.5 261.9 263.5 265.1 266.7 268.3 269.9 33.3

20.6

22.2

23.8

44.5 46.0 68.3 69.9 71.4 93.7 95.3 96.8 119.1 120.7 122.2 144.5 146.1 147.6 169.9 171.5 173.0 195.3 196.9 198.4 220.7 222.3 223.8 246.1 247.7 249.2 271.5 273.1 274.6

47.6 73.0 98.4 123.8 149.2 174.6 200.0 225.4 250.8 276.2

49.2 74.6 100.0 125.4 150.8 176.2 201.6 227.0 252.4 277.8

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

0.2032 0.508 0.8128 1.1176 1.4224 1.7272 2.032 2.3368 2.6416 2.9464

0.2286 0.5334 0.8382 1.143 1.4478 1.7526 2.0574 2.3622 2.667 2.9718

0.254 0.5588 0.8636 1.1684 1.4732

0.2794 0.5842 0.889 1.1938 1.4986 1.8034 2.1082 2.413 2.7178 3.0226

m

ft

0 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.0254 0.3048 0.3302 0.6096 0.635 0.9144 0.9398 1.2192 1.2446 1.524 1.8288 2.1336 2.4384 2.7432 3.048

decimals ofinchto millimetres

3

inches &fractions of inch to millimetres

4

In

0

2

1.5494 1.8542 2.159 2.4638 2.7686

0.0508 0.3556 0.6604 0.9652 1.27 1.5748 1.8796 2.1844 2.4892 2.794

0.0762 0.1016 0.127 0.381 0.4064 0.4318 0.6858 0.7112 0.7366 0.9906 1.016 1.0414 1.2954 1.3208 1.3462 1.6002 1.6256 1.651 1.905 1.9304 1.9558 2.2098 2.2352 2.2606 2.5146 2.54 2.5654 2.8194 2.8448 2.8702

0.1524 0.4572 0.762 1.0668 1.3716

0.1778 0.4826 0.7874 1.0922 1.397 1.6764 1.7018 1.9812 2.0066 2.286 2.3114 2.5908 2.6162 2.8956 2.921

1.778 2.0828 2.3876 2.6924 2.9972

feet& inches to metres

368

Conversions 5 metrestofeet

m

ft 0 10 20 30

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

7 metresto yards

m

32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.46 295.28 328.08 360.89 393.7 426.51 459.32 492.13 524.93 557.74 590.55 623.36 656.17 688.98 721.79 754.59 787.4 820.21

0 0

9.84 42.65 75.45 108.27 141.08

13.12 45.93 78.74 111.55 144.36

173.89 206.69 239.5 272.31 305.12 337.93 370.74 403.54 436.35 469.16

177.17 209.97 242.78 275.59 308.4 341.21 374.02 406.82 439.63 472.44 505.25 538.06 570.87 603.68 636.48 669.29

1

2

3 3.28 14.22 25.15 36.09 47.03 57.96 68.9 79.83 90.77

502.0 534.78 567.59 600.39 633.2 666.01 698.82 731.63 764.44 797.24

22.97 55.77 88.58 121.39 154.2

734.91 767.72 800.53

508.53 541.34 574.15 606.96 639.76 672.57 705.38 738.19 771.0 803.81

19.69 52.49 85.3 118.11 150.91 183.73 216.54 249.34 282.15 314.96 347.77 380.58 413.39 446.19 479.0 511.81 544.62 577.43 610.24 643.05 675.85 708.66 741.47 774.28 807.09

515.09 547.9 580.71 613.52 646.33 679.13 711.94 744.75 777.56 810.37

255.91 288.71 321.52 354.33 387.14 419.95 452.76 485.56 518.37 551.18 583.99 616.8 649.6 682.42 715.22 748.03 780.84 813.65

4

5

6

7

8

9

8.75 19.69 30.62 41.56 52.49 63.43 74.37 85.3 96.24 107.17

9.84 20.78 31.71 42.65 53.59 64.52 75.46 86.4 97.33 108.27 119.2 130.14 141.08 152.01 162.95 173.89 184.82 195.76 206.69 217.63 228.57 239.5 250.44 261.37 272.31

702.1

80 90

10.94 21.87 32.8 43.74 54.68 65.62 76.55 87.49 98.43

1.09 12.03 22.97 33.9 44.84 55.77 66.71 77.65 88.58 99.52

2.19 13.12 24.06 35.0 45.93 56.87 67.8 78.74 89.68 100.61

101.71

100 110 120 130 140

109.36 120.3 131.23 142.17 153.1

110.46 121.39 132.33 143.26 154.2

111.55 122.49 133.42 144.36 155.29

112.64 123.58 134.51 145.45 156.39

26.25 37.18 48.12 59.06 69.99 80.93 91.86 102.8 113.74 124.67 135.61 146.54 157.48

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240

164.04 174.98 185.91 196.85 207.79 218.72 229.66 240.56 251.53 262.47 273.4

165.14 176.07 187.0 197.94 208.88 219.82 230.75 241.69 252.63 263.56

166.23 177.17 199.04 209.97 220.91 231.85 242.78 253.72 264.65

167.32 178.26 189.2 200.13 211.07 222.0 232.94 243.88 254.81 265.75

168.42 179.35 190.29 201.23 212.16 223.1 234.03 244.97 255.91 266.84

0 mile

1

2

3

4

0.62 6.84 13.05 19.29 25.47 31.69 37.9 44.12 50.33 56.54

1.24 7.46 13.67 19.88

1.86 8.08 14.29 20.5 26.72 32.93 39.15 45.36 51.57 57.79

2.49 8.7

30 40 50 60 70

250

kilometres tomiles

6.56 39.37 72.17 104.99 137.8 170.6 203.41 236.22 269.03 301.84 334.65 367.45 400.26 433.07 465.88 498.69 531.5 564.3 597.11 629.92 662.73 695.54 728.35 761.16 793.96

16.40 49.21 82.02 114.82 147.63 180.45 213.25 246.06 278.87 311.68 344.49 377.3 410.1

442.91 475.72

187.01 219.82 252.63 285.43 318.24 351.05 383.86 416.67 449.48 482.28

26.25 59.06 91.86 124.67 157.48 190.29 223.1

29.53 62.34 95.14 127.95 160.76 193.57 226.38 259.19 292.0 324.8 357.61 390.42 423.23 456.04 488.85 521.65 554.46 587.27 620.08 652.89 685.7 718.5 751.31 784.12 816.93

yd 10 20

9

3.28 36.09 68.9 101.7 134.51 167.32 200.13 232.94 265.75 298.56 331.37 364.17 396.98 429.79 462.6 495.41 528.22 561.02 593.83 626.64 659.45 692.26 725.07 757.87 790.68

km 0 10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6.21

12.43 18.64 24.85 31.07 37.28 43.5 49.7 55.92 62.14

188.1

26.1

32.31 38.53 44.74 50.95 57.17

4.37 15.31

14.91

21.13 27.34 33.55 39.77 45.98 52.2 58.41

5.47 16.4 27.34 38.28 49.21 60.15 71.08 82.02 92.96 103.89 114.83 125.74 136.7 147.64 158.57

61.24 72.18

7.66 18.59 29.53 40.46 51.4 62.34 73.27

83.11

84.21

180.45 191.38 202.32 213.26 224.19 235.13 246.06 257.0 267.94

94.05 104.99 115.92 126.86 137.8 148.73 159.67 170.6 181.54 192.48 203.41 214.35 225.28 236.22 247.16 258.09 269.03

95.14 106.08 117.02 127.95 138.89 149.83 160.76 171.7 182.63 193.57 204.51 215.44 226.38 237.31 248.25 259.19 270.12

129.05 139.99 150.92 161.86 172.79 183.73 194.66 205.6 216.53 227.47 238.41 249.34 260.28 271.22

5

6

7

8

9

3.11

3.73 9.94 16.16 22.37 28.58

4.35 10.56 16.78 22.99 29.2 35.42 41.63 47.85 54.06 60.27

4.98 11.18 17.4

11.81

169.51

9.32 15.53 21.75 27.96 34.18 40.39 46.6 52.82 59.03

6.56 17.5 28.43 39.37 50.31

34.8 41.01 47.22 53.44 59.65

118.11

23.61

29.83 36.04 42.25 48.47 54.68 60.89

5.59 18.02 24.23 30.45 36.66 42.87 49.09 55.3 61.52

369

Con versions 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0.31

0.6

3.35

3.66

0.91 3.96

1.22 4.27

6.71

7.01

7.31

10.06

10.36

13.1

13.41

1.52 4.57 7.62 10.67 13.72

2.74 5.79 8.84 11.89 14.94

32.31

32.61

35.37

38.1

38.41

41.15 44.2 47.24 50.29 53.34 56.39 59.44 62.48 65.53 68.58 71.63 74.68

41.45 44.5 47.55 50.6 53.64 56.69 59.74 62.79 65.84 68.89 71.93 74.98

35.67 38.7 41.76

17.68 20.73 23.77 26.82 29.87 32.92 36.0

17.98 21.03 24.08 27.13 30.18 33.22 36.3 39.32 42.37 45.46 48.46

61.87 64.92 67.97 71.02 74.07

16.46 19.58 22.56 25.6 28.65 31.7 34.75 37.8 40.84 43.89 46.94 49.99 53.04 56.08 59.13 62.18 65.23 68.28 71.32 74.37

2.13 5.18 8.23 11.28 14.36 17.37 20.42 23.47 26.52 29.57

2.44 5.49 8.53 11.58 14.63

16.15 19.2 22.25 25.3 28.35 31.39 34.44 37.49 40.54 43.59 46.63 49.68 52.73 55.78 58.83

1.83 4.88 7.92 10.97 14.02 17.07 20.12 23.16 26.21 29.26

3

4

5

m

0 10 20 30

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

yd

3.05 6.1

6.4

9.14 12.19 15.24 18.29 21.33 24.38 27.43 30.48 33.53 36.58 39.62 42.67 45.72 48.77 51.82 54.86 57.91 60.96 64.01 67.06 70.1 73.15 76.2

9.45 12.5 15.54 18.59 21.64 24.69 27.74 30.78 33.83 36.88 39.93 42.98

9.75 12.80 15.85 18.9 21.95 24.99 28.04 31.09 34.14 37.19 40.23 43.28

46.02 49.07 52.12 55.17 58.22 61.26 64.31 67.36 70.41 73.46

46.33 49.38 52.43 55.47 58.52 61.57 64.62 67.67 70.71 73.76

0

1

2

16.76 19.81

22.86 25.91 28.96 32.0 35.05

39.01

63.09 66.14 69.19 72.24 75.29

42.06 45.11 48.16 51.21 54.25 57.3 60.35 63.4 66.45 69.49 72.54 75.59

60.66 63.7 66.75 69.79 72.85 75.9

6

7

8

9

5.49 14.63 23.77 32.92 42.06 51.21 60.35 69.49 78.64 87.78 96.93 106.07

6.4 15.54 24.69 33.83 42.98

7.32 16.46 25.6 34.75 43.89 53.04 62.18 71.32 80.47

8.23 17.37 26.52 35.66 44.81 53.95 63.09 72.24 81.38 90.53 99.67 108.81 117.96

44.81

47.85 50.9 53.95 57.0 60.05

51.51

54.56 57.61

m

0 10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

mile

0.91

9.14 18.29 27.43 36.58 45.72 54.86 64.0 73.15 82.3 91.44 100.58 109.73 118.87 128.02

10.06 19.2 28.35 37.49 46.63 55.78 64.92 74.07 83.21 92.35 101.5 110.64 119.79 128.93

1.83 10.97 20.12 29.26 38.4 47.55 56.69 65.84 74.98 84.12 93.27 102.41 111.56 120.7 129.85 138.99 148.13 157.28 166.42 175.57

2.74 11.89 21.03 30.18 39.32 48.46 57.61 66.75 75.9 85.04 94.18 103.33 112.47 121.61

137.16 146.3 155.45 164.59 173.74 182.88 192.02 201.17 210.31 219.46 228.6

138.07 147.22 156.36 165.51 174.65 183.79 192.94 202.08 211.23 220.37

193.85 203.0 212.14 221.29

130.76 139.9 149.05 158.19 167.34 176.48 185.62 194.77 203.91 213.06 222.0

0

1

2

3

184.71

3.65 12.8 21.95 31.09 40.23 49.38 58.52 67.67 76.81 85.95

4.57 22.86 32.0 41.15 50.29 59.44 68.58 77.72 86.87

95.1

96.01

104.24 113.39 122.53 131.67

105.16 114.3 123.44 132.59 141.73 150.88 160.02 169.16

13.71

115.21

140.82 149.96 159.11 168.25 177.39 186.54 195.68 204.83 213.97 223.11

187.45 196.6 205.74 214.88 224.03

124.36 133.5 142.65 151.79 160.93 170.08 179.22 188.37 197.51 206.65 215.8 224.94

4

5

6

178.31

52.12 61.27 70.41 79.55 88.7 97.84 106.99 116.13 125.27 134.42 143.56 152.71 161.85 170.99 180.14 189.28 198.43 207.57

89.61

98.76 107.9 117.04 126.19 135.33

136.25 145.39 154.53 163.68 172.82 181.97

225.86

200.25 209.4 218.54 227.69

7

8

9

12.87 28.97 45.06 61.16 77.25 93.34 109.44 125.53 141.62 157.72

14.48 30.58 46.67 62.76 78.86 94.95 111.05 127.14 143.23 159.33

191.11

km

0 10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1.61

16.09 32.19 48.28 64.37 80.47 96.56 112.65 128.75 144.84 160.93

17.7 33.8 49.89 65.98 82.08 98.17 114.26 130.36 146.45

3.22 19.31

35.41 51.5 67.59 83.69 99.78 115.87 131.97 148.06

4.83 20.92 37.01 53.11 69.2 85.3 101.39 117.48 133.58 149.67

6.44 22.53 38.62 54.72 70.81

86.9 103.0 119.09 135.19 151.28

8.05 24.14 40.23 56.33 72.42 88.51 104.61

120.7 136.79 152.89

9.66 25.75 41.84 57.94 74.03 90.12 106.22

11.27 27.36 43.45 59.55 75.64

122.31

91.73 107.83 123.92

138.4 154.5

140.01 156.11

8 yardsto metres

127.1

144.48 153.62 162.76 171.9 181.05 190.2 199.34 208.48 217.63 226.77

216.71

6 feet tometres

10

milesto kilometres

370

Conversions Area 11

squarecentimetres

to square inches

cm2

3

4

5

6

7

0.31 1.86 3.41 4.96

31.16 32.71 34.26 35.81 37.36

20.46 22.01 23.56 25.11 26.66 28.21 29.76 31.31 32.86 34.41 35.96 37.51

0.47 2.02 3.57 5.12 6.67 8.22 9.77 11.32 12.87 14.42 15.97 17.52 19.07 20.62 22.17 23.72 25.27 26.82 28.37 29.92 31.47 33.02 34.57 36.12 37.67

0.62 2.17 3.72 5.27 6.82 8.37 9.92 11.47 13.02 14.57 16.12 17.67 19.22 20.77 22.32 23.87 25.42 26.97 28.52 30.07 31.62 33.17 34.72 36.27 37.82

0.78 2.33 3.88 5.43 6.98 8.53 10.08 11.63 13.18 14.73 16.28 17.83 19.38 20.93 22.48 24.03 25.58 27.13 28.68 30.23 31.78 33.33 34.88 36.43 37.98

0.93 2.48 4.03 5.58 7.13 8.68 10.23 11.78 13.33 14.88 16.43 17.98 19.53 21.08 22.63 24.18 25.73 27.28 28.83 30.38 31.93 33.48 35.03 36.58 38.13

2.64 4.19 5.74 7.29 8.84 10.39 11.94 13.49 15.04 16.59 18.14 19.69 21.24 22.79 24.34 25.89 27.44 28.99 30.54 32.09 33.64 35.19 36.75 38.29

7.44 9.0 10.54 12.09 13.64 15.19 16.74 18.29 19.84 21.39 22.94 24.49 26.04 27.59 29.14 30.69 32.24 33.79 35.34 36.89 38.44

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0.16 1.6 3.1

1.71

30 40

4.65

4.81

6.2

6.36

50

7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 15.5 17.06 18.6 20.15 21.7 23.25 24.8 26.35 27.9 29.45

7.91

90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 13

2

1

0 10 20

60 70 80

squaremetresto squarefeet

0

j2

m2

3.26

9.46 12.56

12.71

14.11

14.26

15.66

15.81

17.21

17.36

24.96 26.51 28.06 29.61

35.65 37.20 38.75

0

9.61

11.16

23.41

34.1

8.06

11.01

18.76 20.31 21.86

31.0 32.55

6.51

18.91

1.09

8 1.24 2.79 4.34

5.9

9 1.4 2.95

4.5

6.05 7.6 9.15 10.7 12.25 13.8 15.35 16.9 18.45 20.0 21.55 23.1

24.65 26.2 27.75 29.3 30.85 32.4 33.95 35.5 37.05 38.6

9

ft2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

107.64 215.29 322.92 430.56 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 1 076.39 1 184.03 1 291.67 1 399.31 1 506.95

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290

1 614.59 1 722.23

300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500

10.76 118.4 226.01 333.68 441.32 548.96 656.6 764.24 871.88 979.52 1 087.15

1194.79 1 302.43 1 410.07 1 517.71 1 1 1 1

21.53 129.17 236.81 344.45 452.08 559.72 667.36 775.0 882.64 990.28 1 097.92 1 205.56 1 313.2 1 420.84 1 528.48 1 636.11 1 743.75 1 851.39 1 959.03

32.29 139.93 247.57 355.21 462.85

43.06 150.66 258.33 365.97 473.61

53.82 161.46 269.1 376.74 484.38

64.58 172.22 279.86 387.5 495.14

75.35 182.97 290.63 398.?7 505.91

570.49 581.25 678.13 688.89 785.77 796.53 893.41 904.17 1 001.04 1 011.81 1108.68 1119.45 1 216.32 1 227.09 1 323.96 1 334.72 1 431.6 1 442.36 1 539.24 1 550.0

592.02 699.65 807.29 914.93 1 022.57 1130.21 1 237.85 1 345.49 1 453.13 1 560.77

602.78 710.42 818.06 925.7 1 033.34 1140.97 1 248.61 1 356.25 1 463.89 1 571.53

613.54 721.18 828.82 936.46

625.35 732.99 1 829.86 840.63 1 937.5 948.27 2045.14 2055.91 2066.67 2 152.78 2 163.55 2 174.31

1 1 1 1

2368.06 2378.82 2389.59 2 475.7 2 486.46 2 497.23 2583.34 2594.1 2604.87 2 690.98 2 701.74 2 712.51 2 798.62 2809.38 2820.14 2906.26 2917.02 2927.78 3013.89 3 024.66 3035.42 3121.53 3132.3 3143.06 3 229.17 3 239.94 3 250.7 3336.81 3347.58 3358.34 3444.45 3455.22 3465.98 3552.09 3562.85 3573.62 3 659.73 3 670.49 3 681.26 3 767.37 3 778.13 3 788.9 3875.01 3885.77 3896.54 3982.65 3993.41 4004.17 4090.29 4101.05 4111.81 4197.93 4208.69 4219.45 4305.56 4316.33 4327.09 4413.2 4 423.97 4434.73 4520.84 4531.61 4542.37 4628.48 4639.25 4650.01 4736.12 4746.88 4757.65 4 843.76 4 854.52 4 865.29 4951.4 4 962.16 4 972.93 5 059.04 5 069.8 5 080.57 5166.68 5177.44 5188.2 5274.32 5285.08 5295.84 5381.96

2400.35 2411.12

646.88 754.52 862.16 969.8

1 1 1 1

657.64 765.28 872.92 980.56 2077.43 2 088.2 2 185.07 2 195.84 2260.42 2271.19 2281.95 2292.71 2303.48

2507.99 2 518.76

2615.63 2626.39

2 723.27 2 734.03 2841.67 2938.55 2949.31 3 046.19 3056.95 3153.83 3164.59 3261.46 3272.23 3369.1 3379.87 3476.74 3487.51 3584.38 3 595.15 2830.91

3692.02 3 702.79 3799.66 3 810.42

3918.06 4025.7 4133.34 4240.98 4348.62

96.88 20451 312.15 419.79 527.43

624.31 635.07 731.95 742.71 839.59 850.35 947.22 957.99 1 054.86 1 065.63 1162.5 1173.27 1 270.14 1 280.91 1 377.78 1 388.54 1 485.42 1 496.18 1 593.06 1 603.82 1 700.7 1 711.46 1 808.34 1 819.1 1 915.98 1 926.74

1151.74 1 259.38 1 367.02 1 474.66 1 582.29 1 668.41 1 679.17 1 689.93 1 776.05 1 786.81 1 797.57 1 883.68 1 894.45 1 905.21 1 991.32 2002.09 2012.85 2023.62 2034.38 2098.96 2109.73 2120.49 2131.25 2142.02 2206.6 2217.37 2228.13 2238.89 2249.66 2314.24 2325.0 2335.77 2346.53 2357.3 2421.88 2432.64 2443.41 2454.17 2464.94 2 529.52 2 540.28 2 551.05 2 561.81 2 572.57 2637.16 2647.92 2658.69 2669.45 2680.21 2 744.8 2 755.56 2 766.32 2 777.09 2 787.85 2852.44 2863.2 2873.96 2884.73 2895.49 2960.08 2970.84 2981.6 2992.37 3003.13 3067.71 3078.48 3089.24 3 100.01 3 110.77 3175.35 3186.12 3196.88 3207.65 3 218.41 3282.99 3 293.76 3 304.52 3 315.28 3 326.05 3390.63 3401.4 3412.16 3422.92 3433.69 3498.27 3509.03 3519.8 3530.56 3541.33 3605.91 3616.67 3627.44 3638.2 3648.97 3 713.55 3 724.31 3 735.08 3 745.84 3 756.6

3821.19 3928.83 4036.47 4144.11 4251.74 4359.38 4 445.49 4 456.26 4467.02

3907.3 4014.94 4122.58 4230.22 4337.86

1 044.1

86.11 193.75 301.39 409.03 516.67

3842.72 3 853.48 3 864.24 3950.36 3961.12 3971.88 4057.99 4068.76 4079.52 4154.87 4165.63 4176.4 4187.16 4262.51 4273.27 4284.04 4294.8 4370.15 4380.91 4391.68 4402.44 3831.95 3939.59 4047.23

4477.79

4488.55

4499.31

4553.13 4563.9 4574.66 4585.43 4596.19 4606.95 4660.77 4671.54 4682.3 4693.06 4703.83 4714.59 4768.41 4779.18 4789.94 4800.7 4811.47 4822.23 4876.05 4 886.82 4 897.58 4 908.34 4 919.11 4 929.87 4983.69 4994.45 5005.22 5015.98 5026.75 5037.51 5091.33 5 102.09 5 112.86 5 123.62 5 134.39 5 145.15 5198.97 5209.73 5220.5 5231.26 5242.02 5252.79 5306.61 5317.37 5328.14 5338.9 5349.66 5360.43

4 510.08

4617.72 4725.36 4833.0 4 940.63 5048.27

5 155.91

5263.55 5371.19

371

Conversions j2

0

1

2

4

3

5

7

6

8

9

cm2

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 322.58 387.1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

451.61 516.13 580.64 645.16 709.6 774.19 838.71 903.22 967.74 032.26 096.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.38 612.9

0

ft2

6.45 70.97 135.48 200.0 264.52 329.03 393.55 458.06 522.58 587.1

651.61 716.13 780.64 845.16 909.68 974.19 1 038.71

1103.22 1167.74 1 232.26 1 1 1 1 1

296.77 361.29 425.8 490.32 554.84

12.9 77.41

141.94 206.45 270.97 335.48 400.0 464.52 529.03 593.55 658.06 722.58 787.1 851.61 916.13 980.64 1 045.16 1109.68 1174.19 1 238.71 1 303.22 1 367.74 1 432.26 1 496.77 1 561.29

19.36 83.87 148.39 212.9 277.42 341.94 406.45 470.97 535.48 600.0 664.51 729.03 793.55 858.06 922.58 987.1 1 051.61

32.26 96.77 161.29 225.8 290.32 354.84 419.35 483.87 548.39 612.91 677.42 741.93 806.45 870.97 935.48

25.81

90.32 154.84 219.35 283.87 348.4 412.91

477.42 541.93 606.45 670.97 735.48 800.0 864.51

929.03

993.55 058.06 1116.13 1122.58 1180.64 1187.09 1 245.16 1 251.61 1 309.67 1 316.13 1 374.19 1 380.64 1 438.71 1 445.16 1 503.22 1 509.67 1 567.74 1 574.19 1

103.23 167.74 232.26 296.77 361.29 425.81 490.32 554.84 619.35 683.87 748.39 812.9 877.42 941.93

000.00 064.51 1129.03 1193.55 1 258.06 1 322.58 1 387.09 1 451.61 1 516.13 1 580.64

1 006.45 1 070.97

1 1

45.16 109.68 174.19

38.71

238.71

303.23 367.74 432.26 496.77 561.29 625.81

690.32 754.84 819.35 883.87 948.39

012.9 077.42 1135.48 1141.93 1 200.0 1 206.45 1 264.51 1 270.97 1 329.03 1 335.48 1 393.55 1 400.0 1 458.06 1 464.51 1 522.58 1 529.03 1 587.09 1 593.55 1 1

116.13 180.65 187.1 245.16 251.61 309.68 316.13 374.19 380.64 438.71 445.16 503.23 509.68 567.74 574.19 632.26 638.71 696.77 703.22 761.29 767.74 825.81 832.26 890.32 896.77 954.84 961.29 1 019.35 1 025.8 1 083.87 1 090.32 1 212.9 1 277.42

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500

0.93 1.86 2.79 3.72 4.65 5.57 6.5 7.43 8.36 9.29 10.22 11.15 12.08

1 1 1 1 1

1

219.35

341.93 1 348.38 406.45 1 412.9 470.96 1 477.42 535.48 1 541.93 600.0 1 606.45

3

4

5

6

7

8

0.19

0.28

0.37 1.3

0.65 1.58

0.74

1.21

2.14 3.07 3.99 4.92 5.85 6.78

10.31

10.41

11.24 12.17

11.33 12.26 13.19 14.12 15.05 15.98

2.42 3.34 4.27 5.2 6.13 7.06 7.99 8.92 9.85 10.78

2.6 3.53 4.46 5.39 6.32 7.25 8.18

8.64 9.57 10.5 11.43 12.36 13.29

2.23 3.16 4.09 5.02 5.95 6.87 7.8 8.73 9.66 10.59 11.52 12.45 13.38

2.51

4.74 5.67 6.6 7.53 8.45 9.38

2.04 2.97 3.9 4.83 5.76 6.69 7.62 8.55 9.48

0.46 1.39 2.32 3.25 4.18 5.11 6.04 6.97 7.9 8.83 9.75 10.68

0.56

1.11

11.61

11.71

14.21

14.31

15.14 16.07 17.0 17.93 18.86 19.79 20.72 21.65 22.58

15.24 16.17 17.09 18.02 18.95 19.88

12.54 13.47 14.4 15.33 16.26 17.19 18.12 19.05 19.97 20.9 21.83 22.76

12.63 13.56 14.49 15.42 16.35 17.28

23.5 24.43 25.36 26.29 27.22 28.15 29.08 30.01 30.94 31.87 32.79 33.72 34.65 35.58 36.51 37.44 38.37 39.3 40.23 41.16 42.09 43.01 43.94 44.87 45.8

23.6 24.53 25.46 26.38 27.31 28.24 29.17

0.09 1.02 1.95 2.88 3.81

13.01

13.1

13.94 14.86 15.79 16.72 17.65 18.58 19.51 20.44 21.37 22.3

14.03 14.96 15.89 16.82 17.74 18.67 19.6 20.53 21.46 22.39

23.23 24.15 25.08

23.32 24.25 25.18 26.11 27.03 27.96 28.89 29.82 30.75 31.68 32.61 33.54 34.47 35.4 36.33 37.25 38.18 39.11 40.04 40.97 41.9 42.83 43.76 44.69 45.62

26.01

26.94 27.87 28.8 29.73 30.66 31.59 32.52 33.45 34.37 35.3 36.23 37.16 38.09 39.02 39.95 40.88 41.81 42.74 43.66 44.59 45.52 46.45

16.91

17.84 18.77 19.7

20.62 21.55 22.48 23.41 24.34 25.27 26.2 27.13 28.06 28.99 29.91 30.84 31.77 32.7 33.63 34.56 35.49 36.42 37.35 38.28 39.21

40.13 41.06 41.99 42.92 43.85 44.78 45.71

7.71

20.81

21.74 22.67

23.69 24.62 25.55 26.48 27.41

31.03 31.96 32.89 33.82 34.75 35.67 36.6

28.34 29.26 30.19 31.12 32.05 32.98 33.91 34.84 35.77 36.7

37.53 38.46 39.39 40.32 41.25 42.18 43.11 44.04 44.97 45.89

37.63 38.55 39.48 40.41 41.34 42.27 43.2 44.13 45.06 45.99

30.1

1.49

18.21

19.14 20.07 21.0 21.93 22.85 23.78 24.71 25.64 26.57 27.5 28.43 29.36 30.29 31.22 32.14 33.07 34.0 34.93 35.86 36.79 37.72 38.65 39.58 40.51 41.43 42.36 43.29 44.22 45.15 46.08

3.44 4.37 5.3 6.22 7.15 8.08

1.67

9.01

9.1

9.94 10.87 11.8 12.73 13.66 14.59

10.03 10.96 11,89 12.82 13.75

15.51

15.61

16.44 17.37 18.3 19.23 20.16 21.09 22.02 22.95 23.88 24.81 25.73 26.66 27.59 28.52 29.45 30.38

16.54 17.47 18.39 19.32 20.25 21.18

31.31

32.24 33.17 34.1

35.02 35.95 36.88 37.81

38.74 39.67 40.6 41.53 42.46 43.39 44.31

45.24 46.17

centimetres

1 283.87

9

m2

10

to square

1148.38 1154.84

2

1

58.06 122.58

51.61

12

squareinches

14.68

22.11

23.04 23.97 24.9 25.83 26.76 27.69 28.61 29.54 30.47 31.4 32.33 33.26 34.19 35.12 36.05 36.98 37.9 38.83 39.76 40.69 41.62 42.55 43.48 44.41 45.34 46.27

0.84 1.77 2.69 3.62 4.55 5.48 6.41

7.34 8.27 9.2 10.13 11.06 11.98 12.91

13.84 14.77 15.7 16.63 17.56 18.49 19.42 20.35 21.27 22.2 23.13 24.06 24.99 25.92 26.85 27.78 28.71 29.64 30.57 31.49 32.42 33.35 34.28 35.21 36.14 37.07 38.0 38.93 39.86 40.78 41.71 42.64 43.57 44.5 45.43 46.36

14

square feetto square metres

372

Conversions 15

squaremetresto squareyards

0

m2

17

4

5

3.58 15.55 27.51 39.47 51.43

4.78 16.74 28.7 40.66 52.62

63.39 75.35

64.58 76.54 88.5 100.46 112.42 124.38 136.34 148.31 160.26 172.22 184.18 196.14

5.98 17.94 29.9 41.86 53.82 65.78 77.74 89.7 101.66 113.62 125.58 137.54 149.5 161.46

3

6

7

8

9

8.37 20.33 32.29 44.25

9.57 21.53 33.49 45.45

56.21

57.41

68.17 80.13 92.09 104.05

69.37 81.33 93.29 105.25

116.01

117.21

10.76 22.72 34.68 46.64 58.6 70.56 82.52 94.48 106.44 118.4

127.97 139.93 151.89 163.85

129.17 141.13 153.09 165.05

175.81

177.01

130.36 142.32 154.28 166.24 178.2

187.77 199.73 211.69 223.65

188.97 200.93 212.89 224.85 236.81

190.16 202.12 214.08 226.04 238.0

594.41

248.77 260.73 272.69 284.65 296.61 308.57 320.53 332.49 344.45 356.41 368.37 380.33 392.29 404.25 416.21 428.16 440.12 452.08 464.04 476.0 487.96 499.92 511.88 523.84 535.8 547.76 559.72 571.68 583.64 595.6

249.96 261.92 273.88 285.84 297.8 309.76 321.72 333.68 345.64 357.6 369.56 381.52 393.48 405.44 417.4 429.36 441.32 453.28 465.24 477.2 489.16 501.12 513.08 525.04 537.0 548.96 560.92 572.88 584.84 596.8

yd2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

hectares toacres

2

1

11.96 23.92 35.88 47.84 59.8 71.76 83.72 95.68 107.64 119.6 131.56 143.52 155.48 167.44

150 160 170 180 190

179.34 191.36 203.32 215.28 227.24

200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500

239.2 251.16 263.12 275.08 287.04 299.0 310.96 322.92 334.88 346.84 358.78 370.76 382.72 394.68 406.64 418.6 430.56 442.52 454.48 466.44 478.4 490.36 502.32 514.28 526.24 538.2 550.16 562.12 574.08 586.04 598.0

ha

0

1.2 13.16 25.12 37.08 49.04 61.0 72.96 84.92 96.88 108.84 120.8 132.76 144.72 156.68 168.64 180.59 192.55 204.51 216.47 228.43 240.39 252.35 264.31 276.27 288.23 300.19 312.15 324.11 336.07 348.03 359.99 371.95 383.91 395.87 407.83 419.79 431.75 443.71 455.67 467.63 479.59 491.55 503.51 515.47 527.43 539.39 551.35 563.31 575.27 587.23

1

2.39 14.35 26.31 38.27 50.23 62.19 74.15 86.11 98.07 110.03 121.99 133.95 145.91 157.87 169.83 181.79 193.75 205.71 217.67 229.63 241.59 253.55 265.51 277.47 289.43 301.39 313.35 325.31 337.27 349.23

87.31

99.27 111.23 123.19 135.15 147.11 159.07 171.03 182.99 194.95 206.91 218.87 230.83 242.79 254.75 266.71 278.67 290.63 302.59 314.55 326.51 338.47 350.43

208.1

220.06 232.02 243.98 255.94 267.9 279.86 291.82 303.78 315.74 327.7 339.66 351.62

.

