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Poetry Poetry (ancient Greek: ποιεω (poieo) = I create) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary works in which language is used in a manner that is felt by its and audience to differ from ordinary prose. It may use condensed or compressed form to convey emotion or ideas to the reader's or listener's mind or ear; it may also use devices such as assonance and repetition to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Poems frequently rely for their effect on imagery, word association, and the musical qualities of the language used. The interactive layering of all these effects to generate meaning is what marks poetry. Because of its nature of emphasising linguistic form rather than using language purely for its content, poetry is notoriously difficult to translate from one language into another: a possible exception to this might be the Hebrew Psalms, where the beauty is found more in the balance of ideas than in specific vocabulary. In most poetry, it is the connotations and the "baggage" that words carry (the weight of words) that are most important. These shades and nuances of meaning can be difficult to interpret and can cause different readers to "hear" a particular piece of poetry differently. While there are reasonable interpretations, there can never be a definitive interpretation.

Nature of poetry Poetry can be differentiated most of the time from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a more expansive and less condensed way, frequently using more complete logical or narrative structures than poetry does. This does not necessarily imply that poetry is illogical, but rather that poetry is often created from the need to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability. A further complication is that prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of prose, such as in Robert Frost's poem, "Home Burial." Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, both of which are used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays. However, both these forms of poetry use the specific features of verse composition to make these stories more memorable or to enhance them in some way. What is generally accepted as "great" poetry is debatable in many cases. "Great" poetry usually follows the characteristics listed above, but it is also set apart by its complexity and sophistication. "Great" poetry generally captures images vividly and in an original, refreshing way, while weaving together an intricate combination of elements like theme tension, complex emotion, and profound reflective thought. For examples of what is considered "great" poetry, visit the Pulitzer prize and Nobel prize sections for poetry.

The Greek verb ποιεω [poiéo (= I make or create)], gave rise to three words:ποιητης [poiet?s (= the one who creates)], ποιησις [poíesis (= the act of creation)] and ποιημα [poíema (= the thing created)]. From these we get three English words: poet (the creator), poesy (the creation) and poem (the created). A poet is therefore one who creates and poetry is what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon. For example, in Anglo-Saxon a poet is a scop (shaper or maker) and in Scots makar.

Sound in poetry Perhaps the most vital element of sound in poetry is rhythm. Often the rhythm of each line is arranged in a particular meter. Different types of meter played key roles in Classical, Early European, Eastern and Modern poetry. In the case of free verse, the rhythm of lines is often organized into looser units of cadence. Poetry in English and other modern European languages often uses rhyme. Rhyme at the end of lines is the basis of a number of common poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of rhyme is not universal. Much modern poetry, for example, avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Furthermore, Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. In fact, rhyme did not enter European poetry at all until the High Middle Ages, when it was adopted from the Arabic language. The Arabs have always used rhymes extensively, most notably in their long, rhyming qasidas. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a contextfree grammar), which ensured a rhythm. Alliteration played a key role in structuring early Germanic and English forms of poetry (called alliterative verse), akin to the role of rhyme in later European poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry and the rhyme schemes of Modern European poetry alike both include meter as a key part of their structure, which determines when the listener expects instances of rhyme or alliteration to occur. In this sense, both alliteration and rhyme, when used in poetic structures, help to emphasise and define a rhythmic pattern. By contrast, the chief device of Biblical poetry in ancient Hebrew was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three; a verse form that lent itself to antiphonal or call- andresponse performance. In addition to the forms of rhyme, alliteration and rhythm that structure much poetry, sound plays a more subtle role in even free verse poetry in creating pleasing, varied patterns and emphasising or sometimes even illustrating semantic elements of the poem. Devices such as alliteration, assonance, consonance, dissonance and internal rhyme are among the ways poets use sound. Euphony refers to the musical, flowing quality of words arranged in an aesthetically pleasing way.

Poetry and form Compared with prose, poetry depends less on the linguistic units of sentences and paragraphs, and more on units of organisation that are purely poetic. The typical structural elements are the line, couplet, strophe, stanza, and verse paragraph. Lines may be self-contained units of sense, as in the well-known lines from William Shakespeare's Hamlet: To be, or not to be: that is the question. Alternatively a line may end in mid-phrase or sentence: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer this linguistic unit is completed in the next line, The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune. This technique is called enjambment, and is used to create a sense of

expectation in the reader and/or to add a dynamic to the movement of the verse. In many instances, the effectiveness of a poem derives from the tension between the use of linguistic and formal units. With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the visual presentation of their work. As a result, the use of these formal elements, and of the white space they help create, became an important part of the poet's toolbox. Modernist poetry tends to take this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition. In its most extreme form, this leads to the writing of concrete poetry.