173.41

185.38 197.34 209.3 221.26 233.22 245.18 257.14 269.1

7.18 19.14 31.1

43.06 55.02 66.98 78.94 90.9 102.86 114.82 126.78 138.74 150.7 162.66 174.62 186.57 198.53 210.49 222.45 234.41

235.61

246.37 258.33 270.29 282.25 294.21 306.17 318.13 330.09 342.05 354.02 365.97 377.94 389.89 401.85 413.81

247.57 259.53 271.49 283.45

425.77 437.73 449.69 461.65 473.61 485.57 497.53 509.49 521.45

426.97 438.93 450.89 462.84 474.81 486.77 498.73 510.69 522.65 534.61 546.57 558.53 570.49 582.45

361.19 373.15 385.11 397.07 409.03 420.99 432.95 444.91 456.87 468.83 480.79 492.75 504.71 516.67 528.63 540.59 552.55 564.5 576.47 588.43

362.39 374.35 386.31 398.27 410.23 422.18 434.14 446.11 458.06 470.02 481.98 493.94 505.9 517.86 529.82

363.58 375.54 387.5 399.46 411.42 423.38 435.34 447.3 459.26 471.22 483.18 495.14 507.1 519.06 531.02

281.06 293.02 304.98 316.94 328.9 340.86 352.82 364.78 376.74 388.7 400.66 412.62 424.58 436.54 448.5 460.46 472.42 484.38 496.34 508.3 520.26 532.22

541.78 553.74 565.71 577.66 589.62

542.98 554.94 566.9 578.86 590.82

544.18 556.14 568.1 580.06 592.02

545.37 557.33 569.29 581.25 593.21

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

12.36

14.83

17.3

19.77

22.24

50

60

70

80

90

123.55 370.66 617.76 864.87 1111.97 1 359.08 1 606.18 1 853.29

148.26 395.37 642.47 889.58 1136.68 1 383.79 1 630.9 1 878.0 2125.11 2 372.21

533.41

295.41

307.37 319.33 331.29 343.25 355.21

367.17 379.13 391.09 403.05 415.01

acre 2.47

0 acre

ha

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000

10

4.94 20

24.71 49.42 271.82 296.53 518.92 543.63 766.03 790.74 1 013.13 1 037.84 1 260.24 1 284.95 1 507.34 1 532.05 1 754.45 1 779.16 1976.84 2 001.55 2026.26 2223.95 2 248.66 2273.37 247.11 494.21 741.32 988.42 1 235.53 1 482.63 1 729.74

2471.05

7.41

30 74.13 321.24 568.34 815.45 1 062.55 1 309.66 1 556.76 1 803.87

9.88 40

98.84 345.95 593.05 840.16 1 087.26 1 334.37 1 581.47 1 828.58 2050.97 2075.69 2 298.08 2322.79

2100.4 2347.5

172.97 420.08 667.19 914.29

197.68 444.8 691.9 939.0 1161.4 1186.11 1 408.5 1 433.21 1 655.61 1 680.32 1 902.71 1 927.42 2149.82 2174.53 2 396.92 2421.63

222.4 469.5 716.61 963.71 1 210.82 1 457.92 1 705.03 1 952.13 2199.24 2446.34

373

Conversions 0

yd2

1

2

3

1.67 10.03 18.39 26.76 35.12 43.48 51.84 60.2 68.56 76.92 85.29 93.65 102.0 110.37 118.73

10.87 19.23 27.59 35.95 44.31 52.68 61.04 69.3 77.76 86.12 94.48 102.84 111.21 119.57

4

5

6

7

8

9

6.69 15.05 23.41 31.77 40.13 48.5 56.86 65.22 73.5 81.94

7.53 15.89 24.25 32.61 40.97 49.33 57.69 66.05 74.4 82.78

90.3 98.66 107.02 115.39 123.75

91.14 99.5 107.86 116.22 124.58

132.11

132.94 141.31 149.67 158.03 166.39

m2

0

0.84

10

9.2

100 110 120 130 140

8.36 16.72 25.08 33.45 41.81 50.17 58.53 66.89 75.25 83.61 91.97 100.34 108.7 117.06

17.56 25.92 34.28 42.64 51.0 59.37 67.7 76.09 84.45 92.81 101.17 109.53 117.89

150 160 170 180 190

125.42 133.78 142.14 150.5 158.86

126.26 134.62 142.98 151.34 159.7

127.09 135.45

200 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440

167.23 175.59 183.95 192.31 200.67 209.03 217.39 225.75 234.12 242.48 250.84 259.2 267.56 275.92 284.28 292.65 301.0 309.37 317.73 326.09 334.45 342.81 351.17 359.54 367.9

450 460 470 480 490 500

376.26 384.62 392.98 401.34 409.7 418.0

168.06 176.42 184.78 193.15 201.51 209.87 218.3 226.59 234.95 243.31 251.67 260.04 268.4 276.76 285.12 293.48 301.84 310.2 318.57 326.93 335.29 343.65 352.01 360.37 368.73 377.09 385.46 393.82 402.18 410.54

168.9 177.26 185.62 193.98 202.34 210.7 219.07 227.43 235.79 244.15 252.51 260.87 269.23 277.59 285.96 294.32 302.68 311.04 319.4 327.76 336.12 344.48 352.85 361.21 369.57 377.93 386.29 394.65 403.01 411.38

1

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

210

acre

0

2.51

3.34 11.71

4.18 12.54 20.9 29.26 37.63 45.99 54.35 62.71 71.07 79.43 87.79 96.15 104.52 112.88 121.24 129.6 137.96 146.32 154.68 163.05 171.41 179.77 188.13 196.49 204.85

5.02 13.38 21.74 38.46 46.82 55.18 63.55 71.9 80.27 88.62 96.99 105.35 113.71 122.08 130.44 138.8 147.16 155.52 163.88 172.24 180.61 188.97 197.33 205.69

5.85 14.21

186.46 194.82 203.18

20.07 28.43 36.79 45.15 53.51 61.87 70.23 78.6 86.96 95.32 103.68 112.04 120.41 128.76 137.13 145.49 153.85 162.21 170.57 178.93 187.29 195.65 204.02

211.54 219.9 228.26 236.62 244.99 253.35 261.71 270.07 278.43 286.79 295.15 303.51 311.88 320.24 328.6 336.96 345.32 353.68 362.04 370.41 378.77 387.13 395.49 403.85 412.21

212.38 220.74 229.1 237.46 245.82 254.18 262.54 270.91 279.27 287.63 295.99 304.35 312.71 321.07 329.43 337.8 346.16 354.52 362.88 371.24 379.6 387.96 396.32 404.69 413.05

213.21

214.1

221.57 229.94 238.3 246.66 255.02 263.38 271.74 280.11 288.46 296.83 305.19 313.55 321.91 330.27 338.63 346.99 355.35 363.72 372.08 380.44 388.8 397.16 405.52 413.88

222.41 230.77 239.13 247.49 255.86 264.22 272.58 280.94 289.3 297.66 306.02 314.38 322.75 331.11 339.47 347.83 356.19 364.55 372.91 381.27 389.64 398.0 406.36 414.72

214.89 223.25 231.61 239.97 248.33 256.69 265.05 273.41 281.78 290.14 298.5 306.86 315.22 323.58 331.94 340.31 348.67 357.03 365.39 373.75 382.11 390.47 398.83 407.19 415.56

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0.4

0.81

1.21

1.62

2.02

2.42

2.83

3.23

3.64

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

4.05 44.52 84.98 125.46 165.92

8.09 48.56 89.03 129.5 169.97

206.39 246.86 287.33 327.8 368.26

210.44 250.91 291.37 331.84 372.31

12.14 52.6 93.08 133.55 174.02 214.48 254.95 295.42 335.84 376.36

16.19 56.66 97.12 137.59 178.06 218.53 259.0 299.47 339.94 380.41

24.28 64.75 105.22 145.69 186.16 226.62 267.09 307.56 348.03 388.5

28.33 68.8 109.26 149.73 190.20 230.67 271.14 311.61 352.07 392.55

143.81

152.18 160.54

127.93 136.29 144.65 153.01 161.37 169.73 178.1

30.1

22.58 30.94 39.3 47.66 56.02 64.38 72.74 81.10 89.47 97.83 106.19 114.55 122.91 131.27 139.63 148.0 156.36 164.72 173.08 181.44 189.80 198.16 206.52

140.47 148.83 157.19 165.55 182.28 190.64 199.0 207.36 215.72 224.08 232.44 240.81 249.17 257.53 265.89 274.25 282.61 290.97 299.33 307.7 316.06 324.42 332.78 341.14 349.51 357.86 366.22 374.59 382.95 391.31 399.67 408.03 416.39

174.75 183.11 191.47 199.83 208.2 216.56 224.92 233.28 241.64 250.0 258.36 266.73 275.09 283.45 291.81 300.17 308.53 316.89 325.25 333.62 341.98 350.34 358.7 367.06 375.42 383.78 392.14 400.51 408.87 417.23

173.91

ha

acre

0 ha

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

700 800 900 1 000

40.47 80.94 121.41

161.87 202.34 242.81 283.28 323.75 364.22 404.69

20.23 60.71

101.17 141.64 182.11

222.58 263.05 303.51 343.98 384.45

32.37 72.84 113.31

153.78 194.25 234.71 275.19 315.66 356.12 396.59

36.42 76.89 117.36 157.83 198.3 238.77 279.23 319.7 360.17 400.64

16

squareyards to squaremetres

18 acres to hectares

374

Conversions Volume

5

6

7

8

9

in3

19

cubiccentimetres to cubicinches cm3

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.24

0.31

0.37

0.43

0.49

0.55

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

6.1

0.61 6.71

12.82 18.92 25.02 31.12 37.22 43.38 49.43 55.53

1.22 7.32 13.43 19.53 25.63 31.73 37.83 43.94 50.04 56.14

7.93 14.04 20.14 26.24 32.34 38.45 44.55 50.65 56.75

2.44 8.54 14.65 20.75 26.85 32.95 39.06 45.16 51.26 57.36

3.05 9.15 15.26 21.36 27.46 33.56 39.67 45.77 51.87 57.97

3.66 9.76 15.87 21.97 28.07 34.17 40.28 46.38 52.48 58.58

4.27 10.37 16.48 22.58 28.68 34.78 40.89 46.99 53.09 59.19

4.88 10.98 17.09 23.19 29.29 35.39 41.5 47.6 53.7 59.8

5.49 11.59 17.7 23.8 29.9 36.0 42.11 48.21 54.31 60.41

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

j3 0

21

cubicmetresto cubicfeet

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

24.41 30.51 36.61 42.72 48.82 54.92

1000

61.02

m3

18.31

0 ft3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

23 litresto cubicfeet

12.2

1.83

litre

35.31 353.15 388.46 706.29 741.61 1 059.44 1 094.75 1 412.59 1 447.9 1765.73 1801.05 2 118.88 2154.19 2472.03 2 507.34

105.94 141.26 176.57 459.09 494.41 592.72 812.24 847.55 882.87 1130.07 1165.38 1 200.7 1 236.01 1 483.22 1 518.53 1 553.85 1 589.16 1836.36 1871.68 1 906.99 1942.31 2189.51 2224.82 2260.14 2295.45 2542.66 2577.97 2613.29 2 648.6 2825.17 2860.49 2895.8 2931.12 2966.43 3001.75

211.89 565.04 918.18 1 271.33 1 624.47 1977.62 2330.77 2 683.91 3037.06 3178.32 3213.63 3248.95 3284.26 3319.58 3354.89 3390.21 3 531.47 3 566.78 3602.1 3 637.41 3672.73 3708.04 3743.35 3884.61 3919.93 3955.24 3990.56 4025.87 4061.19 4096.5 4237.76 4 273.07 4308.39 4343.7 4 379.02 4414.33 4449.65 4590.91 4626.22 4661.54 4696.85 4732.17 4767.48 4802.79 4 944.05 4 979.37 5 014.68 5050.0 5 085.31 5 120.63 5 155.94 5297.2 5332.51 5367.83 5403.14 5438.46 5473.77 5509.09 5650.35 5685.66 5720.98 5756.29 5791.61 5826.92 5862.23 6 003.49 6038.81 6074.12 6 109.44 6 144.75 6180.07 6215.38 6356.64 6391.95 6427.27 6462.58 6497.9 6533.21 6568.53

6709.79 6745.1 7062.93 7098.25 7416.08 7451.39 7 769.23 7 804.54 8 122.37 8 157.69 8475.52 8510.83 8828.67

0

70.63 423.78 776.92

247.2 600.35 953.5 1 306.64 1 659.79 2012.94 2366.08 2 719.23 3072.38 3425.52

3 778.67

4131.82 4 484.96 4838.11 5 191.26 5544.4 5897.55 6250.7 6603.84 6851.05 6886.36 6921.67 6956.99 7204.19 7239.51 7274.82 7310.14 7557.34 7592.65 7627.97 7 663.28 7910.49 7945.8 7981.11 8 016.43 8263.63 8298.95 8334.26 8369.58 8616.78 8652.09 8687.41 8722.72

282.52 317.83 635.67 670.98 988.81 1 024.13 1 341.96 1 377.27 1 695.1 1 730.42 2048.25 2083.57 2401.4 2436.71

2754.54 2789.86 3107.69

3143.01

3460.84 3496.15 3 813.98 3 849.3 4167.13 4202.45 4 520.28 4 555.59 4873.42 4908.74 5 226.57 5 261.89 5579.72 5615.03 5932.86 5968.18 6286.01 6639.16

6321.33 6674.47 6992.3 7027.62 7345.45 7380.77 7 698.6 7 733.91 8051.74 8087.06 8404.89 8440.21 8758.04 8793.35

6780.42 7133.56 7 486.71 7839.86 8 193.0 8546.15

6815.73 7168.88 7522.02 7 875.17 8228.32 8581.46

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0.04 0.39 0.74 1.09 1.45 1.8 2.15

0.07 0.42 0.78 1.13 1.48 1.84 2.19 2.54 2.9 3.25

0.11 0.81

0.14 0.49 0.85

0.21 0.57 0.92

0.25 0.60 0.95

1.17

1.2

1.31

1.55

1.27 1.62

0.28 0.64 0.99 1.34

1.52

1.66

1.7

1.87

1.91

1.98

2.01

2.22 2.58 2.93 3.28

2.26

0.18 0.53 0.88 1.24 1.59 1.94 2.3 2.65

2.33 2.68 3.04 3.39

2.37 2.72 3.07 3.42

2.05 2.4 2.75 3.11 3.46

0.32 0.67 1.02 1.38 1.73 2.08 2.44 2.79 3.14 3.5

ft3 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0.35 0.71 1.06 1.41

1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 3.53

2.51

2.86 3.21

0.46

2.61

2.97 3.32

3.0

3.35

375

Conversions in3

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

16.39

32.77

49.16

65.55

81.94

98.32

10

20

30

40

327.74

491.61

7

8

9

cm3

jfl3

0

50

60

114.71

131.1

147.48

70

80

90

20 cubicinches to cubiccentimetres

cm3

0 100 200

300 400 500 600 700 800 900

1000

163.87

1638.71

1802.58

1966.45 2130.32

6554.83 6718.7 8193.53 8357.4 9832.24 9996.11 11470.9 11634.8

6882.57 7046.44 8521.27 8685.14

3441.28 3605.15 3769.02 3932.9 4916.12 5079.99 5243.86 5407.73 5571.6 3277.41

13 109.7 13273.5 14748.4 14912.2 16387.1

0

ft3

655.48 819.35 983.22 1147.09 2294.19 2458.06 2621.93 2785.8

10160.0 11798.7 13437.4 15076.1

10323.9 11962.6 13601.3 15240.0

3

0.06 0.34 0.62 0.91

1 474.84

2949.67

3113.54

7865.79

8029.66 9668.37 11307.1 12945.8 14584.5 16223.2

4096.77 4260.64 4424.51 4588.38 4752.25 5735.47 5899.34 6063.21 6227.08 6390.95 7374.18

7538.05

9012.89 9176.76 10651.6 12290.3 13929.0 15567.7

10815.5 12454.2 14092.9 15731.6

7701.92 9340.63 10979.3 12618.0 14256.7 15895.5

9504.5 11143.2 12781.9 14420.6 16059.3

4

5

6

7

8

0.08 0.37 0.65 0.93

0.11 0.4 0.68 0.96

0.14 0.42

0.17 0.45 0.74 1.02

0.2 0.48 0.77 1.05

0.23 0.51 0.79 1.08

1.22 1.5 1.78 2.07 2.35 2.63 2.92

1.25 1.53

1.27 1.56 1.84 2.12

1.3 1.59 1.87 2.15 2.44

1.33

1.36

1.61 1.9

1.64 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.78 3.06 3.34 3.62 3.91 4.19 4.47 4.76 5.04 5.32

5.69 5.98 6.26 6.54 6.82

1.19 1.47 1.76 2.04 2.32 2.61 2.89 3.17 3.46 3.74 4.02 4.3 4.59 4.87 5.15 5.44 5.72 6.0 6.29 6.57 6.85

1

2

1

2

7210.31 8849.01 10487.7 12126.4 13765.1 15403.8

1 310.97

9

m3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240

250

ft3

0.28 0.57

0.03 0.31 0.59

0.85

0.88

1.13 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27 2.55 2.83

1.16 1.44 1.73 2.01 2.29 2.58 2.86 3.14 3.43 3.71

3.11

3.4 3.68 3.96 4.26 4.53 4.81 5.1

5.38 5.66 5.95 6.23 6.51

6.8

4.0

4.28 4.56 4.84 5.13 5.41

3.2

3.48 3.77 4.05 4.33 4.62

1.81

2.1 2.38 2.66 2.94 3.23 3.51 3.79 4.08 4.36 4.64 4.93

0.71

0.99

2.41

2.69 2.97 3.26 3.54 3.82 4.11

5.18 5.47 5.75 6.03 6.31

5.21

6.6

5.49 5.78 6.06 6.34 6.63

6.88

6.91

4.39 4.67 4.96 5.24 5.52 5.8 6.09 6.37 6.65 6.94

3

4

5

4.9

2.71 3.01

3.28 3.57 3.85 4.13 4.42 4.7 4.99 5.27 5.55 5.83 6.12 6.4 6.69 6.97

2.18 2.46 2.75 3.03 3.31 3.6 3.88 4.16 4.45 4.73

0.25 0.54 0.82

2.8

3.09 3.37 3.65 3.94 4.22

6.99

5.89 6.17 6.46 6.74 7.02

6

7

8

9

169.9 453.06 736.22 1 019.38 1 302.54 1 585.7 1 868.86 2 152.02

198.21 481.37 764.53 1 047.69 1 330.85 1 614.02 1 897.18 2 180.34

226.53 509.69 792.85 1 076.01 1 359.17 1 642.33 1 925.49

5.58 5.86 6.14 6.43 6.71

5.61

7.08

0 litre

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

cubicfeetto cubicmetres

1.1 1.39 1.67 1.95 2.24 2.52

4.51 4.79 5.07 5.35 5.64 5.92 6.2 6.48 6.77 7.05

5.01 5.3

22

28.32 56.63 84.95 113.26 141.58 283.16 311.48 339.79 368.11 396.42 424.74 566.32 594.64 622.95 651.27 679.59 707.9 849.48 877.8 906.11 934.43 962.75 991.06 1132.64 1160.96 1189.27 1 217.59 1 245.91 1 274.22 1 415.8 1 444.12 1 472.43 1 500.75 1 529.07 1 557.38 1 698.96 1 727.28 1 755.6 1 783.91 1 812.23 1 840.54 1 982.12 2 010.44 2 038.76 2067.07 2 095.39 2 123.7

254.84 538.01 821.17 1104.33 1 387.49 1 670.65 1 953.81 2208.65 2 236.97 2491.81 2520.13

2265.28 2293.6 2321.92 2350.23 2378.55 2406.86 2435.18 2463.5 2548.44 2576.76 2605.08 2633.39 2661.71 2690.03 2718.34 2746.66 2774.97 2803.29 2831.61

24

cubicfeetto litres

376

Conversions 25 litresto gallons

0

litre

imperial

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 11.0 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22.0

100 27

litresto gallons US

litre

0

20 30 40

2.64 5.28 7.93 10.57

50

13.21

60 70 80 90

0.22 2.42 4.62 6.82 9.02 11.22 13.42 15.62 17.82 20.02

0.44 2.64 4.84 7.04 9.24 11.44 13.64 15.84 18.04 20.24

0.66 2.86 5.06 7.26 9.46 11.66 13.86 16.06 18.26 20.46

11.88 14.08 16.28 18.48 20.68

1

2

3

4

0.26 2.91 5.55 8.19

15.85 18.49 21.14 23.78 26.42

100

0

kg

29

kilograms to pounds

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0.88 3.08 5.28 7.48 9.68

1.1

1.32 3.52 5.72 7.92 10.12

1.54 3.74 5.94 8.14 10.34 12.54 14.74 16.94 19.14

1.98 4.18 6.38 8.58 10.78 12.98 15.18 17.38 19.58 21.78

3.3 5.5 7.7 9.9 12.1

14.3 16.5 18.7 20.9

5

12.32 14.52 16.72 18.92 21.12

21.34

1.76 3.96 6.16 8.36 10.56 12.76 14.96 17.16 19.36 21.56

6

7

8

9

1.85 4.49 7.13 9.78 12.42 15.06 17.7

2.11

2.38 5.02 7.66 10.3 12.95 15.59 18.23 20.87

gal US

10

Mass

2

1

gal imp

0.53 3.17 5.81 8.45

10.83

11.1

13.47 16.12 18.76 21.4 24.04

13.74 16.38 19.02 21.66 24.31

1

2

0.79 3.43 6.08 8.72 11.36 14.0

1.06 3.7 6.34 8.98 11.62 14.27

1.32 3.96

16.64

16.91

19.29 21.93 24.57

19.55 22.19 24.83

9.25 11.89 14.53 17.17 19.82 22.46 25.1

3

4

5

6.61

1.59 4.23 6.87 9.51

4.76 7.4 10.04 12.68

12.15 14.8 17.44 20.08 22.72 25.36

25.63

15.32 17.97 20.61 23.25 25.89

6

7

8

13.23 35.27 57.32 79.37

15.43 37.47 59.52 81.57

20.34

22.96

23.51

26.16

9

lb

2.21 24.25

0 10 20 30

4.41

26.46 48.5 70.55 92.59

22.05 44.09 66.14

46.3

40

88.18

90.39

50 60 70 80 90

110.23 132.28

112.44 134.48 156.53 178.57 200.62 222.67 244.71 266.76 288.81 310.85

114.64 136.69

332.9 354.94

335.1 357.15 379.2 401.24 423.29

68.34

154.32 176.37 198.42 220.46 242.51 264.56 286.6 308.65 330.69 352.74 374.79 396.83

100 110

120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190

200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400

377.0

399.04

418.88

421.08

440.93 462.97

443.13 465.18 487.22 509.2 531.31 553.36 575.41 597.45 619.5 641.55 663.59 685.64

485.02 507.06 529.1

551.16 573.2 595.25 617.29 639.34

661.39 683.43 705.48 727.53

707.68

729.73 751.78 773.82 795.87 817.92 839.96 862.0

749.57

771.62 793.66 815.71 837.76 859.8

884.05

410

881.85 903.9

420 430

925.94 947.99

928.15 950.19 972.24 994.29 016.33 038.38 060.42 082.47

440 450 460 470

906.1

970.03 1

992.08 014.13

480

1

490

1

036.17 058.22 080.27

500

1

102.31

1

1 1 1 1

158.73 180.78 202.83 224.87 246.92 268.96 291.01 313.06

445.33 467.38

489.43 511.47 533.5 555.57 577.61 599.66 621.7 643.75 665.8 687.84 709.89 731.93 753.98 776.03 798.07 820.12 842.17 864.21 886.26 908.31 930.35 952.4 974.44 996.49 1 018.54 1 040.58 1 062.63 1 084.67

6.61

28.66 50.71

72.75 94.8 116.85 138.89 160.94 182.98 205.03 227.08 249.12 271.17 293.22 315.26

8.82 30.86 52.91 74.96 97.0 119.05 141.1

163.14 185.19 207.24 229.28 251.33 273.37 295.42 317.47

337.31 359.35 381.4 403.45 425.49 447.54 469.59 491.63

339.51 361.56 383.6 405.65 427.68 449.74 471.79 493.84

513.6

515.88

535.72

537.9

557.77 579.82 601.86 623.91 645.95 668.0 690.05 712.09 734.14 756.19 778.23 800.28

559.97 582.02 604.07

822.32

844.37 866.41 888.46 910.51 932.56 954.6 976.65 998.69 1 020.74 1 042.79 1 064.83 1 086.88

11.02 33.07 55.12 77.16 99.2 121.25 143.3 165.35 187.39 209.44 231.49 253.53 275.58 297.62 319.67 341.72 363.76 385.81 407.86 429.9 451.95 473.99 496.04 518.0 540.13 562.18 584.23

101.41

103.61

123.46 145.51 167.55 189.6 211.64

125.66

233.69 255.74

277.78 299.83 321.88 343.92 365.97 388.01

410.06 432.11 454.15 476.2

498.25 520.29 542.3 564.38 586.43

606.27 628.32

608.48 630.52 652.57

758.39

650.36 672.41 694.46 716.5 738.55 760.6

780.44 802.48

782.64 804.69

824.53 846.58

826.73 848.78 870.8 892.87 914.92 936.97 959.01 981.06 1 003.1 1 025.15 1 047.2 1 069.24 1 091.29

626.11

648.16

670.21 692.25 714.3 736.34

868.62 890.67 912.71

934.76 956.81

978.85 1 000.9 1 022.94 1 044.99 1 067.04 1 089.08

674.62 696.66 718.71 740.75 762.8 784.85 806.89 828.94 850.98 873.03 895.08 917.12 939.17 961.22 983.26 1 005.31 1 027.35 1 049.4 1 071.45 1 093.49

147.71

169.76 191.8 213.85 235.9 257.94 279.99 302.03

17.64 39.68 61.73 83.78 105.82 127.87 149.91 171.96 194.01 216.05 238.1

260.15 282.19 304.24

19.84 41.89 63.93 85.98 108.03 130.07 152.12 174.17 196.21 218.26 240.3 262.35 284.4 306.44

324.08

326.28

328.49

346.13 368.17 390.22

348.33 370.38 392.42

350.54 372.58 394.68

412.26 434.31 456.36 478.4 500.45

414.47 436.52 458.56 480.61

416.67

522.4

524.7 546.7 568.79 590.84 612.89 634.93

544.54 566.59 588.63 610.68

632.73 654.77 676.82 698.87 720.91 742.96 765.0 787.05 809.1 831.14 853.19 875.2 897.28 919.33 941.37 963.42 985.47 1 007.51 1 029.56 1 051.6 1 073.65 1 095.7

502.65

656.98

679.02 701.07 723.12 745.16 767.21 789.26 811.31 833.35 855.39 877.44 899.49 921.53 943.58 965.63 987.67

438.72 460.77 482.81 504.86 526.9

548.9 571.0 593.04 615.09 637.14 659.18

681.23 703.28 725.32 747.37 769.41

791.46 813.51 835.55 857.6 879.64 901.69 923.74 945.78 967.83 989.88 1 011.92 1 033.97 1 056.01 1 078.06

1 009.72 1 031.76 1 053.81 1 075.86 1 097.9 1100.11

377

Conversions gallmp

0 Iftre

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

70 80 90 100

galUS

45.46 90.92 136.38 181.84 227.3 272.76 318.22 363.68 409.14 454.6

0 litre

0

2

254.57 300.03 345.49 390.95 436.41

259.12 304.58 350.04 395.5 440.96

263.67 309.13 354.59 400.04 445.5

268.21 313.67 359.13 404.59 450.05

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

11.36 49.21 87.06 124.91 162.76 200.61 238.46 276.31 314.16 352.01

15.14 52.99 90.84 128.69 166.54 204.39 242.24 280.09 317.94 355.79

132.48 170.33 208.18 246.03 283.88 321.73 359.58

22.71 60.56 98.41 136.26 211.96 249.81 287.66 325.51 363.36

26.5 64.35 102.2 140.05 177.9 215.75 253.6 291.45 329.3 367.14

30.28 68.13 105.98 143.83 181.68 219.53 257.38 295.23 333.08 370.93

34.07 71.92 109.77 147.62 185.47 223.32 261.17 299.02 336.87 374.72

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2.72 7.26 11.79 16.33 20.87

3.63 8.16 12.7 17.24 21.77 26.31 30.84 35.38 39.92 44.45 48.99 53.52 58.06 62.6 67.13 71.67 76.2 80.74 85.28 89.81 94.35 98.88 103.42 107.96 112.49 117.03 121.56

4.08 8.62 13.15 17.69 22.23 26.76 31.3 35.83 40.37 44.91 49.44 53.98 58.51 63.05 67.59 72.12 76.66 81.19 85.73 90.26 94.8 99.34 103.87 108.41 112.95 117.48 122.02 126.55 131.09 135.62 140.16 144.7 149.23 153.77 158.3 162.84 167.38 171.91 176.45 180.98 185.52 190.06 194.59 199.13 203.66 208.2 212.74 217.27 221.81 226.34

3 13.64 59.1

4 18.18 63.64

159.1

18.93 56.78

9463

174.11

168.21

26 gallonsimperial to litres

28 gallons US to litres

30

poundsto kilograms

0 10 20 30

4.54 9.07 13.61 18.14

50

100 110 120 130 140

22.68 27.22 31.75 36.29 40.82 45.36 49.9 54.43 58.97 63.5

0.45 4.99 9.53 14.06 18.6 23.13 27.67 32.21 36.74 41.28 45.81 50.35 54.88 59.42 63.96

150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290

68.04 72.57 77.11 81.65 86.18 90.72 95.25 99.79 104.33 108.86 113.4 117.93 122.47 127.01 131.54

68.49 73.03 77.56 82.1 86.64 91.17 95.71 100.24 104.78 109.32 113.85 118.39 122.92 127.46 132.0

300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380

136.08 140.61 145.15 149.69 154.22 158.76 163.29 167.83 172.37 176.9 181.44 185.97 190.51 195.05 199.58 204.12 208.65 213.19 217.72 222.26 226.8

136.53 141.07 145.6 150.14 154.68 159.21 163.75 168.28 172.82 177.36

132.45 136.99 141.52 146.06 150.59 155.13 159.67 164.2 168.74 173.27 177.81

181.89 186.43 190.96 195.5 200.03 204.57 209.11 213.64 218.18 222.71

182.34 186.88 191.42 195.95 200.49 205.02 209.56 214.1 218.63 223.17

400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500

213.66

86.38 131.83 177.3 222.75

3.79 41.64 79.49 117.34 155.19

1

390

204.57 250.03 295.49 340.95 386.41 431.87

36.37 81.83 127.29 172.75 218.21

2

0

60 70 80 90

31.82 77.28 122.74

154.56 200.02 245.48 290.94 336.4 381.86 427.32

27.28 72.74 118.2 163.66 209.11

40.91

109.1

22.73 68.19 113.65

1

lb

40

9

104.56 150.02 195.48 240.94 286.4 331.86 377.32 422.77

100

60 70 80 90

8

9.09 54.55 100.01 145.47 190.93 236.39 281.85 327.31 372.77 418.23

193.04 230.89 268.74 306.59 344.44

50

7

4.55 50.0 95.47 140.93 186.38 231.84 277.3 322.76 368.22 413.68

189.25 227.1 264.95 302.81 340.65 378.51

20 30 40

37.85 75.7 113.55 151.40

6

2

7.57 45.42 83.27 121.12 158.97 196.82 234.67 272.52 310.37 348.22

10

5

1

0.91 5.44 9.98 14.52 19.05

1.36 5.9 10.43 14.97 19.5

6.35 10.89 15.42 19.96

2.27 6.8 11.34 15.88 20.41

23.59 28.12 32.66 37.19 41.73 46.27 50.8 55.34 59.87 64.41

24.04 28.58 33.11 37.65 42.18 46.72 51.26 55.79 60.33 64.86

24.49 29.03 33.57 38.1 42.64 47.17 51.71 56.25 60.78 65.32

24.95 29.48 34.02 38.56 43.09 47.63 52.16 56.7 61.24 65.77

25.4 29.94 34.47 39.01 43.54

68.95 73.48 78.02 82.55 87.09 91.63 96.16 100.7 105.23 109.77

69.4 73.94 78.47 83.01 87.54 92.08 96.62 101.15 105.69 110.22 114.76 119.3 123.83 128.37 132.9 137.44 141.97

69.85 74.39 78.93 83.46 88.0 92.53

70.31

70.76 75.3 79.83 84.37 88.9

114.31

118.84 123.38 127.91

146.51

151.05 155.58 160.12 164.65 169.1

173.73 178.26 182.8 187.33 191.87 196.41

200.94 205.48 210.01 214.55 219.09 223.62

1.81

9707 101.61 106.14 110.68 115.21 119.75 124.28 128.82 133.36 137.89 142.43 146.96 151.5 156.04 160.57 165.11

169.64 174.18 178.72 183.25 187.79 192.32 196.86 201.4 205.93 210.47 215.0 219.54 224.08

74.84 79.38 83.91 88.45 92.99 97.52 102.06 106.59 111.13 115.67 120.2 124.74 129.27 133.81 138.35 142.88 147.42 151.95 156.49 161.03 165.56 170.1

174.63 179.17 183.71

188.24 192.78 197.31

201.85 206.39 210.92 215.46 219.99 224.53

48.08 52.62 57.15 61.69 66.22

93.44 97.98 102.51 107.05 111.58 116.12 120.66 125.19 129.73 134.26 138.8 143.34 147.87 152.41

156.94 161.48 166.02 170.55 175.09 179.62 184.16 188.69 193.23 197.77 202.3 206.84 211.37 215.91 220.45 224.98

3.18 7.71

12.25 16.78 21.32 25.85 30.39 34.93 39.46 44.0 48.53 53.07 57.61 62.14 66.68 71.21 75.75 80.29 84.82 89.36 93.89 98.43 102.97 107.5 112.04 116.57 121.11

125.65 130.18 134.72 139.25 143.79 148.33 152.86 157.4 161.93 166.47 171.0 175.54 180.08 184.61

189.15 193.68 198.22 202.76 207.29 211.83 216.36 220.9 225.44

126.1

130.64 135.17 139.71

144.24 148.78 153.31

157.85 162.39 166.92 171.46 175.99 180.53 185.07 189.6 194.14 198.67 203.21 207.75 212.28 216.82 221.35 225.89

378

Conversions Density (mass/volume) 31

kilo9rams per cubicmetre to pounds per cubic foot

Velocity 33

metresper second

tomilesperhour

kg/rn3

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000

mIs

kilonewlons per squaremetre to pounds forceper squareinch

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0.62 6.87

1.87 8.12 14.36 20.61 26.84 33.09 39.33 45.57 51.82 58.06

2.5

3.12 9.36

56.81

1.25 7.49 13.73 19.98 26.22 32.46 38.71 44.95 51.19 57.43

33.71 39.95 46.2 52.44 58.68

21.85 28.09 34.33 40.58 46.82 53.06 59.31

3.75 9.99 16.23 22.47 28.72 34.96 41.2 47.45 53.69 59.93

1

2

3

4

5

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

kgfI

13.11

19.35 25.6 31.84 38.08 44.32 50.57

8.74 14.98 21.23 27.47

4.37

5.62 11.86

60.56

5.0 11.24 17.48 23.72 29.97 36.21 42.45 48.7 54.94 61.18

15.61

24.35 30.59 36.83 43.08 49.32 55.56 61.81

6

7

8

9

15.66 38.03 60.4 82.77 105.13 127.5 149.88 172.24

17.9 40.26 62.63 85.0 107.37

20.13 42.51 64.87 87.24 109.61

129.74

216.98

174.48 196.85 219.22

131.98 154.34 176.72 199.09 221.46

10.61

16.86 23.1

29.34 35.58 41.83 48.07 54.31

18.11

4.47 26.84 49.21 71.58 93.95

6.71 29.08 51.45 73.82 96.19

8.95 31.32 53.69 76.06 98.43

11.18 33.55 55.92 78.29 100.66

111.85 134.22 156.59 178.96 201.32 223.69

114.08 136.45 158.82 181.19 203.56

116.32 138.69 161.06 183.43 205.8

118.56 140.93 163.3 185.67 208.04

120.8 143.16 165.53 187.9 210.27

123.03 145.4 167.77 190.14 212.51

13.42 35.79 58.16 80.53 102.9 125.27 147.64 170.0 192.38 214.75

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.42 15.65 29.87 44.09 58.32 72.54 86.76 100.99 115.21 129.43

2.84 17.07 31.29 45.51 59.73 73.96 88.18

91.03 105.25 119.48 133.7

21.34 35.56 49.78 64.0 78.23 92.45 106.68 120.9 135.12

8.53 22.76 36.98 51.2 65.43 79.65 93.87

116.63 130.86

4.27 18.49 32.71 46.94 61.16 75.38 89.61 103.83 118.05 132.28

122.32 136.54

9.96 24.18 38.4 52.63 66.85 81.07 95.3 109.52 123.74 137.97

11.38 25.6 39.83 54.05 68.27 82.5 96.72 110.94 125.17 139.39

12.8 27.02 41.25 55.47 69.69 83.92 98.14 112.36 126.59

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

11.6

13.05 27.56 42.06 56.56 71.07 85.57 100.07 114.58 129.08 143.58

22.37 44.74 67.11 89.48

194.61

152.11

lbf/in2 0

14.22 28.45 42.67 56.9 71.12 85.34 99.56 113.79 128.01 142.23

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

37

10

2.24 24.61 46.96 69.35 91.71

0 10

cm2 35 kilograms forceper squarecentimetre to poundsforceper squareinch

6.24 12.49 18.73 24.97 31.21 37.46 43.7 49.94 56.19 62.43

0 mile/hr

100

PreSSUre,stress

0

lb/ft3

kN/m2

(kPa)

0 lbf/in2

0

10

102.41

5.6 19.91

34.13 48.36 62.58 76.81

7.11

108.1

2.9 17.40 31.91 46.41 60.91

4.35 18.85 33.36 4V.86 62.36

5.8 20.30 34.81 49.31 63.81

7.25 21.75 36.26 50.76 65.26

8.7 23.21 37.71

43.51 58.01

1.45 15.95 30.46 44.96 59.46

72.52 87.02 101.52 116.03 130.53

73.97 88.47 102.97 117.48 131.98

75.42 89.92 104.42 118.93 133.43

76.87 91.37 105.87 120.38 134.88

78.32 92.82 107.32 121.83 136.33

79.77 94.27 108.77 123.28 137.78

81.22 95.72 110.22 124.73 139.23

100 200 300 400

14.50 29.01

500 600 700 800 900 1 000

145.03

52.21 66.71

10.15 24.66 39.16 53.66 68.17 82.67 97.17 111.68 126.18 140.68

26.11 40.61 55.11

69.62 84.12 98.62 113.13 127.63 142.13

140.81

379

Conversions lb/ft3

0

2

1

3

4

100

mile/hr

6

7

8

9 32

kg/rn3

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

5

16.02 32.04 176.2 192.22 160.19 336.39 352.41 320.37 512.59 480.55 496.57 640.74 656.76 672.78 800.92 816.94 832.96 977.13 993.15 961.11 1121.29 1137.31 1153.33 1 313.51 1 281.48 1 297.5 1 441.66 1 457.68 1 473.7

48.06 208.24 368.43 528.61 688.79 1 1 1 1

848.98 009.16 169.35 329.53 489.72

64.07 224.26 384.44 544.63 704.81 865.0 1 025.18 1 185.37 1 345.55 1 505.74

112.13 128.15 80.09 96.11 272.31 288.33 240.28 256.3 400.46 416.48 432.5 448.52 560.65 576.67 592.68 608.7 736.85 752.87 768.89 720.83 913.05 929.07 881.02 897.03 1 057.22 1 073.24 1 089.26 1 041.2 1 201.38 1 217.4 1 233.42 1 249.44 1 361.57 1 377.59 1 393.61 1 409.62 1 521.75 1 537.77 1 553.79 1 569.81

144.17 304.35 464.54 624.72 784.91 945.09

1 265.46 1 425.64 1 585.83

1601.85

0

0 10

20

4.47 8.94

30

13.41

40

17.88 22.35 26.82 31.29 35.76 40.23

lbf/

j2

0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100

lbf/ in2

1

6

7

8

g

2.68 7.15 11.62 16.09 20.56 25.03 29.5 33.98 38.45 42.92

3.13 7.6 12.07 16.54 21.01 25.48 29.95 34.42 38.89 43.36

3.58 8.05 12.52 16.99 21.46 25.93 30.4 34.87 39.34 43.81

4.02 8.49 12.96 17.43 21.91 26.38 30.85 35.32 39.79 44.26

5

6

7

8

g

0.49 1.2

0.56

0.63 1.34 2.04 2.74 3.45

2

3

4

5

70 80 90 100

0.45 4.92 9.39 13.86 18.33 22.8 27.27 31.74 36.21 40.68

0.89 5.36 9.83

1.34 5.81 10.28 14.75 19.22 23.69 28.16 32.63 37.1 41.57

1.79 6.26 10.73 15.2 19.67 24.14 33.08 37.55 42.02

11.18 15.65 20.12 24.59 29.06 33.53 38.0 42.47

14.31

18.78 23.25 27.72 32.19 36.66 41.13

28.61

2.24 6.71

34

milesperhour to metresper second

44.7

36

0 kgt/cm2 0.7 1.41

2.11 2.81 3.52 4.22 4.92 5.62 6.33

1

2

3

4

0.07 0.77 1.48 2.18 2.88 3.59 4.29 4.99 5.69 6.4

0.14 0.84 1.55 2.25 2.95 3.66 4.36 5.06 5.77 6.47

0.21

0.35 1.05 1.76 2.46 3.16 3.87 4.57 5.27 5.98 6.68

0.42

1.62 2.32 3.02 3.73 4.43 5.13 5.84 6.54

0.28 0.98 1.69 2.39 3.09 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.91 6.61