Poetry and rhetoric Rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor are frequently used in poetry. Indeed, Aristotle wrote in his Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor". However, particularly since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for reduced use of these devices, preferring rather to attempt the direct presentation of things and experiences. Other 20th-century poets, however, particularly the surrealists, have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.

History of poetry Poetry as an art form predates literacy. In preliterate societies, poetry was frequently employed as a means of recording oral history, storytelling (epic poetry), genealogy, law and other forms of expression or knowledge that modern societies might expect to be handled in prose. The Ramayana, a Sanskrit epic which includes poetry, was probably written in the 3rd century BCE in a language described by William Jones as "more perfect than Latin, more copious than Greek and more exquisitely refined than either." Poetry is also often closely identified with liturgy in these societies, as the formal nature of poetry makes it easier to priestly incantations or prophecies. The greater part of the world's sacred scriptures are made up of poetry rather than prose. The use of verse to transmit cultural information continues today. Many English speaking–Americans know that "in 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue". An alphabet song teaches the names and order of the letters of the alphabet; another jingle states the lengths and names of the months in the Gregorian calendar. Preliterate societies, lacking the means to write down important cultural information, use similar methods to preserve it. Some writers believe that poetry has its origins in song. Most of the characteristics that distinguish it from other forms of utterance—rhythm, rhyme, compression, intensity of feeling, the use of refrains—appear to have come about from efforts to fit words to musical forms. However, in the European tradition the earliest surviving poems, the Homeric and Hesiodic epics, identify themselves as poems to be recited or chanted to a musical accompaniment rather than as pure song. Another interpretation, developed from 20th-century studies of living Montenegran epic reciters by Milman Parry and others, is that rhythm, refrains, and kennings are essentially paratactic devices that enable the reciter to reconstruct the poem from memory. In preliterate societies, all these forms of poetry were composed for, and sometimes during, performance. As such, there was a certain degree of fluidity to the exact wording of poems, given this could change from one performance or performer to another. The introduction of writing tended to fix the content of a poem to the version that happened to be written down and survive. Written composition also meant that poets began to compose not for an audience that was sitting in front of them but for an absent reader. Later, the invention of printing tended to accelerate these trends. Poets were now writing more for the eye than for the ear.

The development of literacy gave rise to more personal, shorter poems intended to be sung. These are called lyrics, which derives from the Greek lura or lyre, the instrument that was used to accompany the performance of Greek lyrics from about the seventh century BCE onward. The Greek's practice of singing hymns in large choruses gave rise in the sixth century BCE to dramatic verse, and to the practice of writing poetic plays for performance in their theatres. In more recent times, the introduction of electronic media and the rise of the poetry reading have led to a resurgence of performance poetry and have resulted in a situation where poetry for the eye and poetry for the ear coexist, sometimes in the same poem. The late 20th-century rise of the singer-songwriter and Rap culture and the increase in popularity of Slam poetry have led to a renewed debate as to the nature of poetry that can be crudely characterised as a split between the academic and popular views. As of 2005, this debate is ongoing with no immediate prospect of a resolution. Love poems proliferate now, in weblogs and personal pages, as a new way of expression and liberty of hearts, "I have won many female relations with this valid resource", has said a contemporaneus writer called Federic P. Sabeloteur. Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links © 2005 -

Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Periods, styles and movements For movements see List of schools of poetry. (Organised alphabetically, not by date)