5 34.48 103.42 172.38 241.32 310.28 379.22 448.18 517.12 586.08 655.02

0.91

1.12 1.83

1.9

1.27 1.97

6.12 6.82

2.67 3.37 4.08 4.78 5.48 6.19 6.89

6

7

8

9

41.37 110.32 179.27 248.22 317.17 386.12 455.07 524.02 592.97 661.92

48.26 117.22 186.16 255.12 324.06 393.02 461.96 530.92 599.86 668.82

55.16 124.11 193.06 262.01 330.96 399.91 468.86 537.81 606.76 675.71

62.06 131.0 199.96 268.9 337.86

2.53 3.23 3.94 4.64 5.34 6.05 6.75

2.6 3.3 4.01 4.71 5.41

poundsforceper squareinch to kilograms forceper squarecentimetre

4.15 4.85 5.55 6.26 6.96

7.03

1

2

3

4

6.9 75.84 144.8 213.74 282.7 351.64 420.6 489.54 558.5 627.44

13.79 82.74 151.69 220.64 289.59 358.54 427.49 496.44 565.39 634.34

20.68 89.64 158.58 227.54 296.48

27.58 96.53 165.48 234.43 303.38 372.33 441.28 510.23 579.18 648.13

0 kN/m2(kPa)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

IC

meLre

1105.27

rn/s

50 60 70 80 90 100

oot o iogramspercu

68.95 137.9 206.85 275.8 344.75 413.7 482.65 551.6 620.55 689.5

365.44 434.38 503.34 572.28 641.24

406.8 475.76 544.7 613.66 682.6

38 pounds forceper square inchto kilonewtons per square metre

380

Conversions Refrigeration

W

thermal units per hour

0 10

20 30 40 50 60 70

80 90

100

Thermal

conductance 41

wattsper square

metrekelvin to Britishthermal units persquarefoot hour degree F

0

1

2

3

3.41 37.53 71.66 105.78

6.82 40.95 75.07 109.12

10.24 44.36 78.5 112.6 146.72 180.84 214.97 249.09

4

5

6

7

8

9

13.65

17.06

47.77 81.89

51.18 85.3 119.43 153.55 187.67 221.79

20.47

23.89

30.71

Btulhr

39 wattstoBritish

34.12 68.24 102.36 136.49 170.61

204.73 238.85 272.97 307.09 341.22

139.91

174.02 208.14 242.26 276.38 310.51

143.31

177.43 211.55 245.68 279.8 313.92

116.01

317.33

150.13 184.26 218.38 252.5 286.62 320.74

283.21

191.08

92.13 126.25 160.37 194.49

225.2

228.61

290.03 324.15

259.32 293.45 327.57

262.74 296.86 330.98

27.3 61.42 95.54 129.66 163.78 197.9 232.03 266.15 300.27 334.39

255.91

5459

88.72 122.76 156.96

58.01

6483

98.95 133.07 167.2 201.31

235.44 269.56 303.68 337.8

W/ (m2K)

i

0.0 Btu/(ft2hr°F)

0.0 .0

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

0.176 0.352 0.528 0.704 0.881

1.057 1.233 1.409 1.585 1.761

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.018 0.194 0.370 0.546 0.722 0.898 1.074 1.250

0.035

0.053 0.229 0.405

0.074 0.247 0.423 0.599 0.775

0.088 0.264 0.440 0.616 0.793

0.106 0.282 0.458

0.141

0.158

0.951 1.127 1.303 1.479 1.656

0.969 1.145 1.321 1.497 1.673

0.986 1.162

0.123 0.299 0.476 0.652 0.828 1.004 1.180 1.356 1.532 1.708

1.427 1.603

0.211

0.387 0.564 0.740 0.916 1.092 1.268 1.444 1.620

0.581

0.757 0.933 1.110 1.286 1.462 1.638

0.634

0.810 1.34 1.515 1.691

0.317 0.493

0.335 0.511

0.669 0.845

0.687 0.863

1.021 1.198 1.374 1.550 1.726

1.039

1.215 1.391

1.567 1.744

381

Conversions Btu/hr

0

4

5

2

3

0.59 3.52 6.45 9.38

0.88

1.17

3.81

4.1

7.03 9.97 12.9

24.03 26.97

6.74 9.67 12.6 15.53 18.47 21.4 24.33 27.26

15.83 18.76 21.69 24.62 27.55

1.47 4.4 7.33 10.26 13.19 16.12 19.05 21.98 24.91 27.84

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.568 1.136 1.703 2.271

0.057 0.624 1.192 1.76 2.328 2.896 3.464 4.031 4.599 5.167

0.17 0.738 1.306 1.874 2.442 3.009 3.577 4.145 4.713 5.281

0.227 0.795 1.363

2.839 3.407 3.975 4.542

0.114 0.681 1.249 1.817 2.385 2.953 3.52 4.088 4.656 5.224

1

6

7

8

9

2.05 4.98

2.34 5.28

2.64 5.57

w 0 10

20 30

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Btu/(ft2.

hF)

2.93 5.86 8.79 11.72 14.66 17.59 20.52 23.45 26.38 29.31

0.00

0.29 3.22 6.16 9.09 12.02 14.95 17.88 20.81 23.74 26.67

12.31

15.24 18.17 21.1

1.76

4.69 7.62 10.55 13.48

7.91

8.21

8.5

10.84 13.78

11.14 14.07

16.41

16.71

17.0

19.34 22.28 25.21 28.14

19.64 22.57 25.5 28.43

19.93 22.86 25.79 28.72

11.43 14.36 17.29 20.22 23.15 26.09 29.02

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.284 0.852 1.42 1.987 2.555 3.123

0.341 0.908 1.476 2.044 2.612 3.18 3.747 4.315 4.883

0.397 0.965 1.533 2.101 2.669

0.454 1.022 1.59 2.158 2.725

3.236 3.804 4.372 4.94 5.508

3.293

0.511 1.079 1.647 2.214 2.782 3.35 3.918 4.486 5.053

W/(m2K)

0.0 0.1

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

5.11

5.678

1.931

2.498 3.066 3.634 4.202 4.77 5.337

3.691

4.258 4.826 5.394

5.451

3.861

4.429 4.997 5.564

5.621

40 British thermal unitsper hour

owa

42

Britishthermal units persquare foothour degreeFtowattsper squaremetre kelvin

382 Components

Materials PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOF COMMONBUILDINGMATERIALS

material

densi, (kg/rn)

E-modulus (kN/mrn2)

tensile moisture strength movement (MN/rn2) (%)

In selecting building materials architect needs

take into their significant physical characteristics. This knowledge helps him assess how manufactured products specified and constructions designed perform in use. Precise values influenced by such factors as temp, moisture content, surface condition, internal structure. These usually determined by means of standard tests, which may take into conditions of use. Handbooks issued by professional and other independent organisations give precise values for many common materials, with details on conditions underwhich values were determined. Manufacturers'literature may also givevalues. —.( 1) brings together valuesfrommany sources:

devised as aid for architects at early stages of design. In most instancesrange ofvaluesgiven. Designer must judgewhichappropriate to his need. However, in some instances contractual orregulatory reasons may imposestandardised values, orvalues determined by standardtests. Manufactured products may be combinations chosen and placed to give desiredperformance. Innumerable combinations available, some proprietary. Not possible give their values here. Formany values may becalculatedusing recognisedprocedures. For others information must be sought from manufacturers or obtained experimentally.

of different materials,

Characteristics Table givesfollowing characteristics: Density (kg/rn3): enables mass of material be calculated; gives indication of many other properties, eg generally light weight material when dry gives good thermal insulation and sound absorption but poor sound insulation

Modulus ofelasticity (kN/mm2) and Tensile and impressive strength (MN/rn2)give indicationsof structural performance, modulus of

ages. Generally lightweight and fibrous and some cement-based materials show dimen sional changes when wetordry; suchneed be accommodated in design; movement may be reversible or onlyhappen on first use

Coefficient of thermal expansion(per 00 x 10-6): changes intempcause materialsexpand or contract; such movement again may need be accommodated: expressed bycoefficient Thermal conductivity —up393(2) expressed asWm/rn2°C,conventionallyW/rn°C. Forsome materials values greatly influenced bymoisture content

Sound apsorption coefficients—vp397(2)

non-combushble

naturalstone granite limestone marble sandstone siate

2600 2000—2200 2500 2000—2200 2700

dense concrete gravei aggregate limestoneaggregate otherrock aggregate

1800—2500 1800—2500

20—60

slight

8—to

10—80

001

35

slight

3—4 4—6 7—12 9—11

15—36

0.02—006' 0.02—003' 0.03—01'

12—14 7—8 10—13

0.03_0,06i 003—0 06' 0.1—0.2' 0.02—0.03'

8—12 8—12 6—8

035—07

8

0 15—0.3

00—005'

8—14 5—8 4—6

slight

20—36

sintered aggregate vermicuhte aerated (auto-ciaved)

1400—1600 1100—1400 400—500 400—900

8—10 8—10

bfldra caicium siiicate load-bearing clay engineering cementsci'seds

1500—1800 1 500—1800 1800—2200

14—18 4—26

1400—1500

20—35

siight 002—0.06

asbestoscement

1400—1600

14—26

01—025

lightweightconcrete clinkeraggregate

t.5 2—2.5

007

15—36

no tines

2.5

3—80 10—35

1800—2500 1750

1 4—3.2

0022

1.3 1.9—2.0

06—20 08—2.0

08—20

05—07 015—0 18

05—I

0 5—1

0.7—1.3

iO—t3

0.5—0.6

8—12

025—0.4

gypsum: asplasterorsiabs, biocks& paper-cooered aggregate,

boards; maybe reinforcedwithlibrousmateriais, be namedorirlcorporaie light weight iowstrengthwhenwet,noncombustible

denseplaster foamed piaster plasterboard

1100—1200 850—900

950

16

18—21

16

18—21

04—045

025 0 16

metals&glass:

densemater,ais assheetsorthinseciions;physicalcharacteristics dependon composition, shapeSgeometricai arrangement, SirOitg bat maybe brittle;no signilicantoiled ofchange in moisiureconteni

castiron miidsteei

aiuminiurri&atoys copper&alioyo lead zinc glass

7000 7800 2300—2800 8400—8900 11 350 7000

2500

80—120

210 70—75 95—130

70—280

400 70—550 120—400

14 140—220

70

30—170

negligible negligible negiigible neghgible negligible negligible negiigib)e

10 12

24—29 17—21 30

23—33 9—11

40 50 160—230° 130—200°

113 07—1

wood:

naturalmaterial with considerable variat,oorisinphysicalcharacieristics accordingtospecies& condition, particularly moista,econtent

balsa softwood hard wood

100—250

300—600 55—12.5 550—900 7—21 (veryheavywoods over 1 000)

considerable considerable

005—0 06 4.Swithgrain 01—013 30—70across grain

0 14—0.17

plastics: syntheticorganiolymers'thermosetting remainhard on hardening,iherrnoplastic sohened on reheating,physical characteristics depend oncomposition,modifiedbyfillers& piasticisers; natural& syntheticrubberssimilar; combustible, givingoilsmoke& ioniccombustion products;highcoetttcientofexpansion acrylic polycarbonate polyethylene (iowdensity) polyethylene (highdensity) polyproplylene polystyrene nyion rubber asphalt

1440

25—3.3

1150 920

22—25 01—0.28

negligrbie negligible negligible

50—90 50—70 160—200

02 023 035

05—1

negligible

t 10—140

05

0.9—1.6

negligible negligible negligible negligible negligible

80—110 60—80 100—120

0.24

30—80

1.2

960 915 1050 1100 930 2300

1,7—3.1

0007

017

03

0 16

thermalinsulatingmaterials:

lightweight,tibrousorcellularin compoutiongiving goodthermal insulation 650usdabsorbliorn butpoorsoundinsulation, lowresistanceto crushing;readilyabsorbmoisture, with increasein density&thermalcondachnity; montcombustible exceptmineral based,improvedby cl'rernical additives

mineral baud expanded perlite expanded vermiculite glass tibre mineral wool asbestos orsubstitute insulating board cellular glass

— notes: nitiai irreversibie shrinkage 2 initial irreversible expansion 3iowemissivity/high reflectivity ofbnghtsurtace ot thesemetais againstheat radiation

(W/mC)

natural stone.clay bricks,terracoitablocks.caiciamsilicatebricks,concrete (block, slabOr cast).rieriseorhghtweight(aerated, ceilular,or mortar, reinforcemeni; lighterweight rnateriais: betterthermaiinsuiation,soundabsorption, absorbmoisture&showdimensional change onwetting& loweriherrnalresistioity,

wood-wool sfab chipboard tibreboard corkboard

characteristics

tivity

lightweightaggregate), physicalcharacteristics dependondensity,shape, georiretrical arrangement,

01 1 Common building materials: valuesfor physical

(per"Cx 106)

thermal conduc-

masonry:

elasticity indicating stiffness

Moisture movementsexpressed aspercent-

thermal movement

65 100 25—100 50—150 750—900

26—36

175

5—8

400—700 500—800 250—350

0.6—07 2—28

o 16—0.25

2 5—72

0.04—007 0.7—01 00.4—0 07 0.04—007 0 12—0 16

85

0.06

015—0.4 035

008—013 015—0.2

005—0.07

04

130—160

polystyrene bead

15—25

pvc

40—70

tuenwd urea-formaldehyde polyurethane

30

8—15

004—0.05 14—45 35—50

0035 0035—0 045

9

003—0.04

2—7

0.03—0.07

Components 383

Services: Distribution Distribution system for services needs careful planningensure system economical in both builders and specialistwork. System starts at point ofentryofserviceto bldg orfromboiler and plant rm to all spaces being served. Points of entry of services and plant rm location should be determined at early stage.

DISTRIBUTIONMEDIUM Heating distribution may be byhot water,steam, orwarm air.Water may be at low pressure under boiling point or at high pressure above boiling point depending on quantity of heat to be distributed. Air inefficient means ofdistribution but required for ventilationorairconditioning. Example: in 100 tube transfer capacitiesare: low velocity air 072 kW 2.16 kW high velocity air 525 kW low pressure hot water 2385 kW high pressure hot water

DISTRIBUTIONLAYOUTS In multi-storey bldg distribution pattern may be: (a) primarily horizontal with secondarydistribution upor down through floors; (b) primarily vertical with secondary distribution along floors. (a) more common especially for low bldg or those with dissimilar flow plans but system may occupy greater building volume by increasing floorto tloor height of all floors. (b) more suitable forhigh bldg with repetitive floor plans.

VENTILATION Some ducts may require ventilation to limit temp rise or because of service contained, eq natural gas. Where floor construction carried through, vent each floor topand bottom. Ifductcontinuous,vent at ends (—.Bib111).

WALKWAYS—+(1 )(2) Retain clear working space 700 wide x 2000 high after all services installed. Large takeoffs and expansion loops may require additional width. Accessfromends —boiler rmorplant rm. Intermediateaccess to changes ofdirection and lunctions by removablecovers mm 450 x 600. Access openings should allow length of pipe (6000) be installed or removed.

CRAWLWAYS—(3) Clear working space 700 wide x 1 000 high after all services installed. Accessbycovers mm 450 x 600 atintervals of 10—15 m.

heat loss

uptokW

35 64 153 255 423 956 1432

Whether primary distribution atground level orroot level willdepend on location of boiler or plant rm At ground level may be in walkways or crawlways underground slab provided these do not conflict with foundations. root void or in extra deep ceiling void.Horizontal distribution above root level difficult protect from weather, complicates root drainage.

A w

B

h

6 pipes 6 pipes

PRIMARYHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION

At roof level distribution may be in pitched

heating

f&rsize

on 1 side

on both

40

10€

50 65 80 100 125 150

1140 1180 1235 1330 1425 1505

1430 1 580

with hangers with rollers

sides

2010 2055 2130 2230 2370 2515 2665

1660 1770 1960

2150 2310

2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

Walkways:dimensions(f&r= flow &return)

1

PRIMARYVERTICALDISTRIBUTION Primary vertical distribution is by vertical duct spaces through bldg. Direction ofhorizontal connexion atfloor slab level should notbe limited byadjacent stairwells, liftshafts, orflues. Trimming beamsmay also limit horizontal connexions.

-f

INTERCONNEXION VERTICAL& HORIZONTAL Interconnexion between verticaland horizontalduct critical:ducts should

not be in samevertical plane and vertical duct should be long sideonto horizontal duct to givegreatest common interconnecting area.

-A-

ACCESSTO DUCTS Access to ducts should be adequate for maintenance work and for renewal of pipes etc, which have shorter life than that of bldg. Access either through duct —walkways, crawlwaysand large vertical ducts —or through access s in sideortop of duct.

FIREPRECAUTIONS

2 Walkways& crawiways—.(1 )(3) heat loss

heating

uptokW f&rsize

3 pipesoneachside A w

Either firestops atfloor level orfr construction and access s.

SOUNDTRANSMISSION

35 64 153 255

Floor construction carried through at or near floor level. All pipe penetrations sealed airtight. Access s of adequate sound reduction and sealed airtight.

423 956

432

3

40 50 65 80 100 125 150

B h with hangers

with rollers

1430 1580

1070 1095

1 000

1660 1770 1960 2150 2310

1140

1000 1 000 1000 1000 1020

Crawlways:dimensions

1 205

1280 1360 1435

1 000

384 Components

Services: distribution heatloss upto kW

3 6 13 24 35 64 153

255 423 956 1432

heating & size

I r

A w

B hwithout crossover

hwith

15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150

1350 1360 1395 1430 1475 1520 1600 1680 1780 1920

230 235 240 250 255 265 285 295 320 345 375

320

2070

TRENCH DUCTS—*(1)(2)

crossover

345 375 410 445 520 560 615 710 805 885

r •

Trencnducts:dimensions(I&r=flow&return)

1

heatcapacity uptokW

A w

B

l&rsize 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150

605 615 650 685 730 775 855 935 1035 1175 1320

300 305 315 325 330 340 380 425 475 555

heating

3 6 13 24 35 64 153

255 423 956 1432

A

pipesize

1 pipe

HORIZONTALDUCTSAT CEILING LEVEL—*(3)(4) Pipe s above pipes for pipework to be installed or removed from below. Crossovers

Trenchduct

LA

625

Space requirementsforhorizontalductat ceiling level (containingheatingflow & return,hot waterflow&return,coldwater service&coldwater main) uptokW

2

A

h

3

heatless

Pipe s should be below pipes or on sides to allow lengths of pipe be installed or removed. Allowspace under pipe s and slight fall for draining. Access through continuous covers or covers at junctions and changes of direction and breakout screedcover whenrequired. Pipeson rollersallow expansion movement.

A B 2pipes d

4

I

r

SCREED DUCTS—*(5)(6) Chase formed by omitting floor screed. Useful for local hot and cold water connexions to sanitary fittings and local heating pipework. Floor finish carried over plywood covernailed to battens. Access by cutting floor finishand pri cover. Pipe size usually limited to 20—22,otherwise screed ofuneconomic thickness. Oversized hole required for connexion for expansion of pipework.

Horizontalduct at ceiling level

C diaof hole requiredfor connexion

1.5

3 6

20 25 32

13 24

5

150

150 150 150 150

54.5 59.0 64.5 71.5 80.0

46.5 51.0 56.5 64.0 73.5

VERTICALDUCTS—*(1 1 )(12) Onerow pipestoallow installationand removal

6

Screedducts:dimensions

heat loss uptokW

w A

heating

f&rsize

605 615 650 685 730 775

153

15 20 25 32 40 50 65

255 423

80 100

956

125 150

935 1035 1175 1320

3

6 24 35 64

1432

d

withorwithout B crossover without

13

r

100 100 100 100 100

10 15

855

from front without removing other pipework exceptcrossovers. Access through removable s or doors full floorheight on long side. Crossoversand clearance for valves increase depth considerably. Diagonal takeoffs with 45° bend reduce depth but increase width by

Screedduct

— B

with

crossover

crossover

115 120 125 135 140 150 170 180

205 230 260 295 330 405 445 500 595 690 770

205 230 260

increasing spacing ofvertical pipes.

ESTIMATINGVENTILATION! AIR-CONDITIONINGSIZES For preliminary planning purposes ventilation! air-conditioning ducts may be calculated from:

Lowvelocity:cross sectional arofductm2 = floor ar servedm2

Space requirementsforverticalducts

9

Vertical ductwith crossover

(containingbeatingflow & return,hotwaterflow & return,coldwater service&cold watermain) heat heating loss f&r upto size kW 75

B

A

w

——

may be above or below depending on venting of pipework. Continuous access from below through ceiling or . Add extra depth of ceiling system, recessed light fittings etc. Drop rodsallow expansion movement.

B

dWtthOLit

dwithcrossover

———— crossover

100 150 75 100 150 soil soil soil soil soil soil pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe

75 soil pipe

—

100

150

soil pipe

soil pipe

750

High velocity:cross sectional arofduct m2 = floor arserved m2 2250 Ductsshould notexceed 1:4 shorttolong side and bestsquare. High velocity ducts should be circular. Allowspace for insulation,flanges and s:100 on allsides.

pvc copper pvc copper pvc copper waste waste waste waste waste waste 3 6 13

24

15

20 25 32

40 50 65 255 80 423 100 956 125 1432 150 35 64 153

815 840 895 173 825 855 905 173 860 885 940 173 895 920 975 173 940 965 1020 173 985 1015 1065 173 1060 10901140 173 1145 1170 1225 180 1245 1270 1325 205 1385 14152875 230 1530 1555 1610 260

205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 230 260

255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255 255

295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 255 295 260 295

350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350

320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320

375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375

375 375 375

370

370 370 370 370 370 370

370 370 370 370

425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425 425

10 Space requirementsforverticalduct including soiupipe(containingheatingflow & return,hotwater flow &return,cold water service,cold water main&soil &wastepipes)

I)

socket exiemai dia

socketexternal

pipe nsuiation

)

—

pipeinsulation pipe channei

A

r

5pe channel

) )

—B-. 11

Vertical ductwith

soil pipe

12 Verticalductwith soilpipe &crossover

Components

385

Services: Methods of heating Decision on type of heating emission in individual spaces depends on requirements ofthermal comfort inrelationtothermal responseofbldg.

anglevstves,sideconnexions, top & bottom size mm

A

B

C

15

115 125 140

115 120 135

25

20

25

THERMALCOMFORT-+(4) —vpl6 High standard ofthermal comfort requires: surrounding surface temphigher than airtemp airtempat head lower than atfloorlevel: low tempgradient air movement justperceptible butvariable and with nodraughts hum not very important except at tempabove 21°C: should not exceed 70% norbe less than30%

straight valves, bottomconnexions 15

20 25

130 150 160

130 140 155

_____________________

Ifradiator underSI elf, clearance of twice cifromfaceofradiatorto waftrequired aboveradiator: clearance of 1½ timesd requiredunderradiator 1

Space forradiatorvaIves—(2)

THERMALRESPONSEOFBUILDING Thermal response ofbldg depends on: area and orientation of glazing: largeareas of glazing facing sun give quickresponse reflectivityof external surfaces where exposed to sun: high reflectivity reduces heat gain fromsunand reduces response mass of bldg structure and position of thermal insulation: mass inside insulationgiveslong responsetime; lightweightbldg haveshortresponse time Quick response bldg will give economy in heating cost but be hotterin summerandmoredifficult heat comfortably.

TYPES OF HEAT EMITTERS

*—c'A 2

Space forradiatorvalves—°(1)

Low temperature radiant s: heated by embedded el cables or heating water pipework. Surface preferably floor for low temp gradient butwall orceiling surfaces can beused. Floor surfacetemplimited to 29°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection.

Mediumtempradiant s:flat steel orcast iron plates with waterwayscast in or welded tobackofplate. Surface tempgenerally 75°C. Emission: 50% radiation 50% convection. Radiators: generally made fromsheet steel; may be 1, 2 or 3 or with finson backto increase outputfor given face area. Surface temp 75°C. Radiant: convection emission depends on number of s, fins etc; single approx 25% radiation75%convection. If radiators in corner or recess allow space for valves and for air flow

Natural convectors: may becontinuous casing orindividual casing of pressed steelcontaining finned tube heater. Heatoutput depends on size offinned tubeand height ofconvector. Surface templower than radiator: about35°C. Saferwithyoung children

ordisabled people.

Emission: 10% radiation 90% convection. Natural convector cases often made ofbuilders workfor better appearanceand robustness —(3). Opening atbottomAshould notbeless than width of finned tube. Inside depth of casing B should only allow mm clearance (6)forfinned tube.Grilleat top should have atleast70% open area.

3 Buildersworknaturalconvector—(1) type ofheat emitter

floorheating

mediumtempradiants

order of thermal comfortunder steadyconditions 1

2 3 radiators 4 naturalconvectors fanconvectorsorductedwarm air 5

approxorderof response

5 4 3 2 1

Forthermal comfortsurface tempofsurroundings better if higher thanairtemp;someradiant emission required, proportiondepending

onthermal insulation 4 Order ofthermalcomfort&speedofresponsefromheatingemitters

Fan convectors: similar tonaturalconvectors except that aircirculation byfan. High outputforsmall sizeand independent ofheight of casing. Heatoutputeasilycontrolled byfanspeed. May bepositioned overhead iffanadequate toblow hotairdown. Emission: 100%convection. Ducted warmair:forheating similartofan convectors. Difference is in method of heat distribution and in space occupied in rm. Used in domestic installations but in large bldg only when mech ventilation required. Emission: 100% convection.

386 Components

Se,vices: Heating systems C)

0 2 -a 0 CD

I-.. C')

In choosing heating system 3 decisions to make: fuelto be used means ofdistributing heat fromcentral source method ofheatemission in individualspaces

meter w size kW

CAPACITYOF INSTALLATION

d

h

doorw doorh

373

1980

1170

1530

1220

1450

560

2060

1220

1680

1370

1520

Approxcapacity of installationcan be calculated—(1). Example: 4-storeybldg 13 x 70 x (shallow plan bldg) ventilation rate2 air changes

933

2290

1370

1830

1680

1680

1400

2590

1450

1830

1680

1830

= intermediatefloors2x 13 x 70 x 72= = top floor 13 x 70 x 86

1867

2750

1450 2220

1680

1830

2800

2900

1710 2360

1830

1830

3733

3050

1730 2520

1830

1830

groundfloorl3x7Ox79

= =

total heat loss

71890 131040 78260 281190 280kW

ventilationrequired:upto1 867 kWventilation arto be4% of floor ar of meterrm dividedbetween high & low level;over 2800kW ventilationartobe 6% of floor ar

Bldg with intermittent heating need overload capacity: thisdepends on heat uptime. Normally 20% butmay be 100% excess capacity.

2 small bldg

shallowplan

Gas meter rmmm dimensions

deep plan bldg

bldg

number ofair changes

1

2

4

6

2

4

6

2

4

6

181

79 121 167 72 115 161

62 104 150 57 100 146

106 148 194

86 128 174

71 113 159

117

92 134 180

75 117

groundfloor intermediatefloor topfloor

102

singlestorey

146 192

92 135

159 205

163

Heatloss W/m2

GAS SUPPLIES

Distribution

Gas distributed through high pressure nationalgrid system toall regions.

The main: provision and maintenance of main gas supply in UK responsiblity ofBritish GasCorporation. Service pipe: where laid in public ground, British Gas Corporation

responsible for provision and maintenance of service pipe between main and inlet side of meter. Where part of service pipe laid in private land provision and maintenanceusually responsibilityof . Internal installation pipes from meter to appliances responsibility of bldg owner. No service pipe may be installed inunventilatedvoidspace orduct.

Protection ofpipes:gaspipes must beprotectedagainstcondensation, damp, freezing and corrosion. Flues andair supply for gas appliances(—÷Bibl 19).

Themeter Primary metersshould be situated closeas possible point of entryof servicepipe and allow easy accesswithout disturbing consumer.Meters should not beexposed to: possibilityofphysical damage continuous damp orwet excessive changes oftemp possibilityof with flame or elsparks. Gas meters mustbe separatedfromel meters byfrpartition. Domestic meters require space 330wide, 360deep, 660 high. Gas metersin larger installationsrequireseparate rm—(2).

ELECTRICITYTARIFFS 2 basic types of tariff for el heating: restricted hours tariff, with el available at night onlyatcheap rate; normaltariffs,with elavailableat any time but at 2—3 times restricted hours rate. With restricted hours tariff heat generated must be stored during night for use next day. Heat may be stored in structure of bldg, particularly concrete floors, in vessels containing waterunderpressure, or in wellinsulated high-density cores ofthermal stounits. Storing heat in form of hot watermostflexible arrangement. Direct el heating by radiant or convective emitters, often in form of individual portable appliances.

Oilstorage

4 main types ofoil stotanks for industrialand commercial oil fuels: mild steelwelded mildsteelsectional cast iron sectional reinforced concrete

Most widely used: mild steelwelded; usually horizontal, cylindrical or rectangular. If ground space limited vertical cylindrical tanks may be used.

Capacities

net sf0 capacity (—Bib130) can be calculated in 2 ways (use largest): 3 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption 2 weeks supply at max rateofconsumption plus usual quantityordered for 1 delivery. Ifmax weeklyoffiake less than 9001,stocapacitystillshould notbe less than 2950 Itoaccept 22701 deliveries. Desirable provide more than 1 tank in many circumstances, each of capacity accept at leastfull delivery, each tank having separate filling pipe, unless situated next each otherwhere common filling point can be used, with isolating valves. Different grades must bestored in separate tanks. Mm

SITING Should if possible be installed aboveground. Site should not be sublect extremesoftempand not beintrusive. Clearance should be allowedfor withdrawal offittingssuchassteam coilsand immersion heaters.

If underground

installation unavoidable, should be in specially constructed brickorconcrete chamber, with access to drain valve etc: dry ground and finished structure madewatertight. Sump must be provided in floor at 1 endand floor must slope towards sump. Buried tanks should not be indirect with soil: almost impossible avoid corrosive attack.

Components

387

Services: Heating systems

-A

OILSTORAGE(cont) s

Horizontal tanks on brick or reinforced concrete cradles. Downward slope of 1:50 fromdrawoff towards drain. Cradles should not be under tsorseams of tank plates; layer of bitumenised felt between cradle and tank. Height of tank s should provide at least 400 space between drain valve and ground level to allow access for draining and painting.

C)

0 9 -o 0 B

CD

.3

mm

150forsteelcradles

Verticaltanks

Up to 2750 dia may bedirectly erected on BC foundation. Base of tank with bitumen-based seal between tank and concrete. Largerdiatanksto be assembled on site should be erected on self-draining foundation with base plated on bitumen and sand or bitumen-macadambase.

4 Cylindricaloilsto tank —.(3)

BOILER ROOMS

Catchpit

Where overfilling or leakagewould be fire hazard or contaminatedrains catchpit required. Made of brick or concrete with oil-tight lining and sealed to concrete base under tank s. Capacity should be 10% greaterthan capacity of tank or tanks. Catchpit should have facility to remove waterbut no permanent drain.

Manholes —vpl 3

Every sf0tank should have manhole in accessible position,preferably at top. Circular: notless than 460 dia;ovalorrectangular: not less than 460 long, 410 wide. Vertical tanks over 3650 high should have additional manhole at base for maintenanceand cleaning.

Storagetemp oilclass

BS classification

mm

temp

sto °C

lightfueloil mediumfueloil heavy fueloil

E F

Boilers and associated eqp heavy and noisy. Generally best position on ground slab. Boiler rmshould not benext spaces that are toremain cool orquiet.

Accessfromroad toboilerhouse must be adequate forlargest piece of eqpto be replaced. Boilers require airforcombustionand boiler houses need good ventilation reduce internal temp. In large boiler houses separate flue desirable for each boiler, rising directlyto highest part of bldg. For size of boilerrm, access and ventilation requirements —vp388(1)— (4). Dimensions allow all layouts. Solid fuel boilers may need larqer boiler house for fuel handling eqp. If pressurisation eqp or chillers to be included boiler rm must belarger.

10 30 45

10

25 35

G

tempat outhow fromsto &forhandling°C mm

Space round eqp required for making pipe and el connexions and dismantling eqp for servicing. Goodmaintenanceofall plant essential for proper performance, fuel economy and max life.

ciear h

ioadkW 1

Delivery About 7 to 8 t capacity. Delivery vehicle dimensions similar to 7 t long wheelbase tipping vehicle. Conveyor delivery vehicles can stack to 2500above load level: ordinary delivery 1400. Factors: bulkdelivery foreconomy stocapacity mm 11/2 x capacity ofdelivery vehicle goodsf0 heightsaves space plan for mm manual handling eggravity feed fordelivery point to sto Where boilerfiredfromfront fuel should be stored in front orgravitateto front fromsto at higher level. Magazine type boilers should befed from fuel sto above hopper attop ofboiler.

CalorificValue& Density fuel

calorificvalue MJ/kg

densitykg/rn3

anthracite bituminous coal

35

330

30 28

800 400

coke

Calorificvalue& density capacityI 1140 2275 2730 3410 4550 5455 6820 9095 11365 13640 15915

3

w

w

h

Oilsto temp

SOLID FUEL

2

I

access door

lengthA 1655 1705 2010 2165 3150 3760 2900 3305 3940 3965 4880

diaB 990 1375 1375 1375 1375 1375 1830 1985 1985

2135 2135

capacity

length

A

dia B

18185 22730

5260 5870

2135 2290

27280 31825 36370 40915 45460 54555 68190 81230 90920

6175 5590 6505 7420 8030 9550 12195 12195 13720

2440 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 2745 3050 3050

Oilsto: dimensionsof cylindricaltanks—.(4)

ventilation Iouvres inlet

outlei

(low level) m2

(highievei) m2

upto200

7900

5300 3500

1500

2000

048

0422

200—600

9800

7900

4300

1700

2300

1.44

1.22

600—1800

16900

12200

5300

3400

3000

4.32

1800—6000

19100

18200

7300

3400

4200

144

11.646

6000—20000

26800

26000

9300

4400

5800

48 0

3668

5

Boilerrrndata

3.709

C,)

388 Components

Services: heatingsystems BOILER ROOMS(cont) emergency exit

pumps 1 to4 Boiler houselayouts;technicaldata-.p387(5)

CALORIFIERROOMS Calorifier rmis heating substation where heatinwater(orsteam) athigh pressure and tempchanged to heat atlow pressure and temp. Several calorifier rm may befed from1 boilerhouse in large installation.

In districtheating schemes with distribution at high pressure and temp, calorifier rmrequired at intake.

rating A

h

B

c

w

d

Calorifier rm should notbe next tospaces that are to remain cool.

D space at front

E space at back

F H 0 weight flue l/D space space space lull on left on above kg side right

side

Access required fromroad through bldg tocalorifier rm forlargestpiece ofeqp to be replaced. Calorifier rm must be ventilated to reduce internal temp.

610 610 35 915 35— 1020 610 100 1320 960 100— 1605 960 1 1180 300 1605 640 1525 300— 1605 2230 1525 1180 900 1765 2230 1885 1550

upto

Calorifierrm —(5) contain 2 hot watersto calorifiers, 2 water to water non-stocalorifiers, pumps and controls.

915

500 500 560

535 600 840 845 1130 775 1525

75 150 160 160 200 200 200 200

10 10

155 250 510 510 510 510

75

150 160 160

510 510 510 510

500 680 810 840 900 990 990 990

115 220 270 680 980 1750 2520 3350

102 150 178 225 254 2x 254 460

2x356

ATMOSPHERICGAS BOILERS Smaller gas boilers burn gas at low pressure, do not have forced draught; quieterthan pressure let boilers butless efficient. Boilersuptoabout35kWcapacity availablewitheither balancedflue or

6 Atmosphericgasboilerdata:dimensions fortop&bottomofrangeof each rating; I/O = internaldia

front elevation

conventional flue.

sideelevation

Spacemustbeallowedatfrontforwithdrawalofburners and atsideand backfor connexions —(6)(7)p389(l )—(4). loadWI

w

I

clearh access door ventilation louvres w

h

inlet

outlet

110wlevel) m2

(highlevel) m2 0422

up to200

6900

4800 3500

1100 1950

0.422

200—600

10100

6500 4300

1500

1 950

1.22

7000

1600

1950 3.709

600—1800 12000

5Calonfiermidata

5300

1.22

F4HB+4 G4

3.709

7

Atmosphericgasboiler

—---E

Components

389

Services: heatingsystems A

kw

h

35—100

1195

1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 900— 3000 3000— 10000

c

E F 0 H weight flue l/D space space space space space kit with at st onlett on above kg burner front back side right side

B w

rating

D

d

640 1450

610 940 940

1310 1310 1465 1830

2005 3060 3160 3520

1100 1000

2080 2080 2770 2980 5095 4115

3890 4350 5645 7040 8435

1415 2290 3250 2760 4130

2490 2490 3560 3785

500 1310 1310 1400 1500 1500 1640 3835 4370 6225

160

400 700 700 1425 1425 1505 1655 1655 1655

460 560 1210 1210 1210 1210 1230 1375 1375 1380

540 765 765 800 1000 1000

1500 1500 2000 2000

890 1690 2915 2915 4850 6095 6095 30990 30990 49490

200 200 254 432 432 432

432 660 710 1016

1 Pressurejetgasboilersdata:dthension fortop&bottomofeachheating range —'(3)

rating

kw

A h

upto35

950

35—100

950 1195

1470 100—300 1550 1780 300—900 2060 2490 900— 2820 3000 3655 3000— 3950 10000 5250

B

C d

D

B space space with at at burner front back

w

550 845 550 925 640 1005

1310 1265 1465 1830 3170 3170 3180 3180 4115

2005 2930 2930 3150 3945 3965

6535 7045 8435

800 800 800 1215 1215 1220 1220 1450 2290 3050 2880 3695

400 400 500 1310 1310 1320 1320 1415 1415 3535 4370 6225

F 0 H weight flue lID space space space kill onleft on above kg side right side 150 150 150 155

700 700 700 700 1505

1655 1655 1655

205 205 205 355 1000 1000 1425 1505 1505 1550 1550 1550

200 200

200 200 1000 1000 1000 1000

1500 2000 2000 2000

185

230 260 1380 2915 4675 4675 6100 9755 30990 30990 63100

152 152

203 204

254 255 350 400

PRESSUREJET GASOR OIL BOILERS On pressure jet boilers burner forced-draught fan assembly projects considerably from front. Assembly often hinged for access to boiler shell for maintenance. In largersizes considerable space required at backfor easybend flue connexion —'(1)(2)(3).

STORAGECYLINDERS

Domestichotwatercylinders

Domestic hot water cylinders must be installed with enough space make and unmake connexions to fit or remove cylinder —÷(4)—(6) p390(1). In rectangular cupboard connexions on diagonal save space

-'(7).

Largeindirect cylinders

Indirectcylindersneed only low primary circulation pressure and will operatewithgravity flowifcorrectly placed in relationto boiler. Large indirect cylinders have bolted head to allow internal annular heater to be withdrawn and replaced. For withdrawal space required —'p390(3). Indirect cylinders may be vertical or horizontal —÷p390(2)— (5). Horizontal useful if headroom limited but vertical more efficient in preventing mixing ofincoming coldwaterwith remaining hot. Inspection opening oftenprovided insideofcylinder.

400

710 710 1016

Pressurejetoil-filled boilers data:dimension fortop &bottomofeach heating range—'(3)

capacityA

B

I

diawith insulation

hwfth insulation

0

D

D-

spacefor

space

space

connexions above for aboveto opposite connexions withdraw sides flnersion

E space round overmsuIstion for

handaccess

hester

E

I

c

I

78 101

119

CD

91

103 115 127 151

175

238 307

Pressurejetgas&oil-filledboiler—.(1)(2)

414

4

990 990 1145 765 840 915 990 1145 1295 1295 1295 1675

510 560 560 610 610 610 610 610 610 685 760 760

115 115 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 140 155 155

I

insulation

6

B

114 100 123 145 170 215 255 332 418

-

Domesticverticaldirectcylinder

—'(4)

7

Domesticverticalcylinder: connexionsondiagonal—'(4)

5

1145 1145 1145 1525

C

D

0

space for insulation connexions opposite

space

space

connexions

withdraw

560 610 610 610 610 660 660 760 760

115 115 115 140 140 155 155 185 185

B

diewith

Sea

C

840 840 995 615 690 765 840 995

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Domesticverticaldirect cylindersdata—'(6)(7)

capacityA hwith

-I

115 115 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 140 155 155

1145

840 990 1145 1295 1345 1550 1450 1830

115 115 115 140 140 155 155 185

185

abovefor

B

apaceround overWiauladenfor flnerafon handacoess aboveto

MS

Domesticverticalindirectcylindersdata —'p390(1)

995

690 840 995 1145 1195 1400 1300 1680

100 100 100 100

iuo 100 100 100 100

390 Components

Services. heatingsystems STORAGECYLINDERS(cont)

STORAGECALORIFIERS Sto calorifiers serve same purpose as indirect cylinders except that heater is tubularbattery in side requiring pumped prrnarycirculation. Vertical withdrawal space not required. Sto calorifiers may be vertical .—*(6)(8) orhorizontal —*(7)(9). Vertical more efficient.

I

Domesticverticalindirectcylinder

2

Vertical indirectsto cylinder—.(3)

—.p389(5) capacity

B

capaotyA

diawith

hwith

insulation

insulation

C space for connesions

D

115 115 115 115 115 115 115

115 115 155 155 155 185 185 185 185 185

space for connexions

E space

abovefor connex,ons

600 600 650 650 750 750 750 750 850 850 900 900

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800

940 1255 1335 1590 1415 1590 1765 1945 1685 1945 1925 2205 1995 2185 2305 2535 2185 2535 2505 2705 3145 2995 3335 3285

1000 1000 1050 1050 1200 1200 1300 1350 1350 1500 1500 1600

2100 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

140 140 140 140 155 155 155 185 185 185 185

385 385 455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660

215 215 249 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 305 305 305 305

215 215 215 215 215 215

I

F

space above for withdrawal

3(X)

700 760 950 820 950 1080 1215 1020 1215 1200 1410 1 252 1 395 1 485 1 660 1395 1 660 1635 1 785 2115 2005 2260 2220

350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 3500 40(9)

s -C

B

4

I

100 150

E space abovefor connexions

630 630 680 680 790 790 790 790 890 890 955 955 1080 1080 1130 1130 1280 1280 1380 1430 1430 1590 1590 1690

80 80 95 95 95 115 115 115 115 115 140 140 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 185 185 185 185

385 385 455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660

865 1180 1260 1515 1340 1515

1690 1870 1610 1870 1850 2130 1920 2110 2230 2460 2110 2460 2430 2630 3070 2920 3260 3210

465 700 760 950 820 950 1080 1215 1202 1215 1200 1410 1255 1395 1485 1660 1395 1660 1635 1785 2115 2005 2260 2220

355 355 435 47470

720 720

820 820 820 820 920 920 970 970

340

1995

2185 2305 2535 2185 2535 2505

1070 1150 1200 1200 1350 1350 1470 1520 1560 1710 1710 1710

470 470 520 520 560 560 560 560

2705 3145 3075

3415 3365

D

E space above for connexions

front back space for spacefor withdrawal connexions

455 455

155 155 155 185 185 185 185

455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660

85 215 215 240 240 240 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 305 305

B (with insulation

745 745

C front space for connexions 315 315 315 315 315 340 340 340 340 355 355 435 470 470 470 470 520 520 560 560 560 560

1325 1580 1405 1580 1755 1935 1675 1935 1915 2195 1985 2175 2295 2525 2260 2580 2510 3040 3135 3220 3325 3540

855

855 855 855 955 955 1005 1005 1120 1120 1170 1170 1345 1345 1445 1495 1495 1645 1645 1645

C D frontspace back forcoil space for

E space

withdrawal connexions

connexions

1330 1585 1410 1585 1760 1940 1680 1940 1920 2200 1990 2260 2380 2610 2260 2610 2600 2800 3280 3130 3470 3420

455 455 455 485 485 485 485 485 540 540 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 595 660 660 660 660

85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 125 125 125 125 125 125 160 160 190 190 190 190

abovefor

note:aspace 01 300 required forgeneral access & 500braccess toinspection opening

7 Horizontalsto calorifiers

note: aspace of 300 required forgeneralaccess&500foraccessto inspectionopening

S Horizontalindirectsto cy'indersdata—.(4)

2205

insulation

250 3(9) 350

800 900 10(X) 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 35(X) 40(X) 4500

—.(5)

D back space for connexions

315 315 315 315 315 340 340 340

hwith

2(X)

5(X) 6(X) 7(X)

Horizontalindirectstocylinder

A B C hwith with front insulation insulation space for withdrawal

1335 1590 1415 1590 1765 1945 1685 1945 1925

C

6 Vertical sto calonfiersdata—.(8)

450

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1200 1350 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

1065 1065 1115 1115 1265 1265 1365 1415 1415 1565 1565 1565

capacity A

f I I

715 715 815 815 815 815 915 915 965 965

C front spacefor connexions

opening

4(X)

capacity

insulation

note: aspaceof300 required forgeneral access &500foraccess 10 inspection

Vertical indirectsto cylinders data —.(2)

D.----

hwith

insulation

450(1

Opening

3

B

diawith

200 250

465

note: space of300 required brgeneral access & 500foraccess to inspection

A

D.58

A-

data—. (9)

-S.C

Vertical sto calorifier—.(6)

D9

B

Horizontalsto calorifier—.(7)

Components

391

Services: Heating systems kW

100 125 150 175

A hwith

B

insulation

insulation

diawith

880 1390 1940 2550

225 400 500

395 395 420 420 470 470 525 525 575

1725

2640 2100 2710 2225 2835 2590

725 800

1125 1250

C space for pipework on 2 opposite sides

spacefor

160 160

85 85 160 160 215 215 280 280 375 375 375

215 215 280 280 375 375 480 480 580

575 615

pipework

on3rd

D spacefor withdrawal

side

575 1185 1490

TANK ROOMS In all but smallest bldg should beat least2 cold water sto tanks—'(3) to allow for draining down and maintenancewithoutinterrupting supply. Morethan 2tanks may be necessaryforsto required bywater authority. Feed and expansion tank for heating system also generally installed in

1220

2135 1540

2150 1 560

2170

tank rm —.(4). Tank rm should be well above highest distribution pipeworkand outlets to give adequate headand flowrate.

1880

Non-stowater to watercalorifiers data—. (2)

0

C 2

k

k

B

water

1>c

Non-stowatertowatercalorifier

nominal

3

tankdimensions

capacity

up to 20 20—45 45—60 60—75 75—150 150—225 225—300 300—375 375—450 450—600 600—750 750—1200 1200—1500

4

I

I

40 70 90 110 170 220 260 300 350

430 550

880 1000

w

d

475 610 610 610 610 686 736 762 914 914

305 305 406 432 457 508 559 584 610 606 610

305 371 371 432 482 508 559 610 584

475 610 610 610 686 736 762 914 914 1220 965 1170 1520

Feed &expansiontanksdata

686 762

864 889 914 1140 1220 1220 1520

w

d

305 305 406 432 508 559 584 610

305 371 371 432 508 559 610 584 610 610 787 889 813

660 610 762

889 914

A clear space of 500 round and above all tanks necessary for access,

with additional space at entrance to tank rm. Mm dimension over tank less than 450 I capacity 300. Access allow installation of replacement tanks desirable. Otherwise old tank may be cut up, removed in pieces and replaced with sectional tank. Cold water sto tanks may produce condensation on outside oftank unless insulatedwith vapour barrier. Drip tray often provided prevent condensationdamagingceilings below.

I

610 610 686 787 736 889 813 914 1 020 1220 1220

Cold water tanks, opentop rectangular,data

heater

ratingkW

tank dimensions

1220 965 965 1090 1170 1520 1520 1 830 1830 2440

—.(1)

boileror water

capacity

Non-sto caloritiers used to change heating water temp or pressure without mixing. Horizontal calorifiers more usual than vertical but in smaller sizes may take upmore space. Interiormay havetobewithdrawn annually forinspection and space must be allowed—.(1 )(2).

2105

note:calorifiers may beverticalor horizontal: space of500 required for accessonsides with pipeconnexionsand300 foraccess on side without connexions 1

NON-STORAGECALORIFIERS

(3)

Tanks larger than those listed either purpose-made or built up from plate sections 1 000 squareor 1 200 square. Sectionaltanksrequire 500 clear space under tankand bearersshaped allow bolts be tightened under tsbetween plates.

392 Components

Services: Venti/ation will be necessary in addition to duct distribution system to individual

ESTIMATINGCAPACITY OF AIR HANDLING PLANT

spaces.

Quality of air—p15

Forpreliminary estimatesofspace requiredforductworkand air handling plant rateof 8 airchanges adequate tocarryheating and cooling loads of most bldg:

Interconnexion between extractfanand freshairinletof air handlingunit partly determines size of air handling plant rm. Generally extract fan is separate from airhandling unit—(2). Alternative isforextract fan to be partofair handling unit; this avoids interconnecting ductwork but complicates fresh air inlet and exhaust outletconnexions to outside —(3). Silencers generally necessaryon supply and extractductwork toreduce fan noise in distribution ductwork. Silencers should ideally be halfway through plant rm wall or floor toreduce flanking sound transmission.

150

Where otherairchange rates required capacity will be approx floorarof bldg x n ACHm3s1 1200 where n = numberof air changes

AIR HANDLINGPLANTROOMS Air handling plant bulky but relatively light; considerable additional space required in plant rm for duct connexions. Large fresh airinlet and exhaust openings required: foreconomy should lead directly tooutside. Withinternal air handling plant rm largeduct connexions to outside air

I air-

volume

conditioning

m1s

0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11

13 16 20 1

I ventilation

w

h

mm

mm

mm

9300 10000 10800 11500 11700 13100 13100 14700 15000 16400 16800 18400 19600 20400

7200 7900 8700 9700 9700 11000

3500 2400 3900 2400 3900 2600 4400 2900 4700 3300 5500 3700 6000 4000 6500 4300 6800 4600 7200 4800 7300 5300 7900 5800 8700 6400 9900 6700

11000 12500 12800 14100 14500 16100 17400 18200

Air handling plant rm generally positioned ontop ofbldg to reduce these problems. Connexion to boiler and chiller rm by heating and chilled water pipework.

Air handling unitcapacity will beapprox floorarofbldg x m3s1

air

Fresh air inlet and exhaust openings noisy; fresh air should be taken fromwell above street level to be free fromdust and fumes.

mm

Provide adequate space in plant rm towithdraw individual components ofair handling unit: this requires spacealongside unitslightlywider than unit. Elsewhere mm 500 access space should be provided —.(4)(5) Access route fromroadtoair handlingplant rm should allow for removal and replacement offan section and should be same cleardimensions as door opening —(1 )—(3).

arof

arof access door freshair main h & exhaust ducts w openings m2

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

m2

mm

mm

0.067 0.13 0.2 0.27

1 300 1300

1600 1 600 1600 1800

2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 7.2

0.4

8.8

1.47 1.73 2.13 2.67

10.4 12.8 16.0

0.53 0.67

0.8 0.93 1.2

Airhandlingplant midata

1300 1500 1700 2000 2000 2300 2300 2400 2500 2700 3000 3200

2000 2300 2300 2600 2600 2700 2800 3000 3300 3500

air

lair-

I

volume1 m3s 1

conditioning

ventilation

0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11

13 16 20

h

4330 4530 4530 4805 5030 5330 5330 6430 6430 6910 6910 7350 7530 7730

2220 2420 2420 3005 3005 3220 3220 4220 4220 4640 4640 5080 5320 5520

1200 1500 1500

4 Airhandlingunitsdata

m3s 0.5 1.0

1.5 2 3 4 5

6 7 9 11

13 16

20 5

handlingunit

box +fan

1090 1470 1090 1670 1090 1815 1700 1280 2125 1900 1480 2125 2280 1780 2410 2635 1780 2410 2650 2080 3110 2890 2080 3110 3200 2200 3515 3200 2255 3515 3600 2520 3955 4000 2730 4210 4600 2930 4410

basedoncoil facevelocity of 2.5rn/s1 2tobeaddedto I of AHU if extract fanto be in unit

3 Airhandlingplantmiwith extract fanin

Iofmix

section2

airvolume

2 Airhandlingplant rm withseparatefan

w

I

w

h

785 655 775 850 775 915 850 775 915 1100 1010 1220 1180 1125 1375 1295 1240 1525 1850 1540 1890 1850 1540 1890 1850 1540 1890 1915 1650 1975 2070 1880 2255 2220 2110 2480 2680 2350 2820 2850 2580 3080

Extractfans data

Components 393

Services: Thermal insulation

1

element

resistancem2 C1W

internal surtace of wall internal surface of ceilings & floors(downwardheat flow) internal surface of ceilings & floors(upward heat tlow( outsidesurface of wall sheltered exposure outsidesurface of wall normal exposure outsidesurface of wall severe exposure outsidesurface of roofsheltered exposure outsidesurface of roofnormal exposure outsidesurface of roofsevereexposure unventilated airspace 5thick unventilated airspace 20 thict ormore loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched root loftspacebelowunsealed,tiledpitched roof withfeltbelowtiles air space behind tileson tilehungwall airspaceincavitywall

0.123 0.15 0.106 0.08 0.055 0.03 0.09 0.045 0.02 0.11 0.18 0.11 0.18 0.12 0.18

Conduction:

Radiation: transfer of heat between bodies at distance by electromagnetic radiation.

Resistanceofwalltoageof heatthrough itmadeupfrom resistance of each element of wall, eg resistance of brick wall will be sum of resistance caused by conduction through brickand resistance through convective and radiative transfer at outside surface. Plastered cavity brickwall will include resistance ofairspace and plaster etc.

Thermal transmittance (or U value) of bldg element: reciprocal of

thermal conductivity

material

therma( conductivity (k)W/m °C

(k)W/m C aerated concrete aluminium asbestos cement asphalt

brickwork,common carpet

compositionflooring denseconcrete expandedpolystyrene fibreboard glass

directtransfer ofheat through a material.

Thermalconductivity (k): property of materialalone. Convection: transport ofheat through fluidsbycirculation: affects heat transfer throughairspaces and airmovement oversurfaces.

Surface&airresistances material

HEAT TRANSFER

0.21 160

gypsumplaster

0.7 0.05

hardboard lightweight plaster limestone linoleum plasterboard

0.44 1.5

rooflngfelt sandcement

0.035 0.057

slate

0.4 0.43

steel

1.05

thatch

glassfibre

granite

0.035 2.5

granolithic

1.16

timber woodchipboard

0.46 0.08 0.2 1.5 0.22 0.16 0.19 0.53 2.0 50 0.09 0.15 0.15

woodwool

0.1

resistance ie

U=-— 1

R

Rsi+Rl+R2++Ra+Rso

where R51

= internal surface resistance = = =

R50 outside surface resistance airspace resistance Ra R1, R2,etc resistance ofcomponents

where I = thickness ofcomponent layer (m) k = thermal conductivity W/m °C Units of U are W/m2 °C and heat flow through composite structure is given by U A(t1 — t0) where A isareaand t1 arid to are inside and outside temp.

Valuesof inside and outside surface resistances and air space resistances—v(1) and values of conductivity (k) for common bldg materials —(2).

2 Thermalconductivities of commonbldgmaterials construction

UvalueW/m2'C

solid225brickwallunplastered solid225brickwallplastered cavitywall2 x 105plastered on inside cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block innerleafplastered on inside cavitywall105brickouterleaf100aeratedconcrete block innerleafplastered on insidewith13 polystyrene incavity l50concrete 150concretewilh50 woodwool aspermanent shuttering,

2.3 2.1 1.5

plastered weatherboarding ontimberframing with10 plasterboardlining &50glass fibreincavity 19 asphalt on 150denseconcrete roof 19 asphalt on 150aeraled concrefeslabroof 3tayer feltonprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with plasterboard ceiling 3layerfelt onprescreeded 50woodwool slabs with plasterboard ceiling& 25 glass fiblre between joists 3layer felton 13 fibreboard onmetaldecking 3layer felton25polystyrene onmetal decking pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling pitchedroof, tileson felton boarding withplasterboardceiling with 5Oglassfibre internal 20timberboarded flooron joistswithplasterboard ceiling internal 150concrete floorwith50 screed singleglazing anyweighttimber frame singleglazing metalframe double glazing anyweighttimberframes double glazing metalframes withthermalbreak

3

U valuesforcommonbldg structures

0.96 0.7 3.5 1.1

0.62 3.4 0.88 0.9 0.6 2.2 1.1

1.3 0.5 1.6 2.4 4.3 5.6 2.5 3.2

Example:Calculate Uvalue ofcavity wallconsisting of 105 brick outer leaf with 25-render, 50 air space, internal leaf of 150 aerated concrete blockwith 10 plasterboard lining on25 battens: inside surface resistance—+(1)= 0.123 resistanceof1Oplasterboard—.(2) = 0.01/0.16 = 0.063 resistance of airspace —÷(1) = 0.18 resistance of 150 aerated concrete—*(2)= 0.150/0.21 = 0.714 resistance of airspace—*(1)= 0.18 resistance of 105 brick—(2)= 0.105/0.7 = 0.15 resistance of render —*(2) = 0.025/0.53 = 0.047 outside surface resistance—v(1)(riormal)= 0.055 total resistance R = 1.1512 m2degC/W

U = 1/A =0.66W/m20C Uvaluesof some common structures fornormal exposure —v(3). Condensation....vp394

394 Components

Services: Thermal insulation CONDENSATION outside

Moisture inside bldg arises from such sources asexternal air, breath of occupants, cooking, washing, flueless gasand oil heaters.Warm aircan hold more moisture than cold air —.(1) Warm air cooled becomes saturatedat tempcalled dew point, which depends onamountofmoisture initially in warm air. Condensationoccurs on surfaces with tempbelow dew point Condensation prevented by (a) ventilation: introduction of outdoor air with lowmoisture content; (b) heating:raisessurfacetemp: (c) insulation: indirectly by increasing temp for heat output available. Calculationot condensationrisk requires knowledgeottemp and moisture differences between inside and outside air.

Example:

Unheated bedr at 6'C, outside air — IC, wall U value = Ventilation rate 1 airchange/hr, rm volume 35 m.

6 5 4 3 temp 2

06 W/m2"C.

0

moisture contentof saturated air at — iC = 0.0035 kg/kg outdoorair in winterapprox 90% saturatedmoisture content = 0 90 >< 0 0035 = 0 0032 kg/kg indoor airmoisture = outdoor air moisture + added moisture assume moisture input from2 occupants at 0 040 kg/hr. outdoorairadded = airchangerate x volume = 35m2 = 35 x 1.2 = 42

—2

19 weatherboarding

kg,

2 xO,040 moisture added = _______= 0,0019kg/kg 42 indoorair moisture = 0.0032 -f 0.0019 = 0 0051 kg/kg —.(t), indoorair dew point = 4 2"C tempdistribution through wall in proportion to resistances. U value 0.6

outside

-"C

dewpoint corresponds tointernal moisturecontent

gives resistance-O = 1 7, inside surface resistance = 0 123, temp difference insideto out = 7 C,surface is

inside 6"C

= USCbelow rm temp

1.7

ie 5 5' C. Condensation will not fake place

condensation cannot occur

Cold bridges

Wall of previous example bridged by concrete lintel U value 3.5W/m2 ,C. resistance surface

= —= 0 286

isx

7 = 3"C below rmtemp,

ie3'C: condensation will take place vapourbarrier

Interstitialcondensation

behind plasterboard

Assume wall with U value = 0.6 W/m2 "C consists of 19 weatherboarding on timber studs, 9 plasterboard on studs with 50 glass fibre between. Tempthroughwall obtained by proportioning total tempdrop

according to resistances —.(2):moisture contents of inside and outside airtakenas previous example. Within partition moisture varies but will

be constant through air space and porous insulation. Dewpoint corre-

sponding tomoisture content isabovetemp in airspaceand condensation occurs. Vapour barrier on rm sideof insulant reduces moisture content in cold sideofwalltothat ofoutdoor air,tempinwall willalways be above dew point ofoutside airsocondensation cannot occur

0.010 0.009 0.008 i..,

0.007

—

-..

—

—

U.UOb

0.001

21

temperature C

1

Moisturecontentof saturated air

—1

ci

0.004 0.003 0.002

4

0

— — —

-.; 10 9 8

'

—2 —3

2

Occurrenceof interstitialcondensation & itsprevention by vapourbarrier

onwarm side ofinsulation

Components

395

Services: Sound insulation Sound measured in decibels (dB); increase of 10 dB gives approx doubling in loudness. Sounds of equal level in dB but at different frequencies (frequency roughly equivalent to pitch) not equally loud: always necessary make frequency analysisofsound; 'overall' levels or single figure measurements notrelated frequency little use.

Example: from—.( 1) SRI of 100 concrete (surfaceweight 230 kg/rn2)is46dB; SRI of9 plywood (surface weight 4.5 kg/rn2)is 19 dB difference between values of SRI is 27 dB; ratio of areasis 0.01 from reduction is SRI: 8dB SRI ofcomposite: 46 — 8 = 38dB

SOUND REDUCTIONINDEX(SRI)

Effect ofsmall holes and gapsin and round partitions can befound using —.(2)and taking SRI of hole as0dB: egitcomposite partition in previous example with SRI dB at 500 Hzhasgaps of 1.5 wide down edges, ar of gaps = 2 x 0.0015 x 3 = 0.009 m2; ratio of ar = 0.001; difference between values of SRI = 38 — 0; soreduction in SRI partition will from —..(2) be9dB, giving atotal of38 — 9 = 29dB: gaps, though small,more significant than plywood infill . All structures intendei give sound insulation must be sealed airtight to eliminate holes and gaps. ts between different materialsand round pipes and ducts etcmust be filled with resilient sealant to eliminate opening of gaps from shrinkage, differential thermal expansion, structural movement etc.

Measure ofsound insulationagainstairborne sound: difference in noise levels between 2 spaces separated by wall or floor corrected for acoustical conditions in quiet rm. Conversely, subtracting SRI of 1 element from noise level in 1 rmgivesafter correction noise level to be expected in second rm caused by sound transmitted by that element. SRI = L, — [2 — log S/A where L1 and [2 are noise levels in rm 1 & 2, S is partition area, A is total sound absorption in rm 2

SRI depends on weight and will vary with frequency. Values for 1-leaf homogeneous solid partitions can be calculated—.(1). Method ofcalculation: enterfigure at surface weightof and draw horizontal line in lower partof figure draw verticallinesthrough intersectionsofthis line with frequency scale into upperpartof figure read off SRI at intersections with graph for appropriate material: lower partsofgraph identical fors of same weight; graphs change from initial slope toflat 'plateau' atpointsindicated for each material

(2)

Adding sound absorbent tile or to wall orfloorwill have noeffect on SRI except through negligible increase in weight. Sound absorption will affectfinal levels in receiving rm through factor log S/A while sound absorption insourcermwill limitbuild-up of reflected sound and therefore levelsthathave to be designed against. Rm level isonly reduced3 dB for doubling in absorption. Principal use of sound absorption is to control character ofsound in rm. Acceptable noise levels

Example:

SRI of 100 conqrete: surface weight = 230 kg/m2 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 frequency Hz SRIdb 37 38 38 46 56 62 68 74

3

Formore complexstructuresSRI canbeestimated—p396(1). From —.(1) can be seen that weight of partition must be doubled to increase SRI by6dB below plateau regions. IfSRI too low forapplication because of plateau, increase only possible without massive increase in weightby changing material, egfrombreezeblocktobrick.

35 30 °cD

Composite structure consisting of2elements ofdifferent SRI (eg wall with window) will have SRI closer to weakest element as found from Method of calculation: 1 calculate ratio of areas of 2 elements and difference between values of SRI at each frequency 2 entergraph on horizontal scaleat difference in SRI 3 draw vertical line to intercept curve appropriate to area ratio 4 read off reduction in SRI on vertical scale 5 subtract fromhigh SRI to give SRI of composite repeat steps 2—5 for each frequency

25

ce,1, >

20

C

15

10 5 0

p18

--

7-

, - /- 7

- 7 7 7

? ? 7 7 77 (ilr — —

o

io.1(

-

5

10

15 20

—

?

0.01

2

iiU)

0.001

7— —

25 30 35 40

difference betweenvalues of soundreductionindex dB

2

SRI ofa 2ar composite structure

70 60 50 'C a)

C C

0 0

40 30 —

0 C 0 0,

20

concr breezeblock plaster brick aluminium glass plywood

10

12.5 25

50 100 200 400 800 frequency Hz

Calculation of soundreductionof 1-leafpartitionsof commonmaterials

1

396 Components

Services:Sound insulation

9 -a C

SOUNDREDUCTION

-

thickness

matarisi& construction

weight octave band centre frequency Hz kg/m2

______________________________

INDICES

63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000

31

1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

CD

singlesheetmaterials aluminium, corrugated asbestos insulation board onwoodframe chipboard on woodframe fibreboard on woodframe

steelsheetl000x2000 steel sheet1 000 2000withstiffenem 1.6 plasterboardon woodframe 400centres 1.7 1&Gwood, tssealed

U)

2. 2.1

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

3.5 3.6 3.7 3.6 3.9

x

laminated sheetmaterials gypsum wallboard 2 x 12 thick 9plywood 1 000 213)0 2 no 9plywood s as2.2 bolted together gasbestos boardfaced 1.2 steel sheet laminatedinsulation board faced bothsideswith 3hardboard

x

masonry brickwork: plain plastered 1 aide plastered both sides plastered both sides clinkerconcrete blocks, 50 with 9plaster bothsides reinforced concrete cellular concrete, plastered 1 side hollowclay blocksplastered 1side denseconcrete

singlepartitions ofcomples s 2 x 12skinsof plaster loined byhoneycomb webofplaster 42 dittowithcellsfilledwithtoamedplaster 4.3 2skinsofplasterboard 9loined bycardboard

0.9

6 0.9 12

2.44 8.4 16 3.9

— —

33

31

13 17 13 16 17 15 21

16 18 17 20 18 19 17 29 13 18 25

31

14 20

24 7 15 22

4 10

17

2

4

8 11

— —

16

129

6

1.8

12.9

6

9.5

3

10 14 8

5

12

12 — —

18 2

9

33 24 25 21

27 23 25 22

33 29

30 25 32 30

42 33 26 30 37

36

28 24

31

30

36

31

32 25 24 27

30 19 30 37

35 22 30 38

14

20

23

19

20

54 57 58 58

56 59 60 60

46 57 56 37 71

51

25

14

25 18 12

22 4.5 9.0 37

32

13

115 125 140

190 210 260 465

26 26 30 35

32 36 32 36 32 34 40 41

37 36 36 45

40 38

46 48

41

51

48

56

76 100 220 90 150

96 230 220

25 28 30 30 35 38 20 22 22 20 25 30 38 38 38

35

30

38

41

40 48

34

43 32 58

51

33 48

70 100

47

— 24 —

26 18

24 28

29

28 33

34

18

24 25

26

58

58 65

19 29

— —

18

18

23

30 30

32 34

30 30

32

23

24 26

50

23

—

20

21

24

27

27

27

30

50

14

—

15

17

19

25

30

35

40

30

11

—

14

15

21

25

28

26

30

125

49

28 38

34

41

46

50

54

58

120 125

25 29

12 15 20 25

31

35 34

37 47

45 39

46 50

48 52

125 65

29

— — — — —

20 25 10 10

37 14

42 22

49 28

46 42

59 42

63 44

280 300 300

380 420 420

39 43 39 28

45 48 40

55 58 45

55 57 62

79 77 73

87 86 82

— — —

16

18

31

36

46

50

27

25

34

35

34

42

9

13

22

29

42

42

9

255

75

300

5

19 22

33 65

32 43

65 58 41

78

85

4.

4.1

egg-crate

4.4 ditto with 12 plasterboard 4.5 25polystyrene faced each sidewith3 hardboard on 9plasterboard 46 12plasterboard faces tocoreofparallel packed straws

4.7 wood chipboard withverticalcylindrical holes 15 diaat38 centres 5. 5.1

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

sludpartitions lead plywood l2core20kg/m2on SOs 100 studsat400 centres plasterboard 9.5on 50 100studs at 400centres asabovebut plasterboard 127 asabove, 12.7 boards& with25 mineral woolblanket between studs 6plywood on50 50studsat600 centres

x

x

doublemasonry 115brickwith 50cavitynoties 6.2 asabovebut plastered bothsidesto 12 6.3 asabovebutwith93.7 butterflyties 6. 6.1

doublepartitions olsheetmaterials 7.1 asbestos board, 6,on separate 50 25 studs, at300 centres spaced 12apart,studs outermost 7.2 asabovebut tiledwithfinesand between leaves 7.3 9plywood, 1 leafon 50 50 studsother leaf on 25 50studsat1200centres spaced Soapail 7.

9. typicalfloorconstructions 9.1 concrete, 130 9.2 asabove but with50 floating screed 9.3 251& C boarding on oists at400centres, 12 plaster ceiling 9.4 as9.3 with50 asnd on ceiling 9.5 as9.4 withboards 'floating' on 25 glasswool blanket across joists

10.4 10.5

typical windowconstructions 3glazinginusealed openable frames dittoinweatherstripped openable frames 3 3thermal glazing units in weatherstripped openable frames 6glazing inframes as 10.1 asto.1with additional frame150away glazed with4glass, reveals lined withabsorbent as10.5 but with4glass in both frames & sealed

TypicalSRI indB

—

30

42

168

15

—

300

310

36 40 38

45

50

56

61

61

62

290

50

25 28 28

38

44

49

52

56

58

282

32

36 32

45 42

49 49

64

32

20 21 22 13 15 18

58

134

58

64

64 64

130

245

32 40 38 32 34 38

38 43

48 48

58 54

64 61

70 68

82 75

10 14 18 28 32 35

25 40

37 45

39 50

45 60

48 64

48 68

28 32 37

42

47

53

64

68

74

— —

16 16

15 18

17 16

19 23

22 26

18 21

22 23

— —

18 30

23 22

19

21

23

28

25 30

24 23

25 29

—

27 25 25 38

28 35

50

51

41

38

41

12 17 18 24

24

49 30 27

54 56 28 27

45 48 49 24 29

42 38 40 28

3

7.3

+

10.6 10.7 aslO.6bot6glass&200airspace 10.8 6glazing insealed frame 10.9 12 glazing insealed frame 1

— 43

— 22 — 26

15

x

8. doublepartitions of ccrnples s 6.1 plaster, 2leaves as4.1 with20slagwool blanket incavity 8.2 plasterboard,2leaves as5.2 spared 50 apart with25glasswoolincavity 8.3 12asbostce wallboard on 30 timber frame spaced 200apart 8.4 as8.3 but 50 spacing

10.2 10.3

—

x

x

10. 10.1

7.2

32

38

4 212

— 30

tO

— 35

6

15

6

12

30

12

27

41

38 48

Components

397

Services: Soundinsulation SOUNDABSORBENTTREATMENTS Surfaces of rm partlyreflect and absorb sound according tonature and constructionofsurface. Proportion will vary with frequency. Result of reflection is reverberant sound which merges withdirect sound and affectsitscharacter. Period ofsustained sound knownasreverberationtime. Suitablereverberationtime dependson purpose ofrmandisestablished fromexperience —( 1).

E

Reverberation time 0.16V Can be calculated fromT = A whereVis rm volume m3 and Aistotal absorption in rm. A is found at each frequency by multiplying area (in m2)ofeach type ofsurface treatment by its absorption coefficient and summing over all different surfaces of rm.

E E 0.

0

Absorbentmaterials May be classified into 3types:

(a) porousmaterials: absorbsound overwhole frequency range, efficiency depends on thickness; (b) absorbents: s over airspace absorb sound over narrow frequency range according to weight and airspacedepth; useful for low frequency absorption: too much absorption may be introduced by inadvertent use of seemingly solid materials which can only be fixedoveran air space; (c) cavity resonators can be 'tuned' to give selective absorption over narrow frequency range; of little practical importance as absorption obtained more efficiently using (a) or (b) but canbe made from'non-acoustic' materials, egconcrete:design not easy.

Absorption coefficients

For common materials given —.(2), for use in calculation of reverberation times. For absorption coefficients of proprietary acoustic tiles refer manufacturers' literature; but make sure method ofmounting oftilessame fortest data as for intended application. Surface finish and treatment as well as subsequent redecoration will also affect absorption. Painting porous acoustic tile will destroyabsorption at middle and high frequencies. Absorption of people and seats in auditoria taken into using absorption units/item, and air/cm3 of rm volume.

mivolume m3 1

Optimumreverbaration timesforrm of differentsizes &uses 125Hz 500Hz 2000Hz 4000Hz boarding (match) l5thickoverairspaceonsolidwall brickwork:plainor painted breeze block:unplastered, plain pile carpet+ underfeltonsolidfloor pile carpet+ underfelton board & batten floor pile carpeton imperviousbacking onconcretefloor felted orwovencarpetonimpervious backingonconcrete floor concrete,plainortooledorgranolithic finish cork, linoleumorwoodblockfloor (orwall) curtains(mediumfabrics)hungstraight &closetowall curtains(mediumfabrics)doublewidths infoldsspaced awayfrom wall 25thick hairfelt,coveredbyscrimclothon solid backing fibreboard(soft) onsolid backing, 12nominal thickness

dittopainted fibreboard(12)overairspaceonsol,dwall dittopainted floortiles, plasticsorlinoleum glass windowsglazed upto4 glass 6orthickerinlarge sheets glassorglazedtilesaswallfinish glass fibre ormineralfibre 25thick onsolid backing ditto 50thick glass ormineralfibre 25 thickover airspace on solid backing

plaster,lime orgypsumon solid backing plasteronlath &plasterboard onjoists, or studs, air space &solid backing plasterboard on cellularcore partition plywoodmountedsolidly plywoods mounted over airspace onsolidbacking dittowith porous material inairspace water, asin swimming baths woodboardson joistsorbattens woodwoolslabs,unplastered, 25thickonsolid backing

woodwoolslabsditto75thick woodwoolslabs,ditto 50thick emptyfullyupholsteredseats(perseat) emptyplastics+ metal chairs (perchair) adultsinfullyupholsteredseats(perp) adults in plastics + metalchairs (per P) prosceniumopeningwithavstage set (perm3)

Services references: —Bibliography entries 090 111 119 130 133

143150151246377390416489490503593

0.3 0.02 0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.02 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2

0.04 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3

0.05 0.4

0.6 0.6 0.4

0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05

0.1

0.2 0.02

0.2 0.02

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.4

0.1

0.4

0.5

0.6

o.i

0.7

0.8

0.8

0.05 0.05 0.3 0.3

0.15

0.3 0.15 0.3

0.3 0.15 0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.05 0.05

0.05 0.02

0.02 0.01 0.9 0.95

0.02

0.3

0.04 0.01 0.7 0.8

0.4 0.02

0.8 0.02

0.9 0.04

0.8 0.04

0.3 0.15 0.05 0.3 0.4 0.01 0.15

0.1

0.04

0.07 0.05

0.04 0.05

0.04 0.05 0.05

0.15 0.15 0.01

0.1 0.1 0.01 0.1

0.05

0.1

0.4 0.8 0.8 0.28 0.14 0.46 0.4

0.6 0.8 0.7

0.6 0.8 0.7 0.33 0.14 0.46 0.4 0.02

0.1

0.2 0.1

0.03 0.2 0.1 0.01

0.02

0.2

0.2 0.12 0.07 0.18 0.16 —

0.02 0.05 0.25

0.1

0.3 0.15 0.03

0.1

—

0.31 0.14 0.51 0.43 0.007

0.01

0.8 0.9

0.5 0.01 0.1

audienceorseating inany rm causes shading of floor:should beallowed forin calculating reverberation times;suggestedsuitableadjustments infloorabsorption inconsequence of this shadingare: reduceby 20% 40% 60% 80%

2 Absorptioncoefficients

398 Components

Lighting typeof interior&illuminance

GENERALLIGHTING

lampcircuit efficac y(lm/W) 35

heavyindustry avservice illuminance 200 Iux/R 15 /R 12 av service illuminance 500 lux/R 15

IA 12

light industry avservice illurninance 200 IuxIR 15 JR 12 av service illuminance 500 IuxIR I 5 JR 12 commercial av service illuminance 200 IuxIR IS

/R 12

avserviceilluminance500lux/R15

IA 12

— — — —

45 —

— — —

50

60

70

90

7.0 6.0 50 4.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 4.5 18.0 15.0 13.0 10.0 20.0 16.5 14.0 11.0

12.0 9.5 8.5 7.0 — 13.0 10.5 9.5 8.0 — 30.0 23.0 21.0 17.5 — 34.0 26.5 24.0 20.0 —

— — — —

— — — —

— — — —

14 5 11.0 10.0 8.5 17.0 13.5 12.0 10.0 36.0 28.0 25.0 21.0 42.5 33.0 30.0 25.0

Targetwattageloading: boxednumbers indicaterestricted range when mostefficientsourcewithcompatibleotherparameterschosen 1

—also p25—6 Loading required to produce given av illuminance on horizontal plane fromgeneral lightingmay becalculatedfrom lumen formula'. If E is service illuminancerequired in lux over working place area A m2 lamps flux (L) =

ExA

MF

UF

lumenswhereUF is utilisationfactordescribed

above —p26. Wattage = ________________ lamp circuit efficacy L

Sources and luminaireswith highestpracticalefficacy shoudbeselected in conjunction with light decoration sothat wattage loadingis inlinewith targetsgiven —.(1). Iflightoutput ofeach lampis U then numberoflamps requiredto produce L

Magnetic programmes available from RIBA and CIBSfor performing thesecalculations on programmablehand calculators.

BUILDINGLIGHTING B = rmw H

H=rmh h = hoflightsource h' = eyelevel mm distance = /8 B

H-h

2 Cornicelighting

High degree of uniformity of lighting can beprovided by indirect lighting fromcornices—*(2): inefficient in ofpower butmaybedesirable to display ceilings of particulararchitectural interest. Edge of masking cornice should be high enough conceal lamps. To avoid dark areas between lamps tubesshould be staggered or overlapped —.(3). High reflectances on upperwalls and ceiling essential to redirect lighton working plane. More efficient overall lighting given by fluorescent lamps fitted above 'egg-crate' or otherformsof louvred false ceiling. Specially contoured plastics metallised louvre grids concentrate light downwards with low brightness appearance of ceiling. In air-conditioned bldg extract air should be drawn through 'airhandling' luminaires so that heat can be removed from lamps and control gear before enters rm. This heat may often be uselully recovered foruse in perimeter areas.

Glare

3

Excessive brightnesscontrast infieldofview cancauseglare—.pl 732. If source, eg window or unshaded desklamp, seen closeto visual task it can cause disability glareand reduce task visibility; can also be cause of discomfort; this can occureven when source is well away fromtask,eg luminaires on ceiling, and is much more common danger. IES code givesrecommendations forupperlimit ofdiscomfort glare index, which is related to luminance and size of light sources, their number and position in fieldof viewand luminance oftheirsurroundings. Calculation ofthis glare indexcan beperformedas described—.Bib382.

Overlappingpreventsdarkar

N\

Contrast Objectsare seen bycontrast, either contained contrast orcontrast with their background: higherthe contrast the more visible the object. Visibilityof printed orwritten matter depends oncontrast ofmarking material with paper. This can be markedly dependent on lighting and viewing angles evenif materials used notobviously glossy. Light sources should be keptout of 'forbidden zone' indicated —(4): best position is to one side of worker rather than in front.

lumiriairesinthisarcan produce veiling reflections

Uniformity

Variation of illuminance overworking area should not normally be such that mm is less than 0.8 of av. To ensure this manufacturer's recommended spacing/h ratio (ratio of horizontal distance apart, 5, to mounting height above working plane, H) should not beexceeded.

N N

4

Offendingzonewithinwhichreflections fromlight sourcewill degrade contrastofflat task (about85% officetasksviewedbetween0° and40°from vertical)

Components

399

Lighting C)

TASK LIGHTING Calculations ofpower required for task lighting usuallymadeon basis of

0 2 0

directintensity.

Forfilament lamp desklights with diffusing reflectors inverse square law can be assumed to hold and itwill befound that 500 lux can beobtained at about 600 to 650 directlybelow 60 watt lamp in usualtype of reflector. Forfluorescent lamps use hasto be made of 'aspect factor' method as described —Bib383. This gives distances for 500 lux according to

I

lamp wattage

I

40 65 85

L

0 ____

CD

C,)

lampI distanced(foroffset0.5 h) m

I

•

1.2

15 1.8

m

::

10

13 15

1 Valuesofdirect distanceoffluorescent lamps intypicaldispersivemetal reflectorluminairetogive 500 luxatpointopposite centreoflamp -.(2)

Li

LIGHT SOURCES Incandescent tungsten filament lamps still used extensively in home and in display lighting where ease and cheapness of replacement, provision for limited areas of warm colour light and very small effecton life of frequent switching required. Standard life 1 000 hr and 'efficacy', te efficiency of light production, varies from 10—18 lumens per watt (lm/W); some manufacturers offer lamp lasting 2000hr for use where concomitant drop in light output can be accepted as price of less frequent maintenance. Lamps with bulbs silvered for use as integral spotlight or floodlight available; but betteroptical control and higher efficacy obtainablefrom tungsten lamps with small quartz bulbs and halogen gas filling Fluorescent lamps suitable forconcealed lighting in home —.(3)(4),for kitchen lighting and for most industrial and commercial interiors of moderate ceiling height. They can have efficacy up to 5 times that of filament lamp with reasonablyacceptable colour rendering properties and up to 3 times where particularly accuratecolour rendering needed. Their normal life is 7500hr.

Indirectrm lighting& direct lightingtoworkplace 3

4

Illuminatedcurtain

Mercury discharge lamps, colour corrected by use offluorescent bulbs (commonly designated MBF type) and/or introduction of metal halide into arc tube (MBI and MBIF), acceptable for achieving high illuminances in shops and in high-ceiling industrial areas. MBF lamps are available in wattageslowas 50, which offers possibility of use to highlight small areas. Efficacy can be 35—70 Im/W including ballast losses or nearly 6times that offilament lamps, with life 7000—10000hr(to 70% of initial output).

Low pressure sodium lamps (SOX or SLI) only suitable for outdoor lighting because of monochromaticnature of light emitted; butoperation athigherpressure (SON) broadens spectrum sothat lightis suitable for industrial applications (in high bays) and some commercial uses. SON lamps have efficacies 55—110lm/W, or upto 9 times thoseof filament lamps, and SOXlamps upto 10times, with livesof10000 hours (to70% of initial light output). Colour appearance of light source not good guide to appearance of coloursilluminated by it. Forclassification of lamps into three grades of appearancesindependentlyofcolourrenderingproperties—p25(3).

All discharge lamps require control gear forstarting and limiting current and capacitor for power factor correction. Mercury and sodium lamps take several minutes toreach fulllightoutput and fromito 20minutesto restrike after interruptionofsupply: some fluorescentor filamentlighting should be provided in any interior where light is needed immediately poweris restored. 100 cycle per second (Hz) fluctuation of light output from discharge lamps on 50 Hz AC mains not normally disturbing, but if problems encountered, eg with moving machinerylit by high pressure discharge lamps atlow mountingheight, measuressuchasdividing lamps between three phases, or locally lighting critical points by incandescentfilament lamps, may be taken. Fluorescentlamps may be mounted in pairs with 'lead lag' control gear.

2

Tasklightingwithfluorescent lampindispersivemetalreflector: —.(1) gives valuesofdto get 500luxatPfromvarious lampwattages

EMERGENCYLIGHTING Provision ofemergency lighting legalrequirementformany bldg; consult —*Bibl12.

OUTDOORLIGHTING Architect will often be required make provision for lighting exterior environment: may range from floodlighting whole bldg or feature to amenity lighting of city precincts, car parks and gardens, orfunctional lighting of railway, bus or air terminals. Wide variety of specialised techn:quesis involved;guidancegiven—.Bib386.

400 Components

Lighting INTEGRATIONOF ELECTRIC LIGHTING & DAYLIGHTING Even in well daylit rm, el light has tobeused onwinterafternoonswhen daylight fades. When side-litrm deep enough forworkrequiring illuminance 500 lx to be carried out at distance from window greater than height ofwindowhead above working plane, el light required for more than 15% ofworking year as DFwill probablybeless than 10% —+p27—30. This requirement increases to about 50%, at depth of 11/2_2window headheight and to practically 100%,even with fullyglazed wall, ifdepth greaterthan 5 x that height. Iftintedglazing used thesedepths greatly reduced. Therefore arrange general lighting luminaires in rows parallelto window wall,each row switched separately.Switches should be locatedsothat theycan beconveniently operatedby occupantsas requiredand sothat it isclear which rows they operate.Often possibleprovidependantswitches controlling individual luminaires with thin light cords which can be reached fromstanding position. Fluorescent lamps should be chosen from 'intermediate' colour range —.p25(3)compatiblewith colour renderingrequirementsand with warmth of lighting required at night. El lighting should be designed to provide illuminance recommended forparticular tasks carried out in interior, but not less than 30lx onavoverworking plane.

O.Bh

Formax conservation of energy automatic control should be installed in new bldg to switch off, or preferably dim, those rows of luminaires lighting the working area (usually first 2 or 3) whichare not required when daylight rises to provide illuminanceatthat depth suchthat full el lighting not necessary—(1). Under theseconditions windows need not be designed to achieve max penetration ofdaylight; more attention can be paid to any requirements for obtaining max benefit from exterior view, eg by providing wide uninterrupted windows rather than high and narrow ones. Opportunity can be taken to reduce contrast ofwall aboveor between windows with exterior seenthrough thembymaintaininglightcolourand arrangingfor somewallwashing byartificial lighting. In top-lit interiors with sufficient glazing to provide an average DF of 10% over working area el lighting will similarly be required for 15% of working yearfortaskson which 500lx required, and for longer than this where higher illuminance required or lower OF provided. If there is difference between activities carried out in different areas, requiring different Iluminances ordifferent periods ofoccupation, el lighting may be switched by areas. Otherwise whole installationcan be linked to 1 controller. This may be photo-electric switch or photo-electric dimming controlwhere fluorescent lighting is used; but at the date ofwriting there is little experience of application of such control to other types of discharge lamps.

1.6h

1.6h

1.6 h

-J

Li rarely needed:

wall-washer

proportion frequently needed; use automatic dimming top-up control

useautomatic switching

high proportion frequently needed: use automatic dimming top-upcontrol

alwaysneeded:

keep switchedon while interior occupied

wp

I O.Sh

I h

2h

3h

4h

5h

6h

distance fromwindow

1

Daytimecontrolofluminaures in relation to depthof interiorspace

Lighting references. —.Bibliographyentries 112 124202271 367380381 382 383 384 385 386 387 397 449457 523

Components

401

Doors DIMENSIONS Recommended dimensions forwood internal and external door leaves and frames —Bib145: doors to these dimensions cheaper than units built to special sizes. Dimensionsfor steel frame doors and windows for domestiurposes—.Bib 138—.(1 )(2),

coordinatingh of doorset

hofopening coordinatingw of doorset (L)—.(2)

internal doors

external doors

2100 2300 2350 2400 2700 3000

2100 2300

2027

1982

widthof stairs, corridors or lobbies which it serves. Exit doors must be labelled; in certain instancessign must have emergency illumination.

Where pedestrian traffic heavy rate at which people move through doorway determined by type of people (old/young, whether carrying baggage etc) and by degree of congestion on each side of doorway. Total rateatwhichpeople can move through doorway in both directions farless than capacity with flow in 1 direction only;forheavy 2-way traffic, 2 separate openings should be provided —(3).

2400 2700

(P/mm)

3000 gateways&other clearopenings singleswing door (900)

900s&d

revolving door

l000s

1200d 1500d 1800d 2100d

1200d 1500d 1800d 2100d

ssingle ddouble 1 Size ofwooddoors(—.Bibl 45)

waist-highturnstile: with freeision with cashier operatedwith singlecoin

900s

l000s&d

60—110/mw 40—60 increased by 50% if fastened open 25—35 1 direction: this is doubledif leaves collapse to give2openings 40—60 12—18 25—50

3 Capacityof doorwayswith unidirectional

pedestrian flow

DISABLEDPERSONS Standard door sizes: mm convenient widthfor ambulantdisabled 800 doorset(opening width675, infernal door). This too narrow for wheelchair s: 900 doorset usuallyadequate. Wider doors not necessarily

coordinating w(L)

H

internaldoors

better forwheelchairs provided adequate space to position chair beside door Location of doors: corridors should be not less than 1 200 wide for wheelchair s to position themselves to open doors in end wall of corridor or at side. At end door should be offset to give max space beside handle. Similarly when located in corner of rm door should be hinged at side nearer corner —(4)(5).

L—125

external doors approx L— 150

2

Openingwofdoors(—.Bib145)

FIRESAFETY This may affect design of doorways both in need to maintain fr of partition and provision of means ofescape. fr doors described in El 1 of bldg reg. In general fr door must be self-closing; hinges must be neither combustible nor of metal that softens at low temp; rebates to frame generally larger than standard (25). For somecases directions of swing of double doors specified in reg. Means of escape from fire covered in Section II of Part E of Bldg reg: contains no detail on doorways but refers to code of practice. 3: Chapter IV. Part 1: 1971 (Flats and maisonettes in blocks over two storeys) containsrecommendationson mainentrancedoors todwellings and ontypeand location ofinternal doors to bedr, living rm and kitchens. Section 4.3 lists requirements offrdoors.Part 2: 1968(Shops and dept stores) givesdimensions for exit openIngs: 1 070 for up to 200 s with additional 152 for each 30 persons over 200. Number of persons found by dividing total occupants offloorby number 1 less than number ofexits. Part 3: 1968 (Office buildings)gives requirementofmm opening width of exit doors in multi-staircase bldg as765 fordoorway serving up to 230 m2 grossfloorarea, 1 070 upto 1 860 m2 plus an additional76for each additional 140 m2 served. In general all doors which are fire escapes must open in direction of escape; doors which open into corridor must not cause obstruction within corridor; width of final exit doorway must not be less than mm

1200mm

4

0 0

FLOWCAPACITY

600s 700s 800s &d

C)

-

Locationofdooratendofcorridor

forwheelchairs

5 Doorswing in corner of mi for wheelchairs

In small rm,suchaswc cubicles,side-hung doors should open outwards

orsliding doors should be used. Designer should check whether doors swinging outwards into corridors orpublic areas such as washrm likely to be hazardous. Doorswings should not conflict with each other and should not extend oversteps.

Self-closing doors can cause difficulty to disabled; if essential, action should be as light as possible. In bldg for blind, self-closing doors required in some locations. Automatically-opening doors can be advantage to handicapped in public bldg but must not be of type that closes after predetermined delay. Lever handles preferable to knobs and usually satisfactory at standard height of 1040. Glazed doors should be used where possible. Foradult s base of glazed should not be over 1010fromfloor and it should be down to kick-platelevel in bldg used by handicappedchildren. Fully-glazed doors must carry some marking as hazardcue. Sliding doors slightlyeasier than side-hung doors for wheelchair s to operate; but may be less robust and give significantly poorer sound and thermal insulation. In general their useshould be limited to locations where space inadequate fora satisfactoryside-hung door. Also —.p85---7

CD

(1)

402 Components

Doors C)

INDUSTRIALTYPES

CD

For largeopenings (partitions)sliding, sliding-folding, concertinafolding —.(1 )—(8). Private garage doors (folding, sectional, roller) —api 02(7)—(1 0).

0 2 0

For very large and high bldg (eg

C),

Slidingdoor

1

2 Telescopicslidingdoor

3

Anglesliding doors(cornaway)

aircraft hangers) special design with lifting corner or section s—a(9). Accessway doorsofimpact resistant plastics —.(1O); also plastics strip curtain —.(1 1).

Airdoors:injection ofspanningair curtain —u(12)—(13).

ply

Door frames of weather-proof rubber edging —.(14); all-round wired rubber segments —.(1 5). leit. imitation

er.orPsc\

4

Foldingdoors(foldaway)

5

Foldingdoors(centafold)

6

Concertinafoldingdoors

7 Concertinafolding doors

(plywood)

(plasticsfabrics)

10 Rubberswingdoor

11

liftable

8 Power-operatedfolding door

9 Roll shutterdoorover corneror with sectionals(hreach

Strip curtain(pvc)forwide

access

possibilities)

channel single-sided

unitworkson interiorair

double-sided channel

/

unitworkson exteriorair

12 Aircurtainsystem

13 Aircurtainfor smalldoors

14 Rubberedgingdoor seal

15 Wired rubbersegmentsdoor seal

Door references —aBibliographyentries 117 145401 549 574 592 628

Components 403

Windows COORDINATINGSIZES

To suitmatricesof basicspaces in PD 6444 Pt 1 (—*Bibl03) Rangesofsteel windowsto8S990Pt2 &to Module100MetrIc Range'asgivenby SteelWindow Association

Metrireferredrange

mm soo 600 200 300

5lI

800

1000

1200

ofW20steelwindows

1800

1500

asspecifiedbySteel

600

900

1200

1500

1800

WindowAssociation

fi

iL.....IE

700 II

I

900

II

II

1100 II

13(10 II

300 500

Note: BS&module 100metricrangeincludes doors& associatedfinedlights(notshown)

—.Bib138610

mm

tI

I

I'I

600

Not This angealsoi icludes18001 2190h with ixedlightsonly;the latterhincludesdoors 700

—

—

—

—

—

900

II

1100

_____ 1300

l

[IIiII]

111

ii i: :: L

Note:BS& Module100metricrange includedoors& associatedmiaed I= fixedlights lights(not shOWfl);f 1

Rangesofaluminiumwindowsto BS 4873: wIde rangeofwindowsincludingvertically&horizontally sliding types—.BibO9l

300 500 606

WindowSizes

70€

Forfitting windows into basic openings3options windowtailor-made tofitcompleted opening windowused astemplate for forming opening: traditional method in UK basicopenings coordinatedwith specified range of windows and other components: success dependson accuracy with whichopenings are built, dimensional compatibility of ts and

110€

On more general aspects of modular coordination —vBiblO4105.

1500

Range of sizes in steel windows can be extendedbycoupling ,byuse ofpressed steel box mullions and by use of wood surrounds. Aluminium window size limits in each range vary with type of window, eg whether

1806

Work sizes

2100

90€

130€

dimensional accuracy ofwindows

1500

2 Note:ttiis rangealsoincludes1800&2lOOhw,th hued lights only:2100hincludedoors

—

horizontal orvertical sliders.

Steel windows(—vBibl38) 6 less than coordinatingsize, permissibledeviation 1.5. Aluminium windows (—vBibO9l) as specified by manufacturers, permissible deviation 1.5. Wood windows in metric range6 less than coordinated size. 60€

:

90€ —

—

—

—

100€

— —

120(

150€

500 600

Dimensionallycoordinatedmetricsizesforwood windowsasrecommended byBritish Wood-workingFederation

800 900 izi,aj 1500 Note Abovediagramsintendedforgeneralguidanneonoverallsizes only; no distinctionmadebetweentypesofopeninglight,some sizes,hxedlightsonly(designated8)Obtainable in standardranges

2100

2400

404 Components

Windows POSITIONRELEVANTTO DAYLIGHT PENETRATION

2

Tallwindowscan give good daylight penetrationtowardsbackof

Longhorizontalwindowscan give good lateralspreadofdaylight close towindow

1

rrn

3 As—(1)cangive gooddaylight penetrationbutifwindowswidely

S

4

Can give goodspreadof daylight

&useful light on wallsurrounding

separatedlightingcanbe uneven

opposingwindow

7

8

POSITIONRELEVANTTOVIEWOUT & ACTIVITY

5

6

In liv whereextensiveviewsover countryortownscapelow cills may beprovided ifcompatiblewith safety

Wherepanoramicviews& balc provided,windowsdown to floor leveltake fulladvantageofview

In liv onupperfloors,forsafety, cillhshouldbe not lessthan 1020or guard rails provided

lnofflongwindowsoften preferredbutindeeprmonupper floors lowerpartofviewobscuredto peopleatbackofrm

SAFETY& ACCESSFORCLEANING

Ink,cills oftenhto provide splash-backbutindomestickcan give awkwardshadows&restricted view-out

10 In offfiling spacescill usually fixed byfiling ddimensions

9

maxhof

maxlof facade(m) facade(m)

eqp

ladders

ordinaryladders travellingladders suspensionsystems portableeqp permanenteqp

9

an 45

any any

12

manually-operated cradles 452 power-operated cradles any

any any

any

any

walkways

butlimitedtoladder1019 m 2but wire ropesshouldbeusedabove30m 1

12 Recommendedrangesofexternal meansof accessto windowsfor cleaning& maintenance(basedon 153(5)-.Bib146)

11

In dosameconsiderationsas

—*(10): in1-storey bldgroof lights

may bebettersolution

POSITION&SIZE OFWINDOWS

Additional considerations

Positioning of windows in bldg facade, and their overall sizes determined usually by daylighting considerations —(1)—(4), ission of sunlight and importance given to view out —.(5)—(8). Constraints on positionmg and selection ofwindow sizes may be imposed by activities of occupants and positions of fixed furniture, fittings and plant —.(9)— (11). Energy conservation, protectionagainstexternal noise and security against unauthorised entrymay also imposeconstraints. With reference toconservation of fuel and power in bldg and restrictionof total area of window openings for buildings other than dwellings —Bib593. Fire precautions with particularreferencetoheat radiationhazardson escape routes may impose constraints. Bldgstandardsreg for Scotland (—.Bib594 595 596) limit amount of unprotected area of external wall, ie area comprising windows, doors or other openings.

Components

405

Windows BASIC TYPESOFWINDOW

1

2

Fixedlight

3 Casement—tophung 4 Casement— bottom

Casement—side

7

8

Verticallysliding

5 Horizontallypivoted

6

10 Projectedtophung

11

Verticallypivoted

hung

hung

I

H

F

1

Horizontallysliding

9

Linkedhopper

Louvred

VENTILATION

1

'c 17d1 12 Troublefromventilationin high winds atdeskh

13 Adjustabledevicesto give minimalventilationcanbefittedor obtained incorporatedinwindow: sometypes includeoptional

14

Fan-operated acoustic

ventilaton unitassociatedwith double-glazedwindow

15 Scandinavian-typesub-cill

ventilatorassociatedwith radiator toitwarmed air

flyscreen

DOUBLEGLAZING& DOUBLEWINDOWS

CHECK LIST Cost:if main consideration usestandard windows Performance:checkagainst reports oftestsin strength, air-leakage & resistance to water penetration Fixedwindows: doconditions justify? in particular: will there be access to outside forcleaning? will they inhibit fire-fighting &escape from fire? arefixedwindows required for security? will additional indirect costsoutweigh potential savings?

16

Factory-sealed

doubleglazingunitin steelwindow

7111

J

17 Supplementarywindowtypes: proprietary hinged&fixedsavailableforfittingto frame or slidingtypes in separatelightframe

liT

18 Proprietoryhorizontallysliding type inaluminiumwithtwo pairs of sashes

Openablewindows: whattypes ofopening light should beused? is easy maintenance & cleaning frominside required? if so, consider reversible pivoted, inward opening casement, or projected top hung are projecting opening lights to beavoided? ifso, consider vertically or horizontally sliding types when should multiple louvrewindows be considered?wherefull opening with limited projection is desired

Double glazing(Soundinsulation):

is protection against outdoor noise essential?

can double glazing with widegap beafforded? will itcause ventilation & solar heat problems? Double glazing(heat insulation): ifair-conditioning, double glazing may beessential? ifdesiredmainly foramenity is someone preparedto pay? is double glazing tobe used forboth sound & heat insulation?if so, form with wide gap essential 19

Horizontally pivoted typein woodwith coupledsashes

Further details —BibO58

406 Components

Windows: shading devices Retractable types

I

Curtainsgive flexiblecontrolfor lowlevelsun:forotherthandomestic uselaunderingcanbe problem

2

Springrollerfabricblinds,easy maintain:somefabricstoodense allowdiffuse daylightthrough,but openweavematerialsbetter

3

Lath rollerblinds,also plastics louvredsheetingtype, whichallows ventingthroughsmall louvres

4

5

6

7

8

Fixedexternaltypes

tracks

Venetianblindsgive flexible control of sunlight&ventilation: wide rangeavailable,includingexternal types&foruse inspaceindouble glazing

Externalawningsgive goodsun control:motonsedversionsavailable forcommercialuse

Practicalconsiderations

Internal shades fixedon orbehind windows less effective than external shades for reducing solar heat gains because proportion heat they absorbreleased to rm: have advantage of protection against weather and accessible forcontrol and maintenance; when not required during sunlessperiodscan be easily retracted; when fully drawn at night can improve interior illumination. Curtains can be used with most window designs but pivoted windows can cause problems. Costs vary widely depending on materials. Fabric roller blinds simple operate but tend restrict ventilation unless ofopenweave: can beautomated. Venetian blinds easy install and maintain: manually-operated types relatively inexpensive but susceptible misuse; full automation available with photocell solar controls. Vertical louvre blinds—*(8)can be setexclude sunlightover wide range of conditions but for S facing windows may needfrequent adjustment follow sun path: can be automated; but this tendsbeexpensive. In general external solar shading devices more effective than their internal counterparts. Folding awnings and roll sun blinds often combine solar shading with decorative function. External vertical rollerblinds, as also horizontally louvred types, usually provided with guides at sidesgive protection against winds. For neatness banks of louvred types often controlled together, either manually byrod control through gear box or by electric motorshoused in head member. Provision need be made in window heads house retracted louvres. Fixed external shading devices less flexible than retractableand adjustable shades for dealing with sunlight; as rule more appropriate for climatswithpredictably continuous sunlight than for Britain: cost high forbenefit'received. In temperate climates, canopytype probably most useful for S facing windows when desired exclude summer sun but it winter sunlight. Fixed vertical louvres —o(1 1) can be used for effective screening of windows mainly facing E or W if slats inclined towards N. Fixed horizontal louvre systems can give protection against direct sunlight over wide range of conditions depending on setting of louvres butreduction in diffuse daylight can bequite severe—(1 3)(14). Performance offixedtypescan be checked against sun path diagrams —p34—6byusing shading masks—*(9)—(14). Properties of materials used for blinds and louvre systems can be relatedto proportion ofsolar radiationtheyreflect, absorb and transmit; but in practice solar heat transfer complicated by number of factors. Some comparative data—*Bibl 64.

Continentaltypeexternallath awning: Norwegianvariantavailable with aluminiumslats

sloping

11

13

Light-excludingblindswhere complete black-out needed in lab & dark rm: require light-proofcasings; ventilatedbox headsavailable

Internal verticallypivotedlouvre blindswith impregnatedcottonor extrudedwhite pvc louvres: allow goodpenetrationof daylight;useful forlowangle sunfacing E orW; retractableontop, ortop& bottom

ss;4

12

___

14

Fixed external canopies, louvres & screens with shading masks; for examples given windows assumed face SW & sun's rays as at approx 1 400 hr midsummer lat51.5°N. Window references: —BibLiography references 019 058 091 103 138 146 170375380381 434 459 467520 536 543 549 567 610

Components

407

Corridors & ramps WALKING SPEEDS

WAITINGAREAS

On level walkways, within bldgand outside, rate ofmovement affected by: purpose of journey; age and sex of individuals; whether walking aloneoringroup(groups slower); airtemp(people walkmore quickly in cold); floorsurface (softsurfaces associatedwith slower pace); carrying ofbaggage; crowddensity; overall flow patternof crowd.

Linear queues

Within anycrowdconsiderable variation ofwalking speedfound; even in homogeneous sample, eg women shoppers, range between highest speed observed and lowest equalsmeanvalue.

Width of queue can be reduced to 600 when barriers or other constraints used. Unconstrained queue, suchasatbus stop orticketoffice window, typically has avwidthof 1 200. Form of queue can be affected by heavy flows ofpedestrians nearby. Down length ofqueue avdistance between persons is400—500undernormal circumstances.

Bulk queues Crowd of 2 P/m2 seems dense to those within it but much higher crowding(up to6P/rn2) possibleinelevatorcarsandsimilarsituations. Most

people feel comfortable in crowdof 1 P/rn2: useful design figure for waitingareas offmain circulation routes. Infoyersand other areaswhich combine waiting and circulationdensityof0.4 P/rn2good overall design value.

10

Hi

•

0.8

freeflow: meandensity 0.3 P/rn2 or less limitofcorr

walking speed (rn/a)

1.46

capacity with freeflow(P1

minpermw)

L8

walking speed(mIs)

Observedwalkingspeedsinindoorshoppingmall:shadedarindicates P walking with 1 or moreothers 1

commuters, working population individual shoppers familygroups: shoppers with highproportion ofyoung childrenorwith bulky packages; tourists in circulation arindoors, or interest outsidenearplacesot schoolchildren

elderlyand disabled, walkmore slowly down rampthan up.

.

1.5 1.3

27 23

1.0 0.8

1.0

18 18—32

0.6 50 0.7—1.1 59—92

1.1—1.8

84 67

underfreeflowconditions rangeof speed inanygroup may extend, typically,from 0.6 m/s belowmean to0.6 m/sabove: with crowding & allpedestriansmoving inone directionrange is very small

2

CORRIDORCAPACITY

Approxmeanwalkingspeedson levelwalkways; approxcorrcapacities 1200 singlequeuealong side of corr personsseatedonbenchalong wall 1000 coin-operatedmachines depthof machine plus 600far first personand400 foreach additional 600 waitingpedestrianwith baggage shop windows 500—800, varying with the interest showninthegoods, and withtheir size smallfire-fightingappliances 200—400 wall-mountedradiator 200 200 rough ordirty bldgsurface

Limitoffreeflow conditionsabout0.3 P/m2.At greaterdensitiesindividuals not able alwayswalkattheirnaturalspeedorovertakeslowerpedestrians.

Commonly-adopted max density for design of circulation areas: 1.4 P/m2. At this crowding most people will walkat less than their natural speed and be aware of some discomfort. For short distances along route, up toabout3000, tighter crowdingpermissibleprovidedsignificantly wider spacesoccurbefore and after obstruction. With corridors wider than about 1 200 flow capacityproportionalto width; in narrowerages 2 people unable each other withease. Corridor dimensions given —v(2) for unobstructed routes; static people orfixtures reduce effective

width—e(3).

walking corrcapacity speed (P/mm per mWI (mIs)

increasing withage

Short length ofslopeinotherwise level corridor may have little effecton walking speeds. Longer rampsoflow gradient,5% orless, maysimilarly have little effect. On steeper ramps walking pace can be reduced from level rate by 20% with 10% gradient, 40% with 15% gradient (gradient

% = verticaldistance/horizontaldistancex 100). Somepeople,particularly

fulldewgn capacity 1-wayflow:1.4 P/rn2

3

Approx reductionsfromeffectivewofwalkway

-i iI tr

RAMPS FOR DISABLED

Exceptforveryshort ramps gradient should not exceeed 81/2% (1:12) and should not be greaterthan 5% (1:20) when more than 6000long —*(4). Level platform 1 800long should beprovided attop; inlong ramps rest-platforms desirable at changesofdirection. Nochanges ofgradient alongramp. Bldg reg H4specifies maxgradient of 1: 12, mm widths 800 withindwellings, 900forcommon ramps (02 ormore dwellings, 1 000in institutional and other bldg. Handrail required exceeds600.

305

by reg when total rise

kerb

JMfl

a

—'Il

0

honzontalprojection

-

wall

b

slope

maxrise

max horizontalprojection

1.12

760 760 760

9000 12000 15000

1 16

1 20 C slope

L 115

maxrise

75 Steeper than 1: 10 but no sleeper than1:8 Steeperthan 1: l2butnosteeperthan1:10 150 sleeperthan 1 : 8not allowed

¶mmmTr

max run 600 1500

4 acomponentsofsingleramp run bsamplerampdimensions callowable rampdimensionsforconstructioninexistingsites &bldg (USAstandards)

verticalguardrail

5

Examplesoframpedgeprotection& handrail extensions

408 Components

Stairs

0 0 030

TREAD& RISE PROPORTIONS

BUILDINGREGULATIONS

Following rule-of-thumb based on assumption of adult pace of 300 in ascending stair: going+ twice rise = 600—.(1).

General requirements for stairs in UK in Part H of Bldg reg:

:3

CD

:3

C,)

pitch line

i Mustbe landingattop and bottom with going notless than widthofstair (except at top of steps to an inward-opening external door where total rise does not exceed 600). Landing must be unobstructed and, if internal, level;if external may slope atgradient upto 1:12. ii Max of 16 risersallowed in each flight. With very long stairways must be change of direction of 30° or more at landing after notmore than 36 risesin consecutive flights. Landings between flights must be level and unobstructed, with going not less than width ofstair. Clear headroom of 2000 must be maintained, measured vertically frompitchline (line of nosings). ivTreads must be level, extend to complete width ofstair, and beeither parallel ortapered (except that lowest 2 ofstairwaymay berounded). All parallel treads must have same going; tapered treads must have same rate oftaper, narrow ends atsame side, and samegoing when measured in centre. v Rises must besamethroughout stairway. vi Projection ofnosings notexceed 15. vii Continuoushandrails required on any flight rising more than 600. Height mustbe 800—1 000above pitch line. Rails required at both sides on stairs widerthan 1 000. via Sumof goingand twice risemustnot beless than 550 and notmore than 700. ix Except in dwellings, stairs wider than t 800 must be divided by handrails into sections not less than 1 000and notmore than 1800wide.

FIRE ESCAPESTAIRS 1

Definitionof

No scientific ground for exactness in achieving this although some codes of practice specify particular proportions. Bldg reg H3 gives requirement that going and twice riseshould add upto between 550 and 700. Other criteria ofstair proportions: energy expenditureand freedom from accidents. Totalamount of energyused can become smaller as stairs increase in steepness but rate of energy expenditure increases. More accidents occurin descending than in climbing stairs; number of missteps increases as size of tread reduced. Generally satisfactory proportions can vary from 100 rise and 360 going to 180 rise and 280 going. Private stairs in dwellings may be satisfactoryupto steepness of 210rise and 240 going.

WALKINGSPEEDS& FLOW CAPACITY Short flights of stairs rarely climbed at speed which minimises energy expenditure (aspeople tendtodo when walking on level)but avwalking speeds on stairs lower than in corridors. When alone most people walk faster downwards than upwards butindense crowd reverse canbetrue. For fire safety codes flow capacity of 1 .3 P/s/m width has often been used as basis of recommendations but this is greater than normally acceptable in general use—.(2). freeftow:meanplan density0.6P/rn2

orless speed along Slope

(mis)

young& middle-aged

09

limit ot stair capacity with free

flow lP/ minimw)

full design capacity 1-wayflow:plan density2 P/rn2 speed along

slope (m/s)

stair capacity

(P/min/ m w)

Requirements for escape stairs in UK given in number of statutory documents. These include London Building Acts, Building Standards (Scotland), Bldg Reg (England&Wales) and Fire PrecautionsAct 1971. Requirements given also in statutes covering specific uses of bldg, suchas Factories Act 1961 and Offices, Shops & RailwayPremises Act 1963.

In general, fire escape stairs must be built within enclosed shaft with wallsof given fire resistance and frself-closing doors. Doors mustopen into shaft at all floors except final exit level; doorswings must

STAIRS FOR DISABLED External stairs particularly dangerous for elderly and disabled in bad weather. On internal stairs splayed treads should be avoided. There should be no open risers; splayed risers with slightly-rounded nosings preferable to undercut square nosings. Handrailsshould beprovided on bothsidesofstaircase; section ofrail that is gripped should be rounded. with widthabout 50. Railsshould be continuous at landingsand extend at least300beyond topofstairs; heightshould beabout 850 above pitch line. Max gradient should be 40°: 35° or less better. Preferred going 250; rise should not exceed 190 and preferably be 170 orless.

06

rain w

21

06

60

numbe,atrises mao penlight

60

roe

07

women

elderly people,family groups

2

0.5

15

0.4

40

3

Extractfrom tabletoBldgreg H3

6001 servirtg 1 rrn excepikor halortobatfrr andwc 800otherwise 42

900

1000

38

-

16

tO 2

stairscecnrnon 102ormore

otherstairs

au

8001 seraing partofbldgcapable ofbeingusedby rotmore than P

5

104343ott,ernsise

—

mar

2

3

6 3

max

220 75

90 75

tOO

190

75

75

220

240

280

250

—

rrniri—

paralleltreads rain going

taperedireads mis going

Approxmeanspeedsofmovement upstairways: approxstaircapacities

stairs itiflsl,tutionai bidg,exceptthose usedsoieiybystab

I

men

young& middle-aged

dwetirtgs

stairs servingoniy dweting

moo pitch

27

not

obstruct flow of people already on staircase Stairs from upper floors must not continue in unobstructed flightpast ground floor to basement. Winders generally not permitted. In most other aspects requirements given in recent British codes of practice related to thosein bldg reg. Section II of Part E of reg covers dwellings, office bldg and shops, and refers to Code of Practice 3: Chapter IV for all instances except certain single-staircase bldg. Staircasewidths for specified numbers of occupants given in code.

maoarrgie aetweenadjacent

'isero nringoing 270 irom ends01 tread or In centreif widerthan 1000

16

—

15

th

-

220

240

280

250

75

75

Components

409

Escalators canbe significantly less than those used bycommuters in underground

DIMENSIONS UK reg limits angle ofelevation to 35° when rise does not exceed 6 m and speed along line of slope not greater than 0.5 rn/s. In all other instances angle must not exceed 30°. This most common, although somemanufacturers produce escalators tolower angle.BS allows max tread width of1 050 and mm 600. Manufacturershave rangesofstandard escalators cheaper than eqp builttospecial sizes —.(1). -. 2i96 hxl.73

-

30 35 hx143,maxh=6rn

stations

—(2)givesapprox capacities with escalators used by commuters or in treadw m

max w overall w between m balustrades

0.6 0.8

0.85 1.05 1.25

1.0

2

1.25 1.45 1.65

approxcapacity (P/mm)

95 125

90 120 150

Approxw&traffic capacityof escalators

PLANNING For escalators serving several storeys in 1 direction of travel superimposed flights occupy least plan area but require engers to walk Dimensionsofescalators forinitialplanning

Structure ofescalator: steeltruss ed at upperand lower landings, and usually at intermediate point when rise exceeds 6000. Steps are carried on 2 sets of rails and drawn by steelchains. Motor and driving mechanism usually within truss below upper landing.

between successive rises. Crossover arrangement eliminates this; double crossover is common inlarge dept stores, for movement in both directions —(3). When escalators extend through fire compartment boundaries, selfclosing shutters required. Escalatorsnot normallyacceptable as means ofescape fromfire—.Bibll7.

ENGERCONVEYORS TRAFFICCAPACITY Dependent on rate at which people step on to escalator which, in turn, depends on widthof escalator speed of escalator: up to about 0.75 rn/s increasing speed results in greater capacity; higher speeds tend deter engers stepping on typeof enger and location:capacity of escalatorsin deptstores etc

enger conveyors —.Bib123. Restrictions on width same as for escalators: mm tread width 600, max 1 050. Atangles ofslope from 0° to 8° max permissible speed 0.90m/s; above8°to 12°0.75 m/s; angles of slope greater than 12° not permitted. Traffic capacity same as that of escalators of equivalent width under most conditions; with commuters, notcarrying baggage,slightlyhigher values may be observed.

'Fly) ,)

y)

)'

f ,, ,,,

,,

,

f.ffl flZFf

3

B

0 (1)

95 125 155

bldg with regular s. Forother instancesuseful figure forpreliminary planning 60 P/mm, regardless ofwidthand speed —.(2).

1

0

CD

speed(mis) 0.45 0.6 0.75 65

C)

Superimposed,crossover&doublecrossoverarrangements of escalators

Stairs references. —Bibliographyentrmes117123300338340346501591 594613628

410 Components

Elevators DIMENSIONS Dimensions for 7 classes of electric elevators —Bib123: Light trafficenger & perambulator/enger Stretcher/enger General purpose enger Intensive traffic enger Bed/enger General purpose goods Heavy dutygoods Tables forclasses 1 3 and 6—.(2)(3)(4)

numberofP

4

6

8

10

load in kg

300

450

600

750

A B

1800

1 800

1300

1600

2000 1900

20O0 1900

internalw C

1100 800

1100 1100

1300 1 400

2200

2200

1100 1400 2200

well

w d

car

internal d internal h

0

clearw clear h

M N

700

700

800

800

2000

2000

2000

2000

V= 0.5 m/s V=0.75m/s

1400

— —

1400 1500 1500

1400 1500 1500

1 500

V=1.0 rn/s

p p p

V= 0.5 rn/s V= 0.75m/s V= 1.0 rn/s

Q Q

3900 — —

3900 3900 4000

4000 4000 4000

4000 4000 4000

R S H

1800

3700 2300

2300 4000 2300

2000 4400 2600

2000 4400 2600

landingdoors

Eqp to manufacturers standard specifications less expensive than elevators to special dimensions orwith special finishes. Electro-hydraulic elevators an alternative to el traction elevators. Maximum travel approx25 m and max speed 1.0 rn/s. Motorrm need not be at top shaft and may be remote. Initial cost slightly greater than that of equivalent traction elevator but maintenancecosts can be lower.

pitd

treeh

topterminal

w

machinerrn

d

minh

2

motor rrn

I

kn

numberof P

8

10

12

16

loadin kg

600

750

900

1200 1500

w A d B

CA landing doors

clearw M clear h N

freeh top terminal

V=0.75m/s Q 4000 4000 4000 4100 4100

V=1.0 rn/s V=1.5 rn/S V= 1.0 V= 1.5

P P P

1600 1600 1700 1700 1700 1800 1900 1900 1700 1800 1900 1900

w R

3100 3100 3300 3500 3500 4800 5000 5100 5300 5600 2600 2600 2700 2700 2700

GeneralpurposePelevators

maxnumberofP

6

13

20

26

26

40

40

load in kg

500

1000

1500

2000

2000

3000

3000

A B

1800 1500

2100 2100

2500 2300

2500 2800

2800 2400

3000 3300

3500 2700

internalw

C

internald

D

1100 1200 2000

1400 1800

2000

1700 2000 2300

1700 2500 2300

2000 2100 2300

2000 3000 2300

2500 2400 2300

1100 2000

2000

1700 2300

1700 2300

2000 2300

2000 2300

2500 2300

1 500 1 700

1 500 1 700

1 500

1500

1

1 700

1 700

1

well car

w d

internal h landing doors

pit

clearw clearh V = 0.25 rn/s V = 0.5 rn/S

V=0.75rn/s

V = 1.0 rn/s

M N P P P P

— 1400 1500

1400

1500 1 500

1800

1800

1 800

1 800

1800 1 800

1800

1 500

1 800

500 700 1800 1800

1 500 1 500

V=0.25rn/s

topterminal

V= 0.5 rn/s V= 0.75 rn/s V= 1.0 rn/s

0 0 Q 0

— 3800 3800 3800

3800 3800 3800 3800

4000 4100 4200 4200

4100 4300 4500 4500

4100 4300 4500 4500

4200 4400 4500 —

4200 4400 4500 —

machine rrn

w d

R S

minh

H

2000 3700 2400

2100 4300 2400

2500 4500 2700

2500 5100 2900

2800 4700 2900

3000 5600 2900

3500 5000 2900

freeh

4

1500 1700 1700

rn/s Q 4000 4000 4200 4200 4200 rn/s 0 4200 4200 4200 4300 4300

S rninh H

(—.Bib123)

800 800 800 1100 1 100 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

V= 0.75 rn/s

d

Lettereddistancesrefer to —.(2)(3)(4) which give dimensionsinmm of elevators to BS 2655

1800 2000 2100 2600 2600 1900 1900 2100 2200 2500

pitd

machinerrn

1

20

internalw C 1100 1300 1600 2000 2000 internald 0 1400 1400 1400 1 400 1700 internalh 2200 2200 2200 2200 2200

car

3

1600 1600

Light traffic P& perambulator e evators

well

Urn

2200

Generalpurposegoodselevators

Components

411

Elevators TRAFFIC CAPACITY

PATERNOSTERELEVATORS

Withintensive trafficdetailed analysisofflowpattern required. Selection

Dimensions

of elevators and ofcontrol system requiresspecialistadvice. Preliminary

design can be made with aid —(2)(3); —*(1) gives typical values of elevatortraffic flow and acceptable interval betweensuccessivedepartures of elevators. Example: multi-storey office bldg in several tenancies of similar type with 600 people occupying 10storeys above ground level. Number of peoplearriving inpeak 5mm period: 600 x 15% =90. Rateofflow90/5 = 18 P/mm. From .—*(2)will beseen that 4 x 1.5m/s elevatorscancarry 21 P/mm with 30sinterval; for 18 P/mm carsize required 900 kg. From —(3) 3 x 1.5 m/s elevators would give interval of 45 s. numberof Parrivingin5mm, givenas% occupants abovegroundfloor level

interval(s)

singleoccupancyoff bldg, industrial bldg

multipletenancyoff bldg hotels housing

leisurebldg, multi-storey

carparks,dept sto

15—20% 11—15% 10—15% 5—7% individual assessment required

25—35 25—35 30—60 60—90 40—50

Forpaternoster elevators —Bib123. Cardimensions limited tomm clear height of 2200; width and depth to between 900 and 1000with max floor area 0.93 m2. Landing entrances must be same width as open sides of cars with height between 2600 and 2800. Max permissible speed 0.4 m/s.Stringent recommendationsonsafety devices—+(4)(5).

Traffic capacity

Paternosters appropriate for random interfloor traffic with able-bodied s, having total trafficcapacity significantly greater than that of conventional elevators of similar plan area. With random interfloor traffic evenly distributed through bldg total of about 30 P/mm can be carried with little waitingwhen installation serves 5floors,35 P/mm when 11 floors served and approx42 P/mm with 16floors, Ifqueuestolerated capacity can beabout 60% more. Withtraffic emanatingfrom1 floor flow capacity significantly less: for upward traffic only from ground floor max approx 12 P/mm. In real conditions interfloor traffic not usually even over all storeys: intermediate figureshould be adopted.

Longjourneys slow: ifdominant traffic pattern flow to and fromground conventional elevators should be used. Paternostersgenerally inappropriate in bldg used by general public, bychildren and by disabled.

an interval at lowerend ofeach range associated with bldg having high standard of finishes& fittings 1 Peakperiodelevatordemand &acceptable intervalsbetween elevator departures

•213f— 950

4 324 4

20

down

4

5 Paternoster:typicalshaftdimensions

950 —12131 up

Paternosterelevator:typical plan dimensions

crossseCtion

longitudinal

412 Components

Elevators

80

fo5Q6Q I

20

•0

l a

b

main entry

do

1100 internal depth,900 width, 700 clear dooropening: 6-person light traffic enger elevator —6ib123 just meets thesedimensions but largercars preferable. In public bldg thereshould besufficient space for another person to accompany chair-bound: 1400 mm depth, 1100 width. In special residential homes largewheelchairs need to be accommodated; dimensions for these: 1 800 depth, 1 000 width, 800 door opening.ANSI standards —(1)(2). Elevatorcars must beaccuratein levellingatlandings;must notaccelerate

dosed

mOIen

_______

atann

I

ELEVATORSFOR DISABLED In rnulti-storey bldg elevators are principal means ofvertical circulation forthoseconfined towheelchairs and for others with difficulty inwalking. Mm dimensionsof elevator car to accommodate standard wheelchair:

emeency stop

or brake with jerk, requirements which dictate use of either variablevoltage traction motors or electro-hydraulic elevators. Doors should

C

-

close slowly (0.3 m/s residential homes, 0.5 rn/s elsewhere); photoelectricdevicesto prevent premature closing desirable.

d

ElevatorcarcontrolsforwheelchairsANSI standardsadetail bcontrolh calternativeplacingof withcentreopeningdoor d alternativeswith sideopeningdoor 1

Control buttons should light to operate. For general purposes normal vertical layout is best, with buttons at 30 centres mm spacing. Mean height should be 1 400, max 1600. In bldg used by unaccompanied wheelchair scontrols should notbe higherthan 1 300. In residential homes horizontal arrangementofcontrol buttonsin carscan be desirable, at height 1 050and setin wall atleast600backfromdoor.

At landings floor numbers should be very clearly indicated. To position wheelchairs there should be clear space at least 1 500 x 1 500 before each liftdoor.

PLANNING Elevators serving single zone of upperfloor should begrouped inplan with interlinked controls. Arrangement of lobbies should allow waiting enger moverapidly to whichever car arrives first. No more than 4 elevator entrances should be alongside each other; facing entrances should be 2500—3500 apart. Elevator entrances should not lie on opposite sidesof circulation route—+(3).

a

F

915

L

In large bldg lobbyareatendstobe 5—6m2 per elevator on upper floors and 15—20 m2perelevator atground floor with singlegroupofelevators. Forefficient performances under heavy flowsoftraffic numbers ofstops made byelevator cars should be kept to mm. In largebldg there should be single main loading floor; engers entering bldg at other levels should be brought by secondary circulation to main lobby at ground level. Use ofelevators for mail deliveries orforotherinterfloor trafficat peak arrival or departure periodsshould bediscouraged.

In residential bldg and hotels noise to be generated by elevators must be considered at early planning stage. Bedr should be remote from machine rm and walls carrying landing door eqp should not be adjacent to them. Risk of noise carried through structural continuity should be examined.

b

Totalvolume of elevator shafts in very tall bldg reduced when different groups of elevators serve separate zones of upper floors. Generally justified only in bldg higher than 15 storeys but normal practice in commercial bldgof 30storeys or more. maindrculation rome

4lifts max

2500—3500

3 Liftlob dimensions 2 Mm dimensionselevatorcarsANSIstandardsacentreopeningdoors bsideopening doors NBcarswith mm wlessthan shownbutnotlessthan 1370canbeusedforelevatorsof less capacitythan900 kg

Elevator references: —Bibliography entries 053 123504613628

413

Bibliography ARRANGEMENT Thebibliography has3 parts: basiccomplete listof publications, numberedconsecutively extracted fromthat a list ofcodes, guides, reg, standardsand statutes reference numbers of publications listed undertopics Initials are used for the following: American Institute ofArchitects Architects Journal ANSI American National Standards Institute AR Architectural Record BRE Building Research Establishment British Standards Institution BSI International Council for Building Research,Studies & CIB Documentation CIBS Chartered Institute of Building Services CIRIA Construction Industry Research& InformationAssociation DES DeptofEducation & Science DHSS DeptofHealth &Social Services DoE Deptofthe Environment ES Illuminating Engineering Society ISO InternationalOrganization forStandardization HMSO HerMajesty's Stationery Office PSA Property Services Agency RIBA Royal Institute ofBritish Architects AlA

AJ

Sources

In additionto publicationslisted inthe bibliographysome general sources of information may befound useful: BRE information directory BRE Garston England annually British Architectural Library Architectural periodicals index RIBAPublications London England quarterly Building Centre/CIRIA Guide tosources ofinformation Building Centre Group London England every second year Building Centre Group Booksforthe construction industry annual list HMSO Government publications section list61: Building HMSO Government publicationssection list65: Scottish Development Dept RIBA Book list RIBA Publications London England annual

BASIC LIST Reference numbers of publications in this listare used for in-text references throughout the book Abraben E Resort hotels, planning &management Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1965 002 Abraham G The green thumb bookoffruit & vegetable 001

gardening Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 1970 003 Ackroyd P Sports pavilions NationalPlaying FieldsAssociation London England 1970 004 Adams R & M & Willens A& A Drylands; man & plants Architectural Press London England 1978

0

005 Addleshaw G W & Etchells F Thearchitecturalsetting of anglican worship Faber&Faber London England 1948 006 Adie D Marinas: aworking guideto their development & design Architectural Press London England 2nd edn 1977 007 A4 Publications Officeplanner A4 Publications Edenbridge England 1976 008 AJ Handbook ofbuilding structure (Hodgkinson A (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1974 009 AJ Legalhandbook (Davey P & Freeth E (ed)) Architectural Press London England 2ndedn 1978 010 AJ Newmetrichandbook (Tutt P & Adler D (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1979 011 AJ Principles ofhoteldesign Architectural Press London England 1970 012 AJ Urban landscape handbook (Tandy C (ed)) Architectural Press London England 1972 reprinted 1978 013 AJ/MoH Hospital planning & design guide Architectural Press London England 1967 014 Allen R W Hospital planning handbook John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1976

015 AIoi A Architettureperlospettacolo Hoepli Milan Italy 1964 016 AIoi R Ristoranti Hoepli Milan Italy 1972 017 AIoi R & Bassco C Ospedali: hospitals Hoepli Milan Italy 1973 018 Alpern A Apartments forthe affluent McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1975 019 Aluminium Window Association Aluminium window edgeprofiles (Technical report 1) London England 1976 020 American Association of Hospital Consultants(Mills B (ed)) Functionalplanning ofgeneral hospitals McGraw-Hill New York USA & Maidenhead England 1969 021 American Federation of Arts Fountainsincontemporary architecture distributed byOctober House NewYorkUSA 1965 022 American Hospital Association Theextended care unitina general hospital: a guidetoplanning, organization & management AHA Chicago USA 1973 023 American Hospital Association Hospitalengineering handbook AHA Chicago USA 1974 024 American HospitalAssociation Thepractice ofplanning inhealth careinstitutions AHA Chicago USA 1973 025 American Hospital Association (committee oninfections within hospitals) Infection control inthe hospital AHA ChicagoUSA 3rdedn 1974 026 American Insurance Association Fireprevention code American Insurance Association NewYork USA latest edition

027 American InsuranceAssociation Nationalbuilding code American Insurance Association New York USA latest edition ANSI Specifications formaking buildings &facilities accessible to & usable bythephysically handicappedpeople ANSI NewYork USA 2ndedn 1979 028

029

ANSI Standards ANSI NewYork USA latest edition

030 American Society of Heating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE standard 90—75; energy conservationin new buildingdesign ASHRAE NewYork USA 1975 031 American Society ofHeating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE handbook offundamentals ASHRAE NewYork USA 1977 032 American Society of LandscapeArchitects Handbookof landscape ASLA McLean Va USA 1973 033 American SocietyforTesting Materials Standards ASTM Philadelphia USA latest editions 034 Amery C The National Theatre:an architecturalguide Architectural Press London England 1977 035 Annett F Elevators McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 3rd edn 1960

I

036 Anton J Occupational safety &health management McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1979

AR Apartments, townhouses &condominiums McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1975 038 AR TheArchitectural Recordbookofvacationhouses McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 2ndedn1977 039 AR Buildings forresearch FW Dodge NewYork USA 1958

037

040 AR Buildings for thearts McGraw-Hill New York USA 1978 041 AR Campus planning & design McGraw-Hill New York USA 1972

042 AR Greathouses forviewsites, beachsites, woodsites, meadow sites,smallsites, slopingsites, steepsites, flatsites McGraw-Hill New York USA 1976 043 AR Hotels, motels, restaurants & bars F W Dodge New York USA 2ndedn 1960 044 AR Houses, architects design forthemselves McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1974 045 AR Places forpeople;hotels, motels, restaurants,bars, clubs, community recreation facilities, camps,parks,plazas, playgrounds (Davern J (ed)) McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1976 046 Arlott J (ed) The Oxford companion tosports &games Oxford University Press Oxford England 1975

414

Bibliography BASIC LIST 047 Aronin 1953

JE

Climate & architecture Reinhold NewYork USA

048 Ashford N & Wright P Airport engineering John Wiley&Sons NewYork USA 1979 049 Atkins W W & Adler J Interiorsbookofrestaurants Whitney Library of Design NewYork USA 1960 050 Baker G & Funaro B Motels Reinhold New York USA 1955 Banham R Architecture ofthewell-tempered environment Architectural Press London England 1969 051

052 Barron I & Curnow R The future with microelectronics Francis Pinter London England 1979 053 Bates W Introduction to thedesign ofindustrialbuildings Constrado London England 1978 054 Baynes K Langslow B & Courtenay C C Evaluatingnew hospital buildings King Edwards Hospital Fund London England 1969 055 Bays K & Franklin S Deg forthehandicapped George Goodwin London England 1971 056 Beazley E Design & detail ofthespace between buildings Architectural Press London England 1960 Beazley E Designed forrecreation: apracticalhandbook fora/l concernedwithprovidingleisure facilities in thecountryside Faber& Faber London England 1969 058 Beckett H E & Godfrey AJ Windows:performance, design & installation RIBA/Crosby Lockwood Staples London England 1974 059 Beckman WA Klein S A & Duffie JA Solar heating design by the f-chart method John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1977 057

060 Bedhar M (ed) Barrier-free environments Dowden Hutchinson & Ross Stroudsburg Pa USA 1977 061

BRE Smoke control methods inenclosed shopping complexes of oneormorestoreys:adesignsumma,y(Morgan HP) HMSO London 079

Bellis H & Schmidt

W Architectural drafting

McGraw-Hill

NewYorkUSA 2ndedn 1971

062 Bengtsson A Adventure playgrounds Crosby Lockwood London England 1972

England 1979 080 BRE Ventilation requirements (Digest 206) HMSO London England 1977 081

1973

BRE Working drawings (Digest 172) HMSO London England

082 BRE Working drawings in use (Daltry C D & Crawshaw DT) (Current Paper 18/73) BRE Garston England 1973 083 British Horse Society Basicrequirementsofaridingcentre BHS Kenilworth England 1947 084 British Industrial-Scientific Film Association Filmguideforthe construction industry Construction Press LancasterEngland 1979 Broadbent G & Ward A (ed) Design methods inarchitecture LundHumphries London England 1969 086 Brock G Road widthrequirements ofcommercial vehicleswhen 085

cornering Transport &Road ResearchLaboratory DoE London 1973 087 Brooks J The smallgarden MarshallCavendish London England 1977 088 BSI BS 96 Accessforthe disabledtobuildings Part 1 Genera/recommendations BSI London England 1967 089

BSI BS 5606 Accuracy in building BSI London England 1978

090

BSI BS5440 Part2 Airsupply BSI London England 1976 BSI BS4873 Aluminium alloy windows BSI London England

091

1972

092 BSI BS 3 Basic data forthe design ofbuildings, codeof see Daylighting Fire precautions Loading Sunlight Thermal insulation 093 BSI BritishStandards Handbook 3 vol 1—4 Summariesof Britishstandards ofbuilding BSI London England latest edition

BSI British standards yearbook BSI London England annual 095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawing practice (metric units), recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress) 094

063

BSI BS 4104 Cateringequipment burning liquefiedpetroleum gases BSI London England 1967 097 BSI BS 2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London

Grafton/Deutsch London England 1966

England 1963 098 BSI BS 1007 Cinemas, maintainedlighting for BSI London England 1955 099 BSI BS5382 Cinematographscreens, specification BSI London England 1976

Beranek LL Music, acoustics & architecture John Wiley& Sons NewYorkUSA 1962 064 Beranek LL Noise& vibration control McGraw-Hill New York USA 1971 065 Berriman S G & Harrison K C British public library buildings

066 Bishop M L(ed) Fountainsin contemporaryarchitecture American Federation of Arts NewYork USA 1965 067 Blankenship E G Theairport Praeger NewYork USA Pall Mall London England 1974 068 Bockrath JT Environmental lawforengineers, scientists & managers McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1977 069 Boje A Open-plan offices Business Books London England 1971 Borchardt S Religiousarchitecture in America 1632—1979 StJohn's Church Washington DC USA 1976 070

0

071 Boswell M & Wingrove J M The handicappedperson inthe community Tavistock Publications/Open University Press London England 1974 072 Bower J Theevolution ofchurch buildings Whitney Library of Design NewYorkUSA 1977 073 Brawne M Libraries: architecture 8 equipment Praeger New York USA 1970 074 BRE Availability ofsunshine (Ne'eman E & Light W) (Current Paper 75/75) Garston England 1975 075 BRE Co-ordinating working drawings (Crawshaw D T) (Current Paper 60/76) BRE Garston England 1976 076 BRE Estimating daylight inbuildings (Digests 41 42) HMSO London England 1970 077

BRE Information directory BRE Garston England annual 078 BRE Noiseabatement zone Parts 1 &2 BRE Garston England 1977

096

100 BSI BS 5252 Colour co-ordination forbuilding purposes, framework for BSI London England 1976

BSI BSLP 110 Concrete, structural useof Part 11972 Design materials & workmanship Part 2 1972 Design charts forsinglyreinforced beams & rectangular columns Part 3 1972 Design charts forcircular columns &prestressed beams BSI London England 1972 101

102 BSI BS350: Part 1 Conversion factors, basis oftables BSI London England 1974 103 BSI PD6444Part 1 Co-ordinationofdimensions inbuilding, recommendations: Basic spaces forstructure, external envelope & internalsub-divisions BSI London England 1969 104 BSI BS4330 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Controlling dimensions BSI London England 1968 105 BSI BS4011 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Co-ordinating sizes forbuilding components & assemblies BSI London England 1966 106 BSI BS2900 Co-ordination ofdimensions inbuilding, recommendations: Glossary of BSI London England 1970 107 BSI BS3: Ch 1: Part 1 Daylighting BSI London England 1964

108 BSI BS 5502 Design ofbuildings & structures foragriculture, codeofpractice BSI London England 1978 109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenienceofdisabled people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978

415

Bibliography BASIC LIST 110 BSI DD 51 Dimensional co-ordination inbuildings, guidance on BSI London England 1977 BS I BS 413 Ducts forbuilding services BSI London England 1975 BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture see 134 below 111

112 BSI BS 5266Part 1 Emergency lighting forpremises other than cinemas & certain otherspecified premises used forentertainment, code ofpractice BSI London England 1975 113 BSI BS 2560 Exitsigns, internally illuminated BSI London England 1976 114 BSI BS 4218 Exit signs, self-luminous BSI London England 1978 115 BSI BS 2053 Farm buildings offramed construction, general purpose BSI London England 1972 116 BSI BS5588 Fireprecautions inthedesign ofbuildings,codeof practice Part 4 Smoke controlinprotected escape routes using pressurisation BSI London England 1978 117 BSI BS 3: Chap iv: Fire,precautions against Part 11971 Flats a maisonettes(inblocksovertwostoreys) Part 2 1968 Shops & department stores Part 3 1968 Office buildings BSI London England 1968& 1971

136 BSI BS 5709 Specification forstiles, bridlegatesa kissing gates BSI London England 1979 137 B51 B5 1754 Steelbarns with covered roofs BSI London England 1961 138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar buildings Part 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972 139 BSI BS 117 Structural steel& concrete, composite structures in Part 1 Simplyed beamsinbuildings BSI London England 1965 140 BSI BS 449 Structural steelin buildings,use of Part 2 1969 Metricunits BSI London England 1969 BSI BS 3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats &schools only) BSl London England 1945 142 BSI PD 6479 Symbols aothergraphic conventions forbuilding productiondrawings, recommendations BSI London England 1976 143 BSI BS3: Chap ii Thermalinsulationinrelation tothecontrol ofthe environment BSI London England 1970 144 BSI BS 112 Timber,structural useof Part 2 1971 Metncunits Part 3 1973 Trussed rafters forroofsofdwellings BSI London England 1971 & 1973 145 BSI BS 4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, door leaves & frames BSI 141

London England 1972

118 BSI BS 2505 Fixedequipment forcowsheds Part 11965 Imperial units Part 2 1972 Metric units BSI London England 1965& 1972 119 BSI BS544OPart1 Flues BSI London England 1978 120 BSI 2004 Foundations, general BSI London England 1972 121 BSI 101 Foundations & sub-structure fornon-industrial buildingsofnot more than fourstoreys BSI London England 1972 122 BSI BS3202 Laboratory furniture & fittings BSI London

146 BSI BS 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning asafety BSI London England 1969

147 Buchanan R D etal Theanatomy offoods service design Cahners Books Boston USA 1975

1

148 Building Officials & Code s International Basic building code BOCA Chicago USA triennial 7thedn 1978 149 Burberry P Building forenergy conservation Architectural Press London England 1977 Halsted Press John Wiley &Sons New York USA 1978 150 Burberry P Environment & services Batsford London England

England 1959

2nd end 1975

123 BSI BS2655 Parts 1—10 Lifts, escalators, enger conveyors apaternosters BSI London England 1969—71 124 BSI BS4727: Part IV: Group 03 Lighting technology terminology: Glossary ofelectrotechnical,power, telecommunication, electronics, lighting& colour BSI London England 1972 125 BSI BS3: Chapv:Loading Part 11967 Dead a imposed loads Part 2 1972 Wind loads BSI London England 1967& 1972

151 Burberry P & Aldersley-Williams A A guide todomestic heating installations &controls Architectural Press London England 1977 152 Burns-Meyer H & Cole E C Theaters& auditoriums Reinhold NewYorkUSA 2ndedn 1964

126 BSI BS 5628 Masonry, structural usecode ofpractice Part 1 Universal masonry BSI London England 1978 127 BSI PD6031 Metric system in the constructionindustry, use London England 2ndedn 1968

of BSI

128 BSI BS 5536 Micro-filming, preparationoftechnical drawings for BSI London England 1978 129 BSI BS5550: PartV: Section 5.1: Subsection 5.1.1 Motionpicture safetyfilm, definition testing a marking BSI London England 1978 130 BSI BS 799: Part V Oil storage tanks BSI London England 1975 BSI BS 3178 Playground equipment forparks BSI London England various dates 132 BSI BS 114 Reinforced concrete, structuraluseinbuildings BSI London England 1969 131

133 BSI BS 5572 Sanitary pipework, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978 134 BSI BS 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by: BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of chairs&tablesfor educational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor strength & stability of chairs foreducationalinstitutions. Part 3 Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational institutions BSI London England 1980 135

BSI PD5686

SIunits, useof BSI

London England 1978

153 Busche-Sievers U Kneipen, pubs&restaurants Callwey Munich 1973 154 Butcher E G & Parnell A C Smoke control in firesafety design E& FN Spon London England 1979 155 Campbell CS Waterin landscape architecture Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1978 156 Casson H lnscape Architectural Press London England 1968 157 Cheshire CountyCouncil Architect's brief:daycentre for physicallyhandicapped C CC Chester England 1975 158 Cheshire CountyCouncil Design aidhousing: roads CCC ChesterEngland 1976 159 Cheshire CountyCouncil Made to measure: domestic extensions&adaptations forhandicappedpersons CCC Chester England 1974 160 Christ-Janer A & Foley M M Modern church architecture McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1962 161

Church TO Gardens are forpeople Reinhold NewYork USA

1955 162 CIB Directory ofbuilding research information & development organizations International Council forBuilding ResearchStudies & Documentation Rotterdam Netherlands 4th edn 1979 163 ClBS Design notesforthe Middle East (Technicalmemorandum 4) CIBS London England 1979 164 CIBS Institution ofheating &ventilationengineersguide (volAB &C) CIBS LondonEngland 1970 165 Civil Aviation Authority Licensing ofaerodromes CAP 168 CAA London England 1978

416

Bibliography BASICLIST 166 Clay G (ed) Water & the landscape McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1979 167 Clouston B (ed) Landscape design with plants Heinemann London England 1978 168 Coates DS lndustnal catering management Business Books London England 1971 169 Cochrane A & Brown J (ed) Landscapedesign forthe Middle East RIBA Publications London England 1978 170 Collins I D & Collins EJ Windowselection NewnesButterworth London England 1977 Colvin B Trees fortown & country Lund Humphries London England 4th edn 1972 172 Considine D M (ed) Energy technology handbook McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1977 171

173 Constructional Steel Research & DevelopmentOrganisation Steel Designer's manual Crosby Lockwood London England 4th edn 1972

174 Construction Industry Research&InformationAssociation Index oftechnical publications CIRIA London England 1970 175 Correale W H & Parker H W Abuilding code primer McGraw-

Hill NewYork USA 1979

176 Cottam DJ Technicalplanning manual forhotels, restaurants, grill&snack bars, industrial restaurants,universities,schools, hospitals, cook/freezereheat & convenience foodkitchens Stotts Oldham England 5th edn 1973 177 Cullingworth J B Town &countryplanninginBritain Allen& Unwin London England 7thedn 1972 178 Cusworth C R N Thehealth & safety atwork etcact 1974

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183 Dawes J Deg &planning ofswimmingpools Architectural Press London England 1979 184 De Breffney B The synagogue Macmillan NewYork USA 1978 185 DeChiara J &Callender JH Time-saverstandardsforbuilding types McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1973 186 De Neufville R Airportsystemsplanning MITPress Cambridge Mass USA 1976

187 Department of Housing & UrbanDevelopment Barrier-free site design HUD Washington DC USA 1975 188 Department of Industry Technicalservices forindustry Dol London England latest edn 189 DES Access forthe physically disabledtoeducationalbuildings (ON 18) HMSO London England 1979 190 DES Acoustics ineducationalbuildings (BB 51) HMSO London England 1976 191 DES Boarding school formaladjustedchildren (BB 27) HMSO London England 1965 192 DES Britishschoolpopulation. dimensional survey (BB 46) HMSO London England 1971 193 DES Colour inschoolbuildings (BB 9) HMSO London England 4thedn 1969

194 DES Energyconservation ineducationalbuildings (BB 55) HMSO London England 1977 195 DES Energy conservation intwoOxfordshire schools (DN 16) DES London England 1944

196 DES Fire & thedesign ofschools (BB 7) HMSO London England 5th edn 1975 197 DES Furniture & equipment dimensions; further & higher education (BB 44) HMSO London England 1970 198 DES Furniture equipment: working heights & zones for practical activities (BB 50) HMSO London England 1973 199 DES Guidelines forenvironmental design & fuel co,iservationin educational buildings (DN 17) DES London England 1974 200 DES JDPCLASP system building forhighereducation (BB 45) HMSO London England 1970 201 DES Thedesign ofschoolkitchens (BB 11) HMSO London England 1955 202 DES Lightinginschools(BB 33) HMSO London England 1967

8

203 DES Newproblems in schooldesign —middle schools (BB 35) HMSO London England 1966 revised 1973 204 DES Nurseryeducation in converted space (BB 56) HMSO London England 1978 205 DES Playing fields&hard surfaceareas (BB 28) HMSO London England 1966 reprinted 1973 206 DES Safety insciencelaboratories (Safety series 2) HMSO London England 1976 207 DES Schoolfurniture dimensions: standing & reaching (BB 38) HMSO London England 2nd edn (metric) 1974 208 DES Schoolfurniture: standing & sittingpostures (BB 52) HMSO London England 1976 209 DES Secondary school design: deg forarts & crafts (BB 34) HMSO London England 1967reprinted 1972 210 DES Seconda,y schooldesign: drama &music (BB 30) HMSO London England 1966 211 DES Secondary schooldesign: modern languages(BB 43) HMSO London England 1966 212 DES Secondary schooldesign: physical education (BB 26) HMSO London England 1965 213 DES Standards forschoolpremises HMSO London England 1972 214 DES Storage ofpupils'belongings (BB 58) HMSO London England 1966 reprinted 1980 DES Villageschools(BB 3) HMSO London England 1975 216 DHSS Building forthe health & social services: abibliographyof guidance material DHSS London England 1978 217 DHSS Clean catering: a handbook onhygiene incatering establishments HMSO London England 4thedn 1972 218 DHSS Hospital building notes(various subjects) HMSO London England 1963 215

219 DHSS Planning, design &construction ofhospital buildings for the national health service(Cruickshank H J) DHSS London England 1973 220 DHSS Residential accommodation formentally handicapped adults (Local authority building note 8) HMSO London England 1973 DHS/Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre Equipment forthedisabled (10parts) Oxford Regional HealthAuthority Oxford England 1974/8 221

(continuously revised) 222 Dickens A Structural & servicesystems inoffice buildings: abackground review(Land use& builtformstudies working paper 35) University School ofArchitecture CambridgeEngland 1970 223 Dodge FW Motels, hotels, restaurants&bars FWDodge New York USA 2nd edn 1966 224 DoE Building legislation: aguideto sources ofinformation DoE! PSA Croydon England 1978 225 DoE Cars in housing2(DB12) HMSO London England 1971 226

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264 Eckbo G Homelandscape: the artofhome landscaping McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1978 265 EducationalFacilitiesLaboratories Five openplan high schools: a report EFL NewYork USA 1973

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248 DoE Spaces in the home(DB24) Part 1 Bathrooms & wc's Part 2 Kitchens &laundenng spaces HMSO London England 1972 249 D0E/PSA Office space: aprimerfors& designers HMSO London England 1976 250 D0E/PSA Solarenergy: anannotated bibliography DoE Croydon England 2nd edn 1979 251 DoE/Welsh Office Daylight indicators HMSO London England 1971

252 DoE/Welsh Office Sunlight & daylight:planning criteria & the design ofbuildings HMSO London England 1971 253 DoE/Welsh office Sunlight indicators HMSO London England 1971

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282 Fengler M Restaurant architecture&design, aninternational survey ofeating places Universe Books NewYork USA 1971 283 Ferguson WA Practicallaboratory planning John Wiley &Sons NewYorkUSA 1973 284 Fire Officers'Committee Rules forautomatic sprinkler installations FOC London England 1970 285 Flora SD Tornadoes ofthe United States University of Oklahoma Press Norman USA 1953 286 Fokus Principles ofthe Fokushousing units fortheseverely disabled Fokus Society Gothenburg Sweden 1968 287 Foott S Handicappedathome DisabledLiving Foundation London England 1977 288 Foss EW Construction & maintenanceforfarm & home John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1960 289 Foster J Structure & fabric Part 1 (Mitchell's building construction series) Batsford Stroud England 1973 290 French T & Vierck C J Themanual ofengineeringdrawing for students & craftsmen McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 8th edn 1974

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307 Halacy D SJr Earth, water, wind& sun—ourenergy alternatives Harper & Row New York USA 1977 Halprin L Freeways Reinhold NewYorkUSA1966 309 Ham R (ed) Theatreplanning Architectural Press London England 1972 310 Hamilton R N 0 Aguidetodevelopment& planning Oyez London England 6th edn with supplement 1976 311 Hammond P Liturgy&architecture Barrie&R London England 1960 308

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BASICLIST

part 3 Housing Development layout, roads & services HMSO

543 Pilkington Brothers Ltd EnvironmentalAdvisory Service Windows &environment Pilkington Brothers Limited St Helens England 1969 544

Porges G Appliedacoustics John Wiley &Sons New York

USA 1977

545 Propst R & Wodka M Theaction office:acoustics handbook Herman Miller Research Corporation Ann Arbor USA 1975 546 Prztak L Standard details forfire resistive building construction McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1977 547 Putsep E Modern hospitals: internationalplanning practice Lloyd-Luke London England 1979 548 Rabb J & Rabb B Goodshelter; a guide tomobile, modular & prefabricated houses, including domes Quadrangle/NewYork Times BookCo NewYork USA 1975 549

Ramsey &Sleeper/American Institute of Architects Architectural

graphicstandards (Packard RT (ed)) John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 7th edn 1980 550 Readers' Digest Encyclopediaofgardenplants Readers' Digest London England 1971

8 flowers

Redstone L G Hospitals & healthcare facilities McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1978 552 Redstone L G Newdimensions inshopping centers & stores McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1973 551

553 RIBA Cl/SfBconstruction indexing manual RIBA Services Ltd London England 1976 554 Ripnen K Office space istration McGraw-Hill New York USA 1974 555 Ritter P Planning forman 8 motor Macmillan NewYork USA 1964 556 Robinson H W Architecture forthe educationaltheatre University ofOregon Eugene Ore USA 1970 557 Robinson J Highways & ourenvironment McGraw-Hill New York USA 1971 558 Rogers TS Thermaldesign ofbuildings John Wiley & Sons NewYork USA 1964 559 Rosenfield I & Rosenfield Z Hospitalarchitecture & beyond Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA 1969 560 Rosenfield I & Rosenfield Z Hospitalarchitecture: integrated components Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA & London England 1971 Rosenfield J 'Lightin museum planning' Architectural Forum 619/1932 NewYork USA 561

562 Rubenstein York USA 1968

HM

Centralcity malls John Wiley & Sons New

Rubenstein H M A guidetosite & environmentalplanning John Wiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 2ndedn1980 564 Salmon G The working office Design Council London England 563

1979

M Office planning & design McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 2ndedn 1978 566 Saphier M Planning the newoffice McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1978 565 Saphier

567 Schaal R Curtain walls—design manual Reinhold New York USA 1959 568 Schild E & Oswald R Structural failuresin residential buildings vol 1 Granada Publishing StAlbansEngland 1978 569 Schmertz M F (ed) Campusplanning & design McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1972 570 Schmertz M F (ed) Office building design McGraw-Hill New York USA 2nd edn 1975 Schramm W Chemistry &biologylaboratories:design, construction, equipment PergamonPress Oxford England 1965 572 Schubert H Themoderntheater; architecture,Stagedesign, lighting Praeger NewYork USA 1971 571

Edinburgh Scotland 1977 574 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook part 6 Housing for thedisabled HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1979 575 Scottish Education Department Schoolkitchens (Educational building note 14) HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1976 576 Scottish Home & Health Department Inpatientaccommodation (Hospital planning note 1) HMSO Edinburgh Scotland revised edn 1977 577 Scottish Hospital Centre Upgrading ofwards SHC Edinburgh Scotland 1967 578 Scottish Hospital Centre Wardconversion forgeriatnc patients SHC Edinburgh Scotland 1974 579 Shear J K (ed) Religiousbuildings fortoday FW Dodge New York USA 1957 580 Shoshkes L Space planning: deg the office environment Architectural Record Books NewYorkUSA 1976 Simmonds M F Accommodation standards foreducational buildings BRE Garston England revised edn 1977 582 Sloane E Anageofbarns BallantineBooks New York USA 1967 581

583 SmithD Hotel&restaurantdesign Van Nostrand Reinhold New York USA Design Council Publications London England 1978 584 Southern Building Code Congress Standardbuilding code SBCC Birmingham Ala USA latest edition 585

Sports Council Facilities forsquashrackets (Technicalunit for

sportbulletin 2) Sports Council London England 1975 586 SportsCouncil Provision forswimming Sports Council London England 1978 587 Sports Council Specification forartificialsports surfaces (technical report prepared bythe Rubber & PlasticsResearch Association of Great Britain) Sports Council London England 1978 588 SportsCouncil Sports halls: anewapproach totheirdimensions 8 use Sports Council London England 1975 589 Statutory instruments 1959:428 Agnculture (safeguardingof workplaces) regulations 1959 HMSO London England 1959

590 Statutory instruments 1966:99 Building operations, construction health & welfare regulations HMSO London England 1966 591 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 The building regulations HMSO London England 1976 592

Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations Part

E Safety in fire E3 Rules formeasurement E4 Provision ofcompartment walls & compartment floors E5 Fire resistance ofelements ofstructure HMSO London England 1976 593 Statutory instruments 1978:723 Thebuilding (first amendment) regulations HMSO London England 1978 594 Statutory instruments 1971:2052 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) (consolidation) regulations HMSO London England 1971 595 Statutory instruments 1973:794 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1973 HMSO London England 1973 596 Statutory instruments 1975:404 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1975 HMSO London England 1975 597 Statutory instruments: Statutory regulations&orders 1922:73 (asamended by SI 1961:2435) Chemical works regulations HMSO London England 1961 598 Statutory instruments 1955:1129 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1955 599 Statutory instruments 1959:282 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1959 600 Statutory instruments 1948:1547 Clayworks welfarespecial regulations HMSO London England 1948

423

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Oil

604 Statutory instruments 1964:966 Sanitaryconvenience regulations HMSO London England 1964 605 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules &orders 1925:864 Saw mi/ls & woodworking factories welfare (ambulance& firstaid) as amendedbySl1961:2434 HMSO LondonEngland 1925&1961 606 Statutory instruments 1960:1932 Shipbuilding & shiprepairs regulations HMSO London England 1960 607 Statutory instruments 1972:2051 Standards forschool premises regulations HMSO London England 1972 608 Statutory instruments 1964:965 Washingfacilities regulations HMSO London England 1964 Steele F Physical settings & organizationaldevelopment Addison-Wesley Reading Mass USA 1973 610 Steel Window Association Specificationforthemetnreferred rangeW20 steelwindows SWA 201 SWA London England 1972 611 Stein R G Architecture & energy Doubleday Garden CityNY USA 1977 609

Stewart H M & Griffin B (ed) Americanarchitectureforthearts vol 1 Handel & Sons Dallas USA 1978 613 Strakosch G R Vertical transportation—elevators & escalators John Wiley&Sons NewYorkUSA 1967 614 Sykes CA Office planner A4 Publications London England 612

1976

615 Szokolay SV Solarenergy & building John Wiley& Sons New YorkUSA 2ndedn 1977 616 Tandy C Landscape ofindustry John Wiley& Sons New York USA 2ndedn 1977 Tannehill I R Hurricanes, theirnature & history,particularly those ofthe WestIndies&thesouthern coastsofthe UnitedStates Princeton 617

University Press Princeton USA 9thedn 1956 618 Tansley A G The British islands & theirvegetation Cambridge University Press Cambridge England 1939 619 Taylor J & Cooke G Thefireprecautions actinpractice Architectural Press London England 1970 620 Thiry P Bennett R M & Kamphoefner H Churches & temples Reinhold NewYorkUSA 1953 621 Thomas M L Architectural working drawings: a professional technique McGraw-Hill New York USA 1978 622 Thompson A Library buildings ofBritain & Europe Butterworth London England 1963 623 Thompson E K Apartments, townhouses & condominiums McGraw-Hill NewYork USA 1975 Thompson E K Houses ofthe west McGraw-Hill New York USA 1979 624

625 Thompson G Planning & design oflibrary buildings Nicols Publishing Co NewYork USA Architectural Press London England 2nd edn 1977

626 Tidworth S Theatres:anarchitectural & cultural history Praeger NewYork USA 1973 627 Townroe P Planningindustrial location Leonard HillBooks London England 1976

628 Tregenza P R The design ofinteriorcirculation Crosby Lockwood Staples London England 1976 629 United Nations EducationalScientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Planning buildings & facilities forhighereducation Architectural Press London England UNESCOPress Paris 1975 630 University Grants Committee Planningnormsforuniversity buildings HMSO London England 1974 631 Urban Land Institute Residential developmenthandbook ULI Washington DC USA 1978 632 US Congress Architectural barriers act US Superintendentof Documents Washington DC USA 1968 633 US Congress National environment policyact US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1970 634 US Congress Occupational safety & healthact US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1971 635 US Federal Aviation Agency Theapron & terminal building: planning manual3vol National Technical InformationService Springfield Va USA 1975 636 Vahlefeld A & Jacques F Garages & service stations Leonard Hill LondonEngland 1960 637 Wagner W F (ed)A treasuryofcontemporaryhouses McGraw-Hill NewYorkUSA 1978

0

638 Wakita A & Linde R M Theprofessionalpractice of architectural detailing John Wiley & Sons New York USA 1977 639 Walter F Sports centres & swimming pools —astudyoftheir design with particular reference to the needsofthe physically disabled Disabled Living Foundation London England 1971 640 Ward C (ed) Vandalism Architectural Press London England 1973 Ward H (ed) Betterlibrarybuildings 1967—8 Library Association London England 1970 642 Webb J D (ed) Noisecontrol inindustry Sound Research Laboratories Sudbury Suffolk England 1976 641

643 Weddle A E (ed) Landscape techniques Heinemannfor Landscape Institute London England 1979 644 Weiss J Better buildings fortheaged McGraw-Hill New York

USA

1971

645 Weisskamp H Hotels: an internationalsurvey Architectural Press London England 1968 646 Weller J Modern agriculture & ruralplanning Architectural Press London England 1967 647 Wheeler E T Hospital modernization & expansion McGraw-Hill

NewYorkUSA 1971

648 White B Theliterature & study ofurban & regional planning Routledge & Kegan Paul London England 1974 649 Whittaker C Brown P & Monahan J Thehandbookof environmental powers Architectural Press London England 1976 650 Whyte WS & Powell-Smith V Thebuilding regulations explained illustrated Crosby Lockwood Staples London England 5thedn 1978

8

651

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652 Wild F Libraries forschools& universities Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYork USA 1972 653 Williams C H Guideto Europeansources oftechnical information Francis Hodgson Guernsey CI 1970 654 Wozniak S J Solar heating systems forthe UK: design, installation & economic aspects HMSO London England 1979 655 Yerges L F Sound, noise& vibrationcontrol Van Nostrand Reinhold NewYork USA 2nd edn 1978

424

Bibliography CODES This listcites a the principal codes, guides, reg,standardsand statutesthought likely to be mostoftenneeded b someless known whichare thought likelyto be useful Because USA and UKpracticesdifferUKcodes predominateinthislist. In the UKmost such standards and reg are produced bygovernment bodies orby nationalinstitutions. In the USA some are produced bysuch national bodies asANSIbut farmore originate with state and municipal authorities: theseare too many and too variousto list,

columns Part 3 1972 Design charts forcircular columns & prestressed beams BSI London England 1972 102 BSI BS 350 Part 1 Conversion factors, basis oftables BSI London England 1974 103 BSI PD 6444 Part 1 Co-ordinationofdimensions in building, recommendations. Basicspaces forstructure, external envelope 8 internalsub-divisions BSI London England 1969 104 BSI BS 4330 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Controlling dimensions 851 London England 1968

Titles otsome BSI publications are citedon a key word insteadofwith the formal title, egBS 114 The structuraluseofreinforced concrete inbuildings isgiven asBS114 Reinforced concrete,structuralusein buildings, BS 5572 is given asSanitary pipework, code ofpractice. It is hopedthatthiswill make things easier for the.

105 BSI 4011 Co-ordination ofdimensions in building, recommendations: Co-ordinating sizes forbuilding components & assemblies BSI London England 1966 106 BSI BS 2900 Co-ordination ofdimensions inbuilding, recommendations: Glossary of BSI London England 1970

013 AJ/MoH Hospital planning & design guide Architectural Press

107 BSI BS 3: Ch 1: Part 1 Daylighting BSI London England 1964

019 Aluminium WindowAssociation Aluminium window edgeprofiles (Technical report 1) AWA London England 1976 023 American Hospital Association Hospital engineeringhandbook AHA Chicago USA 1974 026 American Insurance Association Fireprevention code AlA New YorkUSA latest edition

108 BSI BS 5502 Design ofbuildings & structures foragriculture, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978

London England 1967

027

American InsuranceAssociation Nationalbuilding code AlA

NewYorkUSA latest edition

ANSI Specifications formaking buildings & facilities accessible to & usable by thephysically handicappedpeople ANSI NewYork 028

USA 2ndedn 1979 029 ANSI Standards ANSI NewYork USA latest edition 030 American Society of Heating Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE standard 90—75; energy conservationin new building design ASHRAE NewYork USA 1975

031 American Society of Heating,Refrigerating& Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE handbook offundamentals ASHRAE NewYork USA 1977 033 American Society forTesting Materials Standards ASTM Philadelphia USA latest editions 084 British Industrial-Scientific Film Association Filmguidefor the construction industry Construction Press LancasterEngland 1979 088 BSI BS 96 Accessforthe disabledtobuildings Part 1 General recommendations BSI London England 1967 089 BSI BS 5606 Accuracy inbuilding BSI London England 1978 090 BSI BS 5440 Part 2 Airsupply BSI London England 1976 091 BSI BS 4873 Aluminium alloywindows BSI London England 1972 092 BSI BS 3 Basic data forthedesign ofbuildings, code of see Daylighting Fire precautions Loading Sunlight Thermal insulation 093 BSI British Standards Handbook 3 vol 1—4 Summariesof British standards ofbuilding BSI London England latest edition 094 BSI British standards yearbook BSI London England annual

095 BSI BS 1192 Building drawingpractice (metnc units), recommendations BSI London England 1969 (revision in progress) 096 BSI BS4104 Catering equipment burning liquefiedpetroleum gases BSI London England 1967 097 BSI BS2512 Catering equipment, gasheated BSI London England 1963

098 BSI BS 1007 Cinemas, maintainedlighting for BSI London England 1955 099 BSI BS5382 Cinematograph screens, specification BSI London England 1976 100 BSI BS5252 Colour co-ordination forbuildingpuiposes, framework for BSI London England 1976 BSI BS LP 110 Concrete, structuraluseof Part 11972 Design materials & workmanship Part 2 1972 Design charts forsinglyreinforced beams &rectangular 101

109 BSI BS 5619 Design ofhousing fortheconvenience ofdisabled people, code ofpractice BSI London England 1978 110 BSI DD 51 Dimensional co-ordinationinbuildings, guidance on BSI London England 1977 111 BSI BS 413 Ducts forbuilding services BSI London England 1975 BSI BS5873 Educationalfurniture see 134 below 112 BSI BS 5266 Part 1 Emergency lighting forpremises other than cinemas & certain otherspecified premises used forentertainment, code ofpractice BSI London England 1975 113 8Sf BS2560 Exitsigns, internally illuminated BSI London England 1976 114 BSI BS 4218 Exitsigns, self-luminous BSI London England 1978 115 BSI BS2053 Farm buildings offramedconstruction, general purpose BSI London England 1972 116 BSI BS5588 Fireprecautions inthedesign ofbuildings,codeof practice Part 4 Smoke controlin protected escape routes using pressurisation BSI London England 1978 117 BSI BS 3: Chap iv: Fire, precautions against Part 11971 Flats & maisonettes (in blocks overtwo storeys) Part 2 1968 Shops department stores Part 3 1968 Office buildings BSI London England 1968 & 1971

8

118 BSI BS 2505 Fixedequipment forcowsheds Part 11965 Imperial units Part 2 1972 Metric units BSI London England 1965& 1972 119 BSI BS 5440Part 1 Flues BSI London England 1978 120 BSI 2004 Foundations, general BSI London England 1972 121 BSI 101 Foundations & sub-structure fornon-industrial buildingsofnotmore than fourstoreys BSI London England 1972 122 BSI BS 3202 Laboratory furniture & fittings BSI London

England 1959 123 BSI BS 2655 Parts 1—10 Lifts, escalators,enger conveyors &paternostersBSI London England 1969—71 124 BSI BS 4727: Part IV: Group 03 Lighting technology terminology: Glossary ofelectrotechnical,power, telecommunication, electronics, lighting& colour BSI London England 1972 125 BSI BS3: Chapv: Loading Part 11967 Dead & imposed loads Part2 1972 Windloads BSI London England 1967& 1972 126 BSI 5628 Masonry, structural usecode ofpractice Part 1 Universalmasonry BSI London England 1978 127 BSI PD 6031 Metric systemin theconstruction industry, use of BSI London England 2nd edn 1968

425

Bibliography CODES

128 BSI 5536 Micro-filming, preparation oftechnical drawings for BSI London England 1978 129 BSI BS5550: PartV: Section 5.1: Subsection 5.1.1 Motion-picture safetyfilm, definition testing & marking BSI London England 1978 130 BSI BS799: PartV Oilstoragetanks BSI London England 1975 131 BSI BS3178 Playground equipment forparks BSI London England various dates 132 BSI BS 114 Reinforced concrete, structural use in buildings BSI London England 1969

133 BSI 5572 Sanitarypipework, codeofpractice BSI London England 1978 134 BSI 3030 Schoolfurniture now replaced by: BSI BS 5873 Educationalfurniture Part 1 Specifications forfunctional dimensions, identification & finish of chairs& tables foreducational institutions. Part2 Specificationfor strength & stability of chairs foreducational institutions. Part3 Specification for strength & stability of tables for educational institutions BSI London England 1980 135 BSI PD 5686 SI units, use of BSI London England 1978 136 BSI BS 5709 Specification forstiles, bndle gates & kissing gates BSI London England 1979 137 BSI BS1754 Steel barns with covered roofs BSI London England 1961 138 BSI BS 990 Steelwindows generally fordomestic & similar buildingsPart 2 Metric units BSI London England 1972 139 BSI BS 117 Structural steel& concrete,composite structures in Part 1 Simplyed beamsinbuildings BSI London England 1965 140 BSI BS 499 Structural steelinbuildings, use of Part2: 1969 Metric units BSI London England 1969 141

BSI BS 3: Chap i(B) Sunlight (houses, flats & schools only)

BSI London England 1945 142 BSI PD 6479 Symbols & othergraphic conventions forbuilding production drawings, recommendations BSI London England 1976 143 BSI BS3: Chap ii Thermalinsulationinrelation to thecontrol ofthe environment BSI London England 1970 144 BSI BS 112 Timber,structural useof Part 2 1971 Metric units Part 3 1973 Trussed rafters forroofsofdwellings BSI London England 1971 & 1973

145 BSI 8S4787 Part 1 Wooddoorsets, doorleaves & frames BSI London England 1972 146 BSI BS 153 Windows & rooflights Part 1 Cleaning & safety BSI London England 1969 148 Building Officials & Codes s International Basic buildingcode BOCA Chicago USA triennial 7th edn 1978 164 CIBS Institution ofheating & ventilationengineers guide (vol AB&C) CIBS LondonEngland 1970 173 Constructional Steel Research & Development Organisation Steel designer's manual Crosby Lockwood London England 4th edn 1972

234 DoE Houseplanning: aguideto needs wtih achecklist (OB 14) HMSO London England 1976 271 Electricity Council & Lighting Industry Federation Interiorlighting design Electricity Council&LIF London England 1977 276 Essex CountyCouncil Design guide forresidential areas ECC Chelmsford England 1973 284 Fire Officers'Committee Rules forautomatic sprinkler installations FOC London England 1970 300 Greater London Council London building (constructional)

by-laws GLC London England 1972 301 Greater London Council Means ofescape incaseoffire (code of practice) GLC London England 1974 324 HMSO Guide to fireprecautionsAct 1971:hotels & boarding houses HMSO London England 1972 325 HoC Agriculture (miscellaneousprovisions) act 1968:codes of recommendations forthe welfare oflivestock HMSO London England 1968 326 HoC Agriculture (safety, health & welfare) act 1956 HMSO London England 1956 327 HoC Chronically sick & disabledpersons act 1970 HMSO London England 1970

HoC Cinematograph act 1909 HMSO London England 1909 329 HoC Cinematograph act 1952 HMSO London England 1952 328 330

Civil amenities act 1967 HMSO London England 1967

331

HoC HoC 332 HoC 333 HoC

Cleanairact 1956 HMSO London England 1956 Cleanairact1968 HMSO London England 1968

1974

Control ofpollution act 1974 HMSO London England

HoC Countryside act 1968 HMSO London England 1968 335 HoC Countryside (Scotland) act 1967 HMSO London England 1967 334

336 337 338 339 340

HoC Dangerous drugs act 1965 HMSO London England 1965 HoC Dangerous drugs act 1967 HMSO London England 1967 HoC Factoriesact 1961 HMSO London England 1961 HoC Films act 1960 HMSO London England 1960 HoC Fireprecautions act 1971 HMSO London England 1971

HoC Health & safety at worketcact 1974 HMSO London England 1974 342 HoC Insulation act 1972 HMSO London England 1972 341

HoC London building act 1930 HMSO London England 1930 344 HoC London building (amendment) act 1935 HMSO London England 1935 345 HoC London building (amendment) act 1939 HMSO London England 1939 346 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1963 HMSO London England 1963 343

347 HoC Offices, shops& railwaypremises act 1971 HMSO London England 1971 348 HoC Petroleum (consolidation) act 1928 HMSO London England 1928 349 HoC Pharmacy & poisons act 1933 HMSO London England 1933

HoC Public health act 1936 HMSO London England 1936 HoC Publichealth act 1961 HMSO London England 1961 352 HoC Public health (recurring nuisances) act 1969 HMSO

197 DES Furniture & equipment dimensions: further & higher education (BB44) HMSO London England 1970 198 DES Furniture & equipment: working heights & zones for practicalactivities (BB 50) HMSO London England 1973 199 DES Guidelines forenvironmentaldesign & fuelconservationin educational buildings (DN 17) DES London England 1974 214 DES Standards forschool premises HMSO London England 1972

350

217 DHSS Clean catering: ahandbook onhygiene in catering establishments HMSO London England 4th edn 1972

355 HoC Riding establishments act 1934 HMSO London England 1934

DoE Homes fortoday & tomorrow (ParkerMorris report': MHLG1961) HMSO London England reprinted 1975

356 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1951 HMSO

233

351

London England 1969

353 HoC Publiclibraries & museums act 1964 HMSO London England 1964 354 HoC Radioactivesubstances act 1960 HMSO London England 1960

England 1951

London

426

Bibliography CODES

357 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) act 1961 HMSO London England 1961 358 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1951 HMSO London England 1951 359 HoC Rivers (prevention ofpollution) (Scotland)act 1965 HMSO London England 1965 360 HoC Sewerage (Scotland) act 1968 HMSO London England 1968

HoC Theatres act 1968 HMSO London England 1968 362 HoC Therapeuticsubstances act 1956 HMSO London England 1956 361

363 HoC Town 8 country planning act 1971 HMSO London England 1971 364 HoC Town & country planning (Scotland)act 1972HMSO London England 1972 365

HoC Waterresources act 1963 HMSO London England 1963

383 IES The IES Code: recommendations forlighting building interiors CIBS London England 1977 387

IES(USA) Lightinghandbook ES NewYorkUSA 1972 390 Institution ofElectrical Engineers Regulationsfortheelectrical equipment ofbuildings lEE London England latest edtion 391 InternationalAirTransport Assocation Airport Terminalreference manual IATA Montreal Canada 6th edn 1976 392 International Civil Aviation Organisation Aerodrome design manual Part 2 Taxiways,aprons& holding bays Part 3 Pavements ICAO Montreal Canada 1977 393 International Civil Aviation Organisation Airport planning manual Part 1 Masterplanning Part 2 Landuse & environmental control ICAO Montreal Canada 1977 394 InternationalCivil Aviation Organisation Heliport manual ICAO Montreal Canada 1979

395 International Civil Aviation Organisation Internationalstandards, recommended practices: aerodromes.Annex 14 tothe convention on international aviation IACO MontrealCanada 1976 396 InternationalCivil Aviation Organisation Stolport manual ICAO Montreal Canada 1976 397 InternationalCommission on Illumination International recommendations forthe calculationofnatural daylight (publication 16) CIE Paris 1970 398 InternationalConference of Building Officials Uniform building code ICBO Whittier Calif USA latest edition International Federation of Library Associations Standards for publiclibraries Verlag Dokumentation Munich IFLA The Hague Netherlands 1973 399

400

ISO Modular co-ordination: basic module (ISO 1006:1973) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1973 401 ISO Modular co-ordination: co-ordinating sizes fordoor-sets, external & internal (ISO 2776: 1974) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974 402 ISO Modular co-ordination: multi-modules for horizontal coordinating dimensions (ISO 1040: 1973) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1973 403

ISO Modular co-ordination: principles & rules (ISO 2848:1974)

ISO Geneva Switzerland 1974 404

ISO Modular co-ordination: reference lines ofhonzontal

controllingdimensions (ISO R 1970: 1970) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1970

405 ISO Modular co-ordination: storey heights & room heights for residential buildings (ISO 1789: 1973) ISO Geneva Switzerland 1973

ISO Modularco-ordination: vocabulary (ISO 1791:1973) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1973 406

407 ISO Standard for the functional sizes of school furniture (ISO! D1S5970:1978) ISO GenevaSwitzerland 1978 473 Metrication Board Howto write metric: a style guide to teaching andusing SIunits HMSO London England no date 504 National Elevator Industry Elevatorengineering standards National Elevator Industry Inc NewYorkUSA 5th edn 1979 505 National Fire Protection Association Deg buildings forfire safety NFPA Boston USA 1975 508 National Fire Protection Association Life safety code NFPA Boston USA latest edition 509 National Fire Protection Association NationalFire codes NFPA Boston USA 16vol 1976 510 National Fire ProtectionAssociation Nationalfireprevention code NFPA Boston USA Latest edition 512 National House Builders Council ed house builders handbook NHBC London England 1974 515 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum standards forpublicspas NSPI Washington DC USA 1978 516 National Swimming Pool Institute Technical Council Minimum standards forpublicswimming pools NSPI WashingtonDC USA 1974 517 National Swimming Pool Institute StandardsCodes Committee Suggested minimum standards forresidential swimming pools NSPI Washington DC USA 1974 549 Ramsey & Sleeper/American InstituteofArchitects Architectural graphic standards (Packard RT (ed)) JohnWiley & Sons New York USA 7thedn 1980 553 RIBA Cl/SfB construction indexingmanual RIBA Services Ltd London England 1976 573

Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook

part3 Housing development layout, roads & se,vices HMSO

Edinburgh Scotland 1977 574 Scottish Development Department Scottish Housing Handbook part 6 Housing forthe disabled HMSO Edinburgh Scotland 1979 581 Simmonds M F Accommodation standards foreducational buildings BRE Garston England revised edn 1977 584

Southern Building Code Congress Standard building code

SBCC Birmingham Ala USA latest edition 587 Sports Council Specification forartificial sports surfaces (technical report prepared bythe Rubber & Plastics Research

Association of Great Britain) Sports Council London England 1978 589 Statutory instruments 1959:428 Agriculture (safeguardingof workplaces) regulations 1959 HMSO London England 1959 590 Statutory instruments 1966:99 Building operations, construction health & welfare regulations HMSO London England 1966 591 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations HMSO London England 1976 592 Statutory instruments 1976:1676 Thebuilding regulations Part

E Safety in fire E3 Rules formeasurement E4 Provision ofcompartment walls & compartment floors E5 Fireresistance ofelements ofstructure HMSO London England 1976 593 Statutory instruments 1978:723 Thebuilding (first amendment) regulations HMSO London England 1978 594 Statutory instruments 1971:2052 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) (consolidation) regulations HMSO London England 1971 595 Statutory instruments 1973:794 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1973 HMSO London England 1973 596 Statutory instruments 1975:404 Thebuilding standards (Scotland) amendment regulations 1975 HMSO London England 1975 597 Statutory instruments: Statutory regulations& orders 1922:73 (as amended by SI 1961:2435) Chemical works regulations HMSO London England 1961 598 Statutory instruments 1955:1129 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1955

427

Bibliography CODES

REFERENCE BY TOPICS

599 Statutory instruments 1959:282 Cinematographsafety regulations HMSO London England 1959 600 Statutory instruments 1948:1547 Clay workswelfare special regulations HMSO London England 1948 601 Statutory instruments 1976:2010 Fire precaution (non-certified factory, office, shop & railwaypremises) regulations HMSO London England 1976 602 Statutory instruments: rules & orders 1917:1067 Metal Statutory worksas amended by SR&O 1926:864 & SI 1961:2434 HMSO London England 19171926& 1961

Access

603

Statutory instruments: Statutory rules

& orders 1929:534

Oil

cakewelfare order HMSO London England 1929 604 Statutory instruments 1964:966 Sanitaryconveniences regulations HMSO London England 1964 605 Statutory instruments: Statutory rules &orders 1925:864 Saw mills & woodworking factories welfare (ambulance& firstaid) as amended by SI 1961:2434 HMSO London England 1925& 1961 606 Statutory instruments: 1960:1932 Ship building & ship repairs regulations HMSO London England 1960 607 Statutory instruments 1972:2051 Standardsforschool premises regulations HMSO London England 1972 608 Statutory instruments 1964:965 Washingfacilities regulations HMSO London England 1964 610 SteelWindowAssociation Specification forthe metrireferred range W20 steelwindows SWA 201 SWA London England 1972 629 United Nations EducationalScientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Planning buildings & facilities forhigher education Architectural Press London England UNESCOPress Paris 1975 630

University Grants Committee Plann,ngnorms foruniversity

buildings HMSO London England 1974 631 Urban Land Institute Residential developmenthandbook ULI Washington DC USA 1978 632 USCongress Architectural barriers act US Superintendentof Documents Washington DC USA 1968 633

US Congress National environment policy act

US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1970 634 US Congress Occupational safety & healthact US Superintendent of Documents Washington DC USA 1971 635 US Federal Aviation Agency Theapron & terminal building. planning manual3 vol National Technical InformationService Springfield Va USA 1975

056086088136158189231242244276557 Acoustics

063 064 190 254 268 408428503 522 532544 545642655 Air conditioning —ventiIation Airports

048 067 165 186 341 370 391 392 393 394 395396 635 Apartments also—housing

018037 464 533 623 628 Auditoriums

063408413 Banks 007249 259 374 477 Building

services

090 111 119 130 133 143 150 151 246 377 390 416461 489 490503 593 Canteens —refectories

Car parks 086 308 424435 513 555 557 Cinemas

084098099113114129328329339347426598599 Climate 047 285 291 433434467520527529536617 Colleges

039040041063096097113114147168176200217226261377 413437441 446472476485526556569581 612629630652 Construction

008089092101120121125126132139140144173175200228 277288289316341 371 375378422445467491 494495498502 553 568 590 Daylighting also—*lightingsunlight 047059074076107251252291367368375380381382383397 452 457 527 528 529 567

Design

085163169173179185209210211 212213214247276279292 294302303313322375417425445462549567628638 Dining rooms

096097147168176217226439441 Disabledalso —foldpeople

028055060071088109157187189191220221281286287296 317327423432438447469488518535574628632639 Doors

117145401549574592628 Drawing practice 061 075081082095127128135142290322448463553621638 Elderly —.oldpeople Elevators also —.stairs

035123504613628 Energy conservation also —.climateheating

030059149172194195199250257258304427460558611615 Equitation—sport

Escalators —.stairs Factories —industrial buildings Farm buildings

108115118137288325326333334335340341347348351352 356357358359360363364365415582589601 646 Fire precautions 026079116117154196269284301324340412436492501505 506507508509510546592601 619 Flats—apartments

Garages 225 276 348435 636 650 Gardens 002 021 032066087 155 161 166 167 171 263 264 320 376 410 411 430431 466 482 550 562 563

428

Bibliography REFERENCE BYTOPICS

Handicapped —.disabled Heating also—.energy solar ventilation 031 059164172199230304416467487493500503536558611

Old people

232235236247295302438444469499644 Pools—gardens sport Proportions

075081082445

654

Recreation also —.cinemas museums 062 131 180227239443475

Hospitals

Refectories —dining rooms

013 014 017020 022 023 024 025054 218219220 262 294296303 315336337340341 349 354 362419420421 478525547 551 559 560576577578647 Hotelsalso —restau rants

001 011 043049050147176217223226243255272273274319 442477480583645 324341 346347363377439440441 Housing also—.apartments climate disabled energy gardening

old people

sport

theatres

Religiousbuildings 005070072160184311312478579620 Restaurants 016043045049096097147153156176217226243282319341 439 441 442 477583 Roads also—access 086158225240242244308 557

solar

037 038 044 047 092 179227 228 233 234 235236 237 238 240242 245246247248263264299 300 302363372458464467511512 519521 548558573574624631 637650 Industrialbuildings

Sanitary —lavatories Schools

134191192193194195196197198199200201202203204205 207208209210211 212213214215265267275314446451 476

031 036052053164177178257280284301305331 332333338 341 346 348 352 354 363 374 382 387418456470 477480481 483 486 505 534 539 590 592 597 600 601 602603604 605606608616

484 526 530 575 581 607 652

627634642651

Services—.building

Insulation

Shoppingcentresshopsstores 116117306340341 369374450477552601

143342503558 Kitchens 176 226 248 372 575 Laboratories

039 122 206 278 283 336 337 341 349354362524571 Landscape

012051 056057 166 167 169 171 229231239279334335363453 454 482 563616618633643 Lavatories

Schools ofartdesign drama music —.colleges

SI—metricsystem Solarenergy

059256528615654 Spacestandards

103104105110400401 402403404405406407607 Sport

003006046083183205212297355384388475514515516517 537538549585586587588639

029246 248 341 347 480 604 608

Stairs

Law

117123300338340346501591594613628

009068177178224300310321 373453649650 Lecture rooms& theatres —.colleges

Standards, international 400401 402 403 404 405406407 530

Libraries 065 073 314 323 353399 437447 455471 472474476622625641

Students Sunlight

hostels —colleges

also—*daylightingsolar

652

074 141 251 252

Lighting also—daylighting

Theatres also —cinemas

112124202271367380381382383384385386387397449457 523

015034113114152266298309340343350351352361408409 413475556572626

Man & his buildings 086 256445557

Toilets

Marinas —sport

Vehicleservices —car parks garages

Metric system

010102127135228473479494495531610 Museums

040318385476612 Offices

069177178222241 249257 259 260341346347 363364366374 389429465477480540541 542 545554564565566570580592 601 614

—.lavatories

Universities—.colleges

Ventilation also ---.heating

080090164416496 Warehouses—industriaI buildings Windows

019058091103138146170375380381434459467520536543 549567610 Workshops —.industrial buildings

429

Index indicates an illustration Abbreviations: listxiii—xiv,principles xi Access: air handling plant rooms 392, ambulances 166(2), buildings 19, cinemas 354, cinemas, drive-in358,disabled 43, disabled housing86, doors 401—2, ducts 383, flats & apartments 90, flats & apartments, internal 97, garages, private21, 100—1, gardens 47, hospital accident department 168, hotels212, houses 41—3, industrial buildings 264,273, 282—3, libraries 146, manhole dimensions 13, manholes,oil storage tank 387, motels 219, offices 230, oldpeople'shousing 83, security 76, services13, shops& stores 188, theatres 348, windows forcleaning 404(12), workon buildings 13—also stairs Accessroads 41—2 Accommodation: boarding schools 127, conventions 140,221, hotels 210, schoolsof art,design, drama, music 137, student 99, studenthostels140—1, youth hostels 143—4 Acoustics 18:collegelecture room 136, theatre 350, unitsof measurement 2(7), —also sound insulation Air: common contaminants 15(2),quality of 15, saturated, moisture content 394(1), supply rates 15 Air-conditioning: cinemas 356, duct sizes 384, hotels218, offices233 Air contaminants, ratesof production 15(3)(5) Air handling plant rooms 392 Airports 258—62:aircraft maintenancebuilding 262, aircraft parking 261, airfreight building 262, baggage handling 260, 261, catering building 262, components 258, flow diagrams 260, ground transport 260, layout 258, orientation of runways259, enger terminals 259, 260, 261, runways258, 259, taxiways 258,259 Ambulances, dimensions 166(2) Ambulance rooms, industrial buildings 280 Apartments —*ffats Apostilb, definition 26 Architects'data:languagexii, style xi Art galleries —museums Artificial lighting —.lighting Art schools137—8 —also colleges Aspect, houses 46, 81, gardens 104, loading bays283 Athletics tracks, indoor326, outdoor 324 —also sport Auditorium: exitrequirements 136, 348, 354, lecture room 134—5, levels, cinema 357(4), multiple 351(7), 354, seating 135, 136, 349—51,354, theatre 350, 353 Balconies: access, flats & apartments88, 90, theatre 349,350,351 Banks 245—7: cashier positions 246, drive-in 246, examples 247, layout diagram 245(3) Barbecues 77(4), 107(8) Bars: hotel 211, public houses 224 Baths, domestic 63, swimming —.pools Bathrooms: disabled housing 86—7, domestic 61—5, equipment 61—3, hospital,geriatric 158, hotels 216, industrial buildings 281, old people, aids83, pre-fabricated units 65 Bedrooms: boarding school 127, disabled87, domestic 70—2, domestic, USA sizes70, fitments 71, hotel 210, 216, motel 220, old people's, dimensions & data 83, student hostels 140, wheelchair s 87, youth hostels 143, 144 Bed sizes: domestic 70, 71, hotel 216, hospital 159

Bell curveconcept—human dimensions Bibliography: basiclist 413—23, codes 424—7, topicreferences 427—8 Bicycle stands 257(12)(13) Blinds —windows Body measurements —cattle, children, man, pigs

Boilerrooms387—8

Book storage: domestic shelving 69, floor loading 177, library shelves 146, space needs 177 Building materials: physical characteristics (table) 382, sound absorption coefficients (table) 397, thermal conductivities 393(2) Bus stations —carparks Cabinets —cupboards Calorifier rooms 388 Calorifiers 390—1 Carparks248—52:buses249(1 )(3), bus stations, 255—6, bus station roadways256, busstation trafficorganisation 256, drive-in cinemas 358, industrial buildings 263, multistorey 251—2,off-street 249, ramps 251, road parking 248, space requirements 248, 249, stall widths USA 250, 'standard design car'251, theatre 348,truck,249, USA dimensions 250, vehiclecontrol 252 —also parking Cattle, dimensions 294 —*also farm buildings Ceiling heights, USA minimum 44 Changing rooms: hospital staff 178, industrial buildings 280, 281, swimming pool 336—7 Check lists: energy saving, earth 80, house requirements 48, old people's housing preferences 82, old people's housing safety precautions 84, pig husbandry data 303, services in flats &apartments 93, sporthall equipment 321, window choice 405 Children body measurements 131—2 Churches 182—4: furnishings 183, galleries 184, interiors 183, organs 184 Cinemas 354—8: auditorium levels 357(4), college halls 134, 135, drive-in 358, lighting 356, projection 355, prolection, drive-in 358, rear projection ofimage 134, seating 354, screen sizes 355, 358, screen systems 357, 16 mm 134—5, 356, sound systems 357, ventilation 356, viewing criteria, college 135 Circulation: houses, internal 47, 52, operating theatre 171, people 19, traffic 20—1 —also access, car parks Classification of technical drawings—drawing practice

Cl/Sfb 6

Cloakrooms: cinema 355, industrial buildings 281, swimming pool 337,theatre 348, windows404(11) Closets —cupboards Codingsystems for near-sighted 162 Cold bridges 394 Colleges 134—42: art, design, drama,music 137—8, arts centre layout 138(5), dining rooms 142, drawing studios 139, lecture rooms 134—6, lecture room acoustics 136, lecture rooms, convertibility 134, lecture roomsmeans ofescape 136, lecture rooms, tv in 136, student hostels 140—1 Community health care —hospitals Compartmentation (fire controD: hotels 211, hospitals 151, industrial buildings 277, shops & stores 189, 192, 198 Colour: in buildings 17, classification 17 Concerts, hallsused for350 Condensation 394 Conferences —*conventions Controls forhandicapped86, 162,412 Conventions: hotels221—3, student hostel

accommodation 140 Conversion factors 364—5 Conversion tables 366—81, list 366 Corridors14,407:capacity 407, hospital 157, 171, hotel 216, enger conveyors 409, queues407, waiting areas 407,walking speeds 407 Crawlways 13, 383 Crematoria 187 Cupboards: bathroom 62(9)( 10), bedroom, built-in 71, 73, 74, hotel bedroom 217, kitchen75, reach height, disabled 86, reach height, old people 83, walk-in 73—4---also lockers Cylinders, hot water389—90 Daylight 27—32: daylight factor (DF) 27—9, OF calculation28—31,OFfortypes oftask 17(3), distribution of28, diversity of28, in hospitals 154, obstruction 40, quality of, glare32, sky components (table) 30,window positions 404—+alsoorientation, sunlight Daylight factor —*daylight Design: convention hotel concept 221, houses 38etseq, hospital 149,150,153,154, office buildings factors 225—7, operating theatre 171, primary schooltrends120, workshop factors 290, workplace 278, 279 Design schools 137—S Dimensions, controlling, forhouses 44 Dimensions & space requirements: air handling plant 392, ambulance 166(2), bedrooms, old people 83, busparking 256, beds 70, 71, 159, 216, calorifiers 390—1, car parks 248, 249, 250, 251, cars USA 251, cattle 294,296,church furnishings 183, crawlways 13, 383, cylinders 389—90, disabled access 43, 85—6, drawing studio equipment 139, elevators 410—12, escalators 409, extract fans 392(5), farm machinery 298,314, fire engine 20, 21(1), footways 19,43,85, 106, fork-lifts271, furniture, garden 107, furniture hotel2l7, furniture old people 83,furniture school 130—3, furniture snack bar 202, 205, garden paths 106, gardentools107, gasboilers 388, 389, hospital corridors 157, hospital equipment 156, 158, 159, 167, 169, 172(operating theatres), 1 79(stores), hotel bedroom 217, hotel kitchen 213, hotel reception equipment 212, human beings 11—14, kitchen equipment 59, kitchenovens, domestic 58, laboratory bench 291, laboratory equipment, hospital 176, laundry domestic 60, library equipment 146, 177, loading bays282—4, lockers 133, 178,280, manual handling 278, meter, external 74, gas, domestic 386, milk delivery box 99, officeequipment 243—4, office filing241—2, oil fuel tanks 387(3)(4), pedestrian movement 19, pallets 269—72, pigs303, 306, poultry309, prams, moving 19, prams, stored74, pressure jet boilers 389, ranges 58, refrigerators 58—9, restauranttables 202—4,school bags 133, school children 131—2, school children'scoats 133, school furniture 130—1, self-service shop equipment 195, service ducts 384, 'standard design car' 251, trucks turning 282(4), 283, vehicle parking USA 250, vehicles USA 21(1), walkways 383, waterstorage tanks 391, wheelchair car parking 85, 166, wheelchair moving 19,43,workshop equipment 288, youthhostels 144 Dining rooms:boarding school 128, college 142, domestic 66, outside spaces 66 Disabled: access to dwellings 43, 85—6, bathroom 86, 87, changing room, cubicle

430

Index size 337,codes&switches 86, 162,412, doors 401, elevators 412, gardens for 110, hospital baths 163, housing 85—7, kitchen layout 86, limbfitting centre 174, long stay ward 162, parking spaces for22, 85,166, ramps 85, 87(11), 407, stairs 86, 408, wc86, 87—also wheelchair Diving boards 334 Doors14,401—2: automatic 166(4), 190(7), bathroom opening 64, bedroom opening 72, cinema 354, dimensions 401, disabled 86, fire safety 401, flowcapacity 401, folding 402, hospitals sizes 157, industrial types 402, private garage 102, shops&stores 190 Dormitories —bedrooms Drainage: garden 109, industrial buildings 290, laboratories 292, petrol stations 254 Drama schools137—8 Drawing practice 6—8: classification &coding 8, levels 8, minimum character height 7(4), working drawings 6—7 Drawing sheets: layout & identification 3, sizes

& folds4—5

Drawings technical, preparation for micro-

filming7

Drive-in: banks 246, cinemas 358, restaurants 206 Ducts: access 383, air-conditioning, sizes 384, services distribution 384, ventilation, sizes 384 —*alsoservices Elevators 410—2:coding systems 162,412, dimensions 410, disabled 412, grouping 412, hospital 151(6)(7), hotels 210, industrial buildings 286, lobby dimensions 412, offices 228, paternoster 411, shops & stores 189, trafficcapacity 411, wheelchair dimensions 412 Emergency electrical supply, hotel 218 Emergency lighting, cinemas 356, hotels 218, shops191 —4Bibl12 Energy, unitsof measurement 2 Energyconservation: double window 405, house plan shape 80, house ventilation 81, indoor pool 115, industrial buildings compartmentation 278, loading bays 283, office 233, lighting control 400, position of windows81, underground houses 79, 80, ventilation 81 Equipment space needs: bathroom,domestic 61—4, bedroom, domestic 71, dining room, domestic 66, domestic storage 73—5, drawing studios 139, farm machinery 314, handbasin unit, hospital 158(2), household cleaning 75, kitchen, domestic 55—6, 58—9, laundry, domestic 60, living room, domestic 67—8, meters, domestic 74, 386, offices 241—4, operating theatre 172, schoolofart& design 137—8, security bellpush 76, workshop 288 Escalators: 409, shops& stores 189, traffic capacity 409 Escape: collegelecture room 136, flats& apartments traveldistance 91, hospital 151, 152, hotel 211, 216, office 231, multi-storey car park 252 —also fire Exits: cinema 354, lecture room 136, prolection room355, theatre 348, 352

311, domestic poultry3l0, doves 310,ducks 311,feeding, cattle 297—8, geese 311, grain drying 313, humanwelfare 294, milking 299—300,pigs 303—6, pig behaviour, building implications 303,pigs,dimensions 303, pigs, space needs 306, pigs,thermal needs303, pigs,ventilation 305, pigs, watering 304, poultry308—9, poultryspace requirements 309, rabbits, 310, sheep 307—8, sheep, flooring307, sheep, handling 308, slatted floors295, 296(2), 307, slurry handling 295, 304,storage, crops312—3, storage,fuel314, storage, machinery 314, straw-bedded pens 296, sucklercowhousing 302, ventilation, cattle housing 298, ventilation, pigs 305, ventilation, poultry 308,ventilation, sheep 307, waste production, cattle 295, waste production, pigs304, waste storage, external 301, waterconsumption, cattle 294, 298, waterconsumption, pigs303, water consumption, sheep 307 Fences 103 FHAstandards 44 Fire, means ofescape, flats& apartments91, 93 houses 44, hospitals 151, 152, industrial buildings 277, offices 231, stairs 408 Fire precautions: collegelecture room 136, flats & apartments 91,93, hospital 151, 152, hotel 211, 216,218, hypermarket 198, industrial building 264, 277, 290, multistorey carpark252, office231,shops& stores 189, 190, 192, sports hall 320, youth hostel143 Fire safetydoors 401 Firespreadbetween houses 45 Flats & apartments 89—97: access90—1, balconies 88, building types 89, escape routes93, fire precautions 91, internal access 97, internal planning 92—3, maisonettes 89, penthouses 88, point blocks 94—5, roofgardens 110, 112, services check list 93, split-level 96 Floodlighting garden features 110 Flow capacity: doors 401, corridors & ramps 14,407,stairs 14,408 Footways 19: disabled housing 85,86,garden 106(22) minimum clearwidth 43, wheelchair widths43, 85 Fruit trees, trained 108 Fuel storage: domestic 75, farm 314, oil tanks 387 Furniture: garden, dimensions 107, hotel bedroom 217, office 239, 240, old people, dimensions 83(1)—(4), 84, school 130—3, school dimension data 132, school stature data 131 Garage, private: 41,100—2, doors 102, entrances 21, ramps 21, UK regulations102, vehicle dimensions 21, 100, 251, wheelchair space85—also carparks Gardens 77, 103—14: banks 105, disabled 110, drainage 109, fences 103, fruit, trained 108, fruittrees, planting distances 108, furniture 107, gates103, glasshouses 111, hedges

103,104,indoorll2,layout 104,110,112, lighting, artificial110, 112, orientation104,

112, paths106, pergolas 106, pools109, 113, reservoirs 109, retainingwalls 106, rock

110, roofilO, 112,shedslll,shrub

Factories —.industrialbuildings Farm buildings 294—314:animal handling, cattle 298, 299, animal handling, sheep 308, beefcattle housing 302, beehouses 311, bull pens 301, calf housing 302(5), calfpens 296—7,cattle 294—302,cattle housing 295—302,cattle, thermal needs294,cubicles 296, dogs310,dogs,professional kennels

planting 108, soil treatment 105, steps 106, swimming pools 114, tools, dimensions 107, tree planting 108, watersupply 109, wells 109,windbreaks 81, 104 Gas: atmospheric boilers 388, pressure jet boilers 389, supplies 386 Glare 17, 32, 276, 398: hospitals 154 Glasshouses 111

Golden section 10 Grandstands, sportstadia 316 Health centres 181 Heating industrial buildings 276, 290 Heating systems 385—91:boilerrooms 387—8, calorifier rooms 388, calorifiers 391, capacity 386, cylinders, hotwater389—90,heat emittertypes 385, gas386, gas boilers 388, 389,oil 386—7, oil-filledboilers 389, pressure jet boilers 389, solid fuel 387, tank rooms 391, thermal comfort 16,385 Heattransfer393 Hedges 103, 104 Hospitals 149—81: ambulance critical dimensions 166(2), accident & emergency 168, istration 179—80, base concepts 153, bathroom, geriatric 158(4), bathroom, incontinent 163(2), bed/base ratios 153, bed concepts 153, bedsizes 159, burn units 175, cardiac surgical units174, casualty department 168, casualty entrances 166, cobalt units170, community healthcare 181, dental clinic 181,design 149, 150, 153, 154, dietary services 180, elevators 151(6)(7), escape, means of 151, 152, fire precautions 151, hand basin unit 158(2), health centres 181, Health Maintenance Organization 181, health services structure 149, intensive care 173, kitchen 180, laundry/linen service 180, lavatory, assisted 163(3), staff 178(3), wheelchair 167(6), library 177, limb fitting 174, maternity 160, neurosurgery 173, nuclear medicine 170, nurse working rooms 156, 157, offices179, operating theatres 171—2, operating theatre equipment 172, outpatients department 166—7, outpatients entrances 166, pathology laboratory 176, pharmacy 177, physical medicine 175, post mortem room 176, psychiatric centre 164, radiology department 169, 170, spinal injury 173, staff changing rooms, non-resident 178, supply &storage 179, transplant units 174, types 149, ward design 154,158,159, wards, acute 154, wards, children's 161, wards, geriatric 158, wards, long stay 162, 163, ward types 155, ward upgrading 165 Hostels: student140—1,youth 143—4 Hotels 208—24: istration215, bars 211, bedrooms 210, 216, 217, building services 218, convention 221—3, fireprecautions 216, 218, floor service 216, flow diagram 209, food stores 213, front of house 212, kitchen layouts 214, kitchenplanning 213, kitchen storerequirements 214, motels 219—20, motelroom sizes 220, plan forms 210, public houses 224, publicrooms 211, restaurants 211, space allocations 208, staff accommodation 215, types 208, vertical circulation 210—also restaurants Houses 38—102:access 41—3, access roads 41, 42, adaptable 78, aspect 40, 46, balconies 88, bathroom61—5, bedroom 70—2, bedroom sizes USA 70, ceiling heights USA44(2), children's room 67, circulation, internal 47, combined rooms 49, controlling dimensions 44,design expression ofperiod 38, dining room 66, disabled 85—7, disabled, access for43, energysaving 79—81, extendible 78, favourable & unfavourable sites40, garages built-in 101, garagingcar41, 100—2, gradient effectonplan 46, guests' room 67, kitchens 55—9, kitchen/bathroom relationship53, kitchen/dining 55, kitchen equipment 55, 58—9, laundry spaces 60, living room 67—9, living roomwindows 404, minimum room sizesUSA44, more than 1-storey53—4,

431

Index music room 67, 69, north slopes 46,old people82—4, officespaces 68, 1-storey 50—2, orientation 40,45,46, organisation (diagram) 39, outdoor living areas 77(2)(3), plan ranges 49, planselection 46,47,50, pram space 74(5), privategarages 100—2, private openspace 77, public rooms 66—9, relationship to otherbuildings 45, security 76, services economy 53, shared accommodation 99, site topography 46, siting40, space, sub-division of39, standards 44, 48, stepped 98, storage 73—5, underground 79, 80, check list48, vertical circulation 53 House plans: circulation 47, examples 49, 51, 52, 54, morethan 1-storey53—4, 1-storey 50, plan ranges 49, selection 50 Human beings, space requirements 12—14, 257(1 )—(4) Human body,basis ofdimensions 1, 9, 10 Human dimensions: bell curve concept 9, significance for architecture 9 Human scale1,10 Hygiene: industrial buildings 280, 281, swimming pools 335 Identification controls& switches fordisabled

86,162,412

Laboratories 291—3: benches 293, benches, hospital 176, disposal systems 292,finishes 293, hospital pathology 176, internal environment 293, services distribution 292, spacerequirements 291, storage 292 Lamps: filament 399, fluorescent, aspect factor 399, fluorescent, properties 25(3) Laundry: hospital 180, hotel 213, spaces, domestic 60 Lavatories: assisted for disabled 163(3), boarding school 127, collegedining room 142, disabled 87(2)(3)(8), domestic 64,65, equipment dimensions 61,62, 65, hospital staff 178(3), industrial buildings 279, 281, marina 347, office228, old people, aids83, 84, pre-fabricated units65,studenthostel 140, swimming bath 335, wheelchair 167(6), wheelchair spaces& fittings 87(2)(3)(8), youth hostel 143, 144 Le Corbusier 10 Lecture halls —colIeges Le Modulor10 Libraries 145—8: control 146, domestic 69, examples 146, 147,148, hospital 177, layout 146—7, school 129, services 147, space standards 145 Lifts—elevators Lighting 25—6, 398—400:artificial 17, cinemas 356,day 17,definitions 25—6, drawingstudio 139, farmbuildings, illumination levels 294(2), general, loading requirement 398, glare prevention 398, hotel 218, illuminance 25, 26, industrial buildings 276, 290, integration ofelectric& daylighting 400, libraries 147, light sources 399, luminaires, control in relation todepth ofinteriorspace 400, luminance 26, maintenancefactor 26, museum 359, 360, office234, outdoor399, reflectance 25, room index 26, task 399, utilisation factor 26—also daylight, sunlight Loading bays, industrial buildings 282—3, rail 284 Lockers: hospital staff 178, industrialbuildings 280(3)(4), office 242(6), school children 133 Lumen definition 2, 25 Luminance 26: sky, relation to glare 32 Luxdefinition 2, 25

llluminance 25, 26: for common tasks (table) 17, daylight on working plane (tables) 27, outdoor27 'Imperial'measures —conversion factors, conversion tables Indoor gardens 112 Industrial buildings 263—90:area/worker264, basicbuilding types 264, drainage 290, doors 402,environmental compartmentation 278, factories 265—8,factory process flow diagrams 266—8, factory structure 268, fire control 277, fork-liftdimensions 271, heating 276, 290, hygiene 280, 281, industrial parks 275, lavatories 280, lighting 276, 290, loading bays282—4, multiple development layouts 274, 275, noise control 276, order picking 276, 279(1 )—(3), parking requirements 263, rail-served 284, roof factors 265, sanitary installations281, security, loadingdock283,selection strategy 264—5, services 279, service routes 273, Maintenance factor—Iighting servicing standards 290, site development Maisonettes —fIats & apartments 263, site layout factors 273, structure Man 9: body measurements 11, dimensions & selection 265, vehicle parking standards spacerequirements 11—13, 257(1)—(4),flow ventilation ventilation level 286, 290, 276, capacity 14, space foraccess forworkon warehouses 269—72, warehouse handling buildings 13, universal standard 9,walking methods 272, warehouse pallet stacking speeds14 270, warehouse store flow diagrams Man & his buildings 15—24: access 19, colour diagrams269—70,workplacedesign 278—9, 17, noise & acoustics 18, parking 22, workshops 285—90,workshop circulation parking, vehicle dimensions 24, pattern & 286, workshop design factors (table) 290, texture 18, quality of air15, roadways, workshop equipment spaces 288, workshop dimensions20—1, thermal comfort 16, handling equipment 288(1), workshop types vehicleturningspaces 22—3, vibration, 285 sensitivityto 18, visual efficiency 17 Industrial parks 275 Manholes: access dimensions 13, oil storage thermal 393—4 Insulation, tank 387 Insulation —aIso sound Marinas 346—7 Internal environment 15: industrial buildings Media centres 129 278, laboratories 293, offices 233 Meters domestic 73, 74, 386 Meterrooms, gas386 Kitchens: boarding school 128, college dining Metric system—SI room 142, disabled housing 86, domestic Metric units—#conversionfactors equipmentspaceneeds 55,58, 59, domestic Microfilming technical drawings 7 layouts 56, 57,domestic ovens 58, domestic Minimum spaces, restaurant cars 207 Modular coordination, windows 403 storage 75, domestic working sequence 55, examples 57, fixtures &worktops 56, Modular systems: hospitals 150, schools 126 hospital 180, hotel 213—4, oldpeople's Mortuaries: crematorium 187, hospital 176, dimensions 83, relation to bathroom 52, temperatures 187 studenthostels 141, USA standards 56, Motels —hoteIs windows 404(9), youthhostels 143, 144 Mosques 185

Munsell scale 17—18,26 Museums 359—61:examples 360, 361, fields of vision359, lighting 359, 360, painting storage 359(10), room sizes359

Musicschools137—8

National House-Building Council 44 Neufertix Noise18:hospital 154, industrial buildings 276, maximum intrusive levels (tables) 18, privacy from45, sound insulation 395—7 Odours: air supply rate, sources, ventilation 15 Office buildings 225—44:access 230, building type225, computer room diagram 236(3), construction elements 234, cores228, 229, elevators 228, energyuse 233, equipment 243—4,furniture 239—240,internal environment 233, lighting organisation 234, means ofescape 231, meetings, spaces for 237, 238, officeareas definition of226, reception236(2), security 230,services 232, serviceducts 228, shell types227, space standards 235, special areas 236, stairs 228, 231, storage 241—2,table space, meetings 238, workstations 239—40 Offices:hospitals 179, private houses 68(13)—(18),ventilation requirements 15(8), windows 404(8)(10) Oil fuel, storage, tank capacities,siting386 Old people, housing for 82—4, 94(4): bathroom aids83, 84, bedroom dimensions 83, communal amenities 82, grouped flatlets 82, lavatory aids83, 84, maximum reach in furniture 83(1)—(4),planning factors 83, preferences check list 82, residential homes 84, safetyprecautions check list 84,water temperature 84—also disabled, hospitals (geriatric, long stay) 1-room dwellings 69(1) Operating theatres 171—2 Orientation: aircraft runways 259, balconies88, bedrooms 72, beds 72, buildings 33, drawing sheets 3, energyconservation 81, gardens 104, houses 40, 45,46, indoor gardens 112, kitchens 55, for natural ventilation 81, sports pitches322(1),windows 33—aIso sunpath Paper, international sizes 7 Parker Morris standards 44, 48—*Bib233 Parking: aircraft 261, fordisabled housing 85, hypermarkets 198, industrial buildings 263, intersections USA250, motels 219—*also car parks Parking spaces: basic 22, disabledpersons 22, shared housing 99, forwheelchair 166 —aIsocar parks enger conveyors 409 Paths —*footways Patios 77 Penthouses 88 Pergolas 106 Petrol stations 253—4 Pigs, body measurements 303 —aIso farm buildings Pitches, sport: indoor325—6, 328, outdoor 322—3

Plant rooms, air handling 392 Planting distances, fruit 108 Pools: chemical treatment 113, filtersystem 113, fish 113, garden swimming 114, paddling 109, plumbing & pumping systems 113, private indoor 115—6, private, relationship to patio 77(7), public swimming 329—37,waterlily 113 Poultry houses, domestic 310

432

Index Prams: spacesfor movement 19, storage

space74

Pre-fabricated sanitary units65 Privacy: deg for 45, 76, flats & apartments 93, hospitals 154, houses &flats 76, 77 Projection roomscinema 355,drive-incinema 358 Proportions, relation to human scale10 Public houses224 Queues, dimensions 12(6)—(11),407 Radiators 385 Rail-served buildings 284 Railstations: baggage handling, ticketoffices, 257 Ramps 14, 85, 407: garageentrance 21, 101, kerbfordisabled 85(2), multi-storey car park 251, stadium, standing 317(10), for wheelchair 87(11), 407 Rear projection ofimage, lecture room 134 Refectories —dining room Reflectance 25 Reiher-Meister scale18(4) Religious buildings 182—7 Reservoirs, garden 109 Restaurants 202—7: drive-in& self-service 206, hotel 211, kitchens 213—4, restaurant cars 207, seating 202—4,snack bars 205, 206,spaceallowances 203, table arrangements 202, table sizes 204, types 203—*also colleges, diningrooms, schools Reverberation times for rooms 397 Riding schools344—5 Roads: access 41—2, dimensions 20, 21, garage entrances 21, hierarchy in housing area 42, rule of roadxii, turning circuits, buses256,turningdimensions 250, turning lanes 21, USA categories 21, widths for ing 20 Roofgardens 88, 110,112 Rooflights, calculation ofdaylight factor 31 Room index —lighting Room sizes, minimum in houses (USA) 44 Running tracks: indoor 326, outdoor 324

385—91, hotel 218, hypermarket 198, industrial buildings 279, 290, laboratory 292, library 147, office 228, 232, sound insulation 395—7, thermal insulation393—4, ventilation 392 Shadows cast bybuildings 33 Shared accommodation 99 Shelving,shops&stores 195 Sheds, garden 111 Shoppingmall, indoorwalking speeds 407(1) Shops & stores 188—201:access 188, aisles 188, boutiques 192, entrances 190, 191, exits 191, goods delivery 189, hypermarkets 198, layout 193, 194, 195, movement between floors189, self-service 196, service details 190, shopping centres& precincts 199—201, stairs 191, stock& despatch rooms191, storey heights 188, supermarkets, examples 197, windows 190, 191

Shops, petrol station 253 Showers: domestic space needs 61(8), 64, hospital geriatric 158(5), industrial buildings 280, forold people 83(9), pre-fabricated units65, swimming pool 335 SI xi, 1: unitsofmeasurement 2—Bib127, 135 Sickroom,boarding school 127 Sidewalks —*footways Sloping sites: effectofgradient 46, favourable & unfavourable 40(2), stepped houses98 Sight lines:cinema 355, 357, drive-in cinema 358, lecture room 134,135, sportstadia3l6, theatre 349, 350 Soil:treatment 105, weights &angles ofrepose 105 Solargain 80, 81 Sound absorption coefficients 397 Soundinsulation 395—7: absorbent materials 397, absorbent treatments 397, absorption coefficients 397, reduction index calculation 395, reduction indices, typical (table) 396, reverberation time397 Split-level: flats & maisonettes 96, houses 46 Sport 315—47:centres 318—9,324(3),centres, examples 319, centres, features required (table) 318, dimensions standardsvii, equitation 344—5, golf 343, halls 320—1, ice events 341—2,indoor athletics tracks 326, indoorathletics training 327, indoor pitches 325—6, 328, indoor riding schools 344, marinas 346—7, outdoor athletics 324, Safety precautions: old people's housing 84, window cleaning 404 outdoorpitches322—3, riding centre Sanitary unitspre-fabricated 65 premises 345, rollerskating rinks342, sauna Saunas 117,338 planning 338, ski-jumping slopes 340—1, Schools 118—33: art, design, drama, music space allocation, halls (table) 320—1, stadia 137—8, boarding 127—8, boarding 315—7, stadia, access 316, stadia, sightlines accommodation 127, boarding dining room 316, stadia stands 316, 317, swimming 128, boarding site layout 127, definition of 329—37,swimming changing rooms 336—7, swimming diving pools 334, swimming spaces119, dimensions ofpupils 131, 132, film display, 16mm356, furniture 130—3, indoor pools 329—32, private indoor pools furthereducation 126, media centres 129, 115—6, swimming openair pools 333, middle age range 121—2, nursery level 118, swimming pools watercleaning 114,330,337, olderage range123—5, planning ingredients, swimming pre-cleanse 329, 335, swimming, showers, slipper baths 335, swimming water nursery 118, planning forolderpupils 123, chute 337(5), tennis339, water polo planning trends119, 122, primary 119, 331 —*also pools primary design trends120, principles 118, pupils equipment dimensions 131, rural 120, Stairs14,408:building regulations408, stature data 131—2, storage, pupils' cinemas 354, disabled housing 86,fire protection 91, fire requirements in houses equipment 133, system building 126, work areas (diagrams)119, 121 44, flat & apartment access 90, hospital 151, house52, office 228, 231,old people 86(5), Seating: cinemas 354, college dining room 142, flexible 351, hotel function room 211, shops&stores 189, 191, theatre348,tread lectureroom 135, 136, restaurant202—5, & rise proportions 408, walking speeds 408 —also escalators retractable 135, stadia 317, storage space Standard overcast sky—.daylight 351, theatre 351 Security: houses 76, loadingdockdesign 283, Stature human adult 9—11 officedesign 230 Stature data schoolchildren 131—2 Services 383—97:access 13, distribution 383, Student hostels—.colleges distribution ducts384, heating systems Student: married accommodation 140, shared

accommodation 99 Studios: drawing —colleges Storage: colleges (art, design) 137, farm crops 312—3, farmmachinery 314, fuel, domestic 75, handling methods in warehouses 272, hotel food213, hospital 179, kitchen, domestic 75, laboratory 292, office 241—2, oil fueltanks386, paintings 359(10), pallet stacking 270, 272, school children's belongings 133, seating space 351, sports halls 321, warehouse flow diagram269—70, wine,domestic 75, hotels 213 Sun exposure of buildings 34—5 Sunlight 33—7: building orientation 33, building shadows 33, calculation ofradiation 37, criteria forission 33, duration, prediction 37, exposure, methods offinding 34, sun path diagrams 34—6, window shades 406 Sun pathdiagrams 34—6 Swimming pools:garden 114, hotel 116, private indoor115—6, public indoor 329—32, publicoutdoor333, temperature private indoor115 —*also sport Synagogues 186 Système internationale d'Unités —'SI Systems building: hospitals 150, schools 126 Tables: college dining room 142, office 238, old people83(4), 84, restaurant202—4, school 130—1

Tankrooms, water storage 391 Television: aerials, cables 43, closed circuit for hospitals 154, college lecture room 134, 136 Temperatures: furnace crematorium 187, indoor16, mortuaries 187, oilstorage 387, pig housing 303, pool 115, 330, rail booking hall 257,sauna 117, 338, shops &stores 192, turkish bath 335 Terraces: domestic 77, orientation 66,sport stadia 317 Theatres 348—53:access 348, auditorium 350, 351,353,balconies 349,350,351,boxes 351(4),college 134—6, exits348,352, fire precautions 352, multiform 353, multiple auditoria 351, organisation 348, revolving stage352, ring stage 353, seating 135, 136, 351, seats/row 350, sightlines 134,135, 349, 350,sound diffusion 350, stage tower 352 Thermal comfort 16: human requirements 385, USAchart16 Tools, garden 107 Trade marts 274—5 Traffic capacity: corridors 14, 407, elevators 411, escalators 409, ramps 407, stairs 408 Tree planting 108 Underground houses 79, 80 Unitsof measurement 1, 2: application xi, scales xi, —.alsoconversion factors, conversion tables Universities —.colleges Utilisation factor —.lighting U values: common building structures 393(3), formula 393 Vehicles: dimensions 20, 21, 24, dimensions, ambulances 166(2), dimensions forprivate garages 100, fork-lifts271, 'standard design car' 251, truckturningdimensions 282(4), 283, turningdimensions USA250 Vehicle services 248—57:bus stations 255—6, car parks 248—52,petrol stations 253—4, rail station enger services 257 Vehicle turning spaces, farm 298, truck 282(4), 283 Ventilation: air handling plant 392, cattle

433

Index housing 298, ciriemas 356, duct sizes 384, energyconservation in houses 81, hospital 154, industrial buildings 276, 290, pig housing 305, potato stores 312,poultry housing 308, rates 16, requirements 15, sheep 307, windows 405 Vibration, human sensitivity 18, industrial buildings 276 Waiting areas 407 Walking speeds407: on level footway 14, on ramps 14 Walkways 383 Wardrobes —*cupboards Warehouses —iridustrial buildings

Washrooms: domestic 64, industrial buildings 281 Watercleaning: garden pools 113, 114, swimming pools 330,337 Watergarden supply109 Water closets—lavatories Watertanks 391 Wheelchair: doors for s 86,401,garage space for 85, elevator controls 412, elevator dimension 412,garden design for 110, parking space 166(3), ing width 43, spaces formovement 19, 43,turningspaces 43, 85, swc87(2)(3)(8) Windbreaks 81, 104 Windows 403—6: basic types 405, blinds & louvre systems 406,coordinating sizes 403,

daylight penetration 404, double 405, functions 17, hospital 154, position &size 404, shades 406, shops & stores 190, 191, viewout 404, viewout, wheelchair 86, 87, worksizes 403 Winestorage, domestic 75, hotels213 Work on buildings, access for 13 Workshops: artcollege 137, drawing studios 139 —*also industrial buildings Workstations, office239, 240

Youth hostels143—4: fire safety 143, kitchens 143, 144, lavatories 144, space requirements 144

CONVERSIONS METRIC +— IMPERIAL'/US

Tables length

Factors metric

'lnsrtsl'/US

length 1.0mm 25.4mm 305.0mm 914.0mm 1000.Omm(1.om) 1000.Om 1 len) 1609.3m 1.61 km)

0039in 1 in

1ff

lyd

1.094yd 1093.61 yd(0.621 mile) 1 mile

1.0cm'

929.03cm2 (0.093ml 0.836m'

lam'

0.405ha 1.Oha 1.0km2

2.59kin'(259ha)

0.155in' 1 in' 1

ft'

lyd'

1.196yd'(10.764lf) lacre 2.471 acre 0.386mile' 1 mile'

l.Om'

capacity 0.4731i1re 0.S68Iitre 1.Olitre 1.Olitre

3.l8slitres 4.546litrea

ar

AC accri ANSI

av B

b bathr bedr

baic bldg

bldgreq

B(tA BRE

volume

I0.765m' litre(1cr')

A

ASThI

area

6452mm2 (6.452cu')

Abbreviations Mainabbreviations reedinteat& diagrarna arehated below. Full list on p. aiii-aiv. NB: plurals arenot used In abbreviations.

61.025in' (0.035 fI')

lyd'

1.308yd'(35.314ft') lpintUS lpintirnp 1.76pintimp

2.ll3pirilUS lgalUS 1 gal rip

BS(l) Btu

Cord ci' CIBS

CIE

maaa 0.454kg

1.0kg

0.9071(907.2kg)

lOt

1.01

1.016t(lOl6kg)

v— 0.025nt/a (25.4mm/a) 1.0 rn/a 1.0 km/hr 1.609kin/hr

11b

2.205th

lIonUS

0.ge4tonimp 1.lO2tonUS

ltoninp

1in/s 39.4in/s(196.9 ft/mm) 0.621 mile/hr

1mile/hr

cIt daaar

do

car d dB DC DES

DF DHSS DoE

temperature

Xt

x(X-32C

(x+32rF

xi

illumination

lix

10.764Ix

0.O93tt-cancle 1 ft-candle

kimmance

0.3183cd/m' 1.0cd/rn' l0.764cci/m' 1550.0cd/rn'

1 spoatilb

0.000645 cd/fl'

lcd/If

1cd/in2

DPC dr E at eqp FFL FHA

ampere area alternating current accommodation istration American National Standards Institute American Society for Teating& Materiaki average bed bath bathroom bedroom balcony building building regulation Building Ottlciala& Codes Building Reaearch Eatabllahment British Standards (Inat) British thermal unit cupboard/USA cabinel children Chartered Instof Building Services Commiaaion intemationale de l'Ectairage (International Commission on Illumination) cooker/USArange classroom cloakroom corridor

dayordepth

decibel directcurrent Deptof Education & Soence daylight factor DeptofHealth& SocofSecurity Deptofthe Environment dampproofcourse diningroom illumination electrical

equTient finished floorleveVIJSA elevation Federal Houaing

tirereaiatant

9 gar

gram

ha hb hr Hz ICBO

25.4

1

50.8 762

2 3 4 5

101.6 127.0 152.4 177.8 203.2 226.6

m

ft

m

2

6 7

2.13 2.44 2.74

8 9

30 40 50

60 70 80 90 100

2.36 2,76 3.15

hallorhectare (waah)hand basin hour hertz

ngthMng laboratory laundry Inmng room lobby Iua

off

ft

m 3.05 6.1 9.14 12.19 1524 18.29 21.34 24.38 27.43 30.48

10

32.8 65.62 98.43 131.23 164.04 196.85 229.66 262.47 295.28 328.08

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6.451 12.9 19.36 25.81 32.26 38.71 45.16 51.61 58.06

1

2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9

in'

cm2

0.16 0.31

64.52 129.03 193.55 258.06 322.58 387.1 451.61 516.13 580.64

0.47 0.62 0.78

0.93 1.09 1.24 1.4

in' 1.55 3.1

10

20

4.65

30 40

50 60

70 80 90 645.16 100

6.2 7.75 9.3 10.85 12.4 13.95 15.5

ft2

pa pe plr R

radr RC

RHA RIBA

ad ear

SIB aho sitr SI ak at sb

stu

UDC

0.093 0.19 0.28

0.37 0.46 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.84

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ft'

m'

10.76 21.53 32.29 43.06 53.82 64.58 75.35 86.11 96.88

0.93 1.86 2.79 3.72 4.65 5.57 6.5 7.43 8.36

9.29

ft' 10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

107.64

21528 322.92 430.56 538.2 645.84 753.47 861.11 968.75 1076.39

lItre 28.32 56.63 84.95

141.58 169.9 198.21

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ft'

lItre

0.04 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.18

283.16 566.32 849.48 1132.64 1415.8 1698.96 1982.12 2265.28 2548.44 2831.61

021 025

0.28 0.32

m3

ft3

m'

0.03

35.32 70.63 105.94 141.26 176.57 211.89 247.2 282.52 317.83

0.28 0.57 0.85 1.13 1.42 1.7 1.98 2.27

0.11

0.14 0.17 0.2

0.23 0.25

USPHS uty

V

w

w wa waahr wc wp wr

ft3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0.35 0.7 1.06 1.41 1.77 2.12 2.47 2.83 3.18 3.53

m3..—.ft'

0.06 0.08

UF USHB

worlcr

litre.—.ft'

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.55 2.83

ft3 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

353.15 706.29 1059.44 1412.59 1765.73 2118.88 2472.co 2825.17 3178.32 3531.47

maids roan(or au pair)

medical maintenance factor Maaaachuaetta Institute Tectinology metrea persecond newton National Fire Protection Aaaociation nursery office

of

Heatth

ter

m'

metre

panaI Ad

SBCC

cm2.—.in' cm'

degree Kelvin kitchen orthermal conductivity kilograrn-torce

Irinal of

nur

3.54 3.93

volume

garage heipltor high

rn/a N NFPA

un a

joule

Ix

0.79 1.18 1.57 1.97

area

K

liv lob

6.56 9.84 13.12 16.4 19.69 22.97 26.25 29.53

3 4 5

J

lab

3.28

1

ISO

Iau

0.28 0.31 0.35

0.39

10 20

m mdr med MF MIT

P

0.3 0.61 0.91 1.22 1.52 1.83

226.53 254.84

kgt

254.0 508.0 762.0 1016.0 1270.0 1524.0 1778.0 2032.0 2286.0 2540.0

In

—ft

Federation Library Aaaocialiona International Organiaation br Standardiaatiai

k

0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16

024

8 9

113.26

IFLA

mm

02

6 7

International Conference ofBuilding Officials Illuminating Engineering

IES

For Comprehensivelistoffac.torsand wide rangeof further tables-.p364—81

mm

in

A

Ir h

in

mm

yd yr

0

Satety &

paaaenger, patient, person,pupil parents room/USA masterbedroom physical education penny radius radiator reinforced concrete regulation relativehumidity Regional Health Authority RoyalInstitute olBritish Architects

roan

second Southern Building Code Congress acullery aervery ayatem ofclaaaitlcation (building literature)

shower sittingroom

Système International

d'Unitèa

sink seat

store(-age) attaty tonne terrace universal decimal claaaification utiliaation tactor UnitedStateaHospital Board UnitedStates Public Heafth Service utilityroom volt watt width wardrobe/USA closet washroom watercloset workroom working plane waiting room area) yard year centre line diameter greaterthanorequalto

(a

equaltoorlessthan

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