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American poetry

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Australian Poetry

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Automatic poetry

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Black Mountain

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British Poetry Revival

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Canadian

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Imagism

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Parnassian

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Irish poetry

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Pastoral

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Korean poetry

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Libel

Performance poetry

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Limerick poetry

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Post-modernist

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Lyric poetry

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Romanticism

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Martian poetry

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San Francisco Renaissance

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Medieval poetry

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Sound poetry

Poetry

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Minnesinger

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Symbolism

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Chanson de geste

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Modernist

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Troubador

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Chinese poetry

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Modernist poetry

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Trouvère

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Concrete poetry

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Welsh poetry

The Movement

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Cowboy poetry

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New York School

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Digital poetry

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Objectivist

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Epitaph

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Erasure poetry

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Found poetry

Technical means 

Accent

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Cæsura

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Kennings

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Accentual verse

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Chain rhyme

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Onomatopoeia

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Consonance

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Rhyme

Aleatory methods

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Dissonance

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Rhyme scheme

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Alliteration

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Enjambement

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Rhythm

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Alliterative verse

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Foot

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Sprung Rhythm

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Half rhyme

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Stichomythia

Anacrusis

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Eye rhyme

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Syllabic verse

Aposiopesis

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Assonance

Tropes 

Metaphor

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Simile

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Irony

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Metonymy

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Synecdoche

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Ellipsis

parallelion

Measures of verse Types of metre

Types of line

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Amphibrach

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Monometer

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Anapaest

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Dimeter/couplet

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Choreus

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Trimeter

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Dactyl

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Tetrameter

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Iamb

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Pentameter

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Pyrrhic

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Hexameter/Alexandrine

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Spondee

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Heptameter

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Tribrach

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Octameter

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Trochee

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Poulter's measure

Other 

Concrete poetry

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Cricket poetry

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Dub poetry

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e-poetry

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hypertext poetry

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Kimo

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List of poems

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List of poetry anthologies

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List of poetry collections

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List of poetry groups and movements

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List of poets

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Poetry analysis

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Poem and song

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Prose poetry

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Slam poetry

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Spoken word

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Vogon poetry

Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links © 2005 -

Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links

Here is a collection of various works by some of the greatest poets of the English language. Elizabeth Barrett Browning Edgar Allan Poe Lewis Carroll William Shakespeare e e cummings Alfred Lord Tennyson Emily Dickinson Henry David Thoreau Robert Frost Walt Whitman Henry Wadsworth Longfellow William Butler Yeats Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links © 2005 -

Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links

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The International Library of Poetry - the largest and most comprehensive poetry site on the Internet.

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The Academy of American Poets - Poets and Poetry

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The Poetry Society of America - Non-profit organization devoted to fostering and promoting poetry in US.

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The Internet Poetry Archive - Selected poems from a number of contemporary poets.

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Giggle Poetry - Funny Poetry for Children

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Poets House - Poetry Info and Resources

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Poetry Daily - Online web anthology and bookstore. A new poem every day, along with poetry news, archives, and more.

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Poetry X - devoted to reading, analyzing, and discussing the best in classic and contemporary poetry.

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The Poet's Bookshelf - The life and works of famous American poets.

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Poetry Project at St. Mark's Church - links to archives, a webzine, an events calendar, history of the Poetry Project, and general information on poetry

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Poetry Slam Incorporated - the official website of the official organization charged with overseeing the international coalition of poetry slams.

Home | What is Poetry | in Poetry | Famous Poets | Poetry Links © 2005 -

American poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Title page, second (posthumous) edition of Anne Bradstreet's poems, 1678

American poetry, the poetry of the United States, arose first as efforts by colonists to add their voices to English poetry in the 17th century, well before the constitutional unification of the thirteen colonies (although before this unification, a strong oral tradition often likened to poetry existed among Native American societies).[1] Unsurprisingly, most of the early colonists' work relied on contemporary British models of poetic form, diction, and theme. However, in the 19th century, a distinctive American idiom began to emerge. By the later part of that century, when Walt Whitman was winning an enthusiastic audience abroad, poets from the United States had begun to take their place at the forefront of the English-language avant-garde. The history of American poetry is not easy to know. Much of the American poetry published between 1910 and 1945 remains lost in the pages of small circulation political periodicals, particularly the ones on the far left, destroyed by librarians during the 1950s McCarthy era.[2] The received narrative of Modernism proposes that Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot were perhaps the most influential modernist English-language poets in the period during World War I.[3] But this narrative leaves out African American and women poets who were published and read widely in the first half of the twentieth century. By the 1960s, the young poets of the British Poetry Revival looked to their American contemporaries and predecessors as models for the kind of poetry they wanted to write. Toward the end of the millennium, consideration of American poetry had diversified, as scholars placed an increased emphasis on poetry by women, African Americans,Hispanics, Chicanos and other cultural groupings.

Poetry[edit]

C.J. Dennis, poet and humourist of the Australian vernacular.

The bush balladeerBanjo Paterson.

Dorothea Mackellar(1885-1968), writer of My Country.

Les Murray.

Poetry played an important part in the founding of Australian literature. Henry Lawson, son of a Norwegian sailor born in 1867, was widely recognised as Australia's poet of the people and, in 1922, became the first Australian writer to be honoured with a state funeral. Two poets who are amongst the great Australian poets are Christopher Brennan and Adam Lindsay Gordon; Gordon was once referred to as the

"national poet of Australia" and is the only Australian with a monument in Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey in England. Both Gordon's and Brennan's (but particularly Brennan's) works conformed to traditional styles of poetry, with many classical allusions, and therefore fell within the domain of high culture. However, at the same time Australia was blessed with a competing, vibrant tradition of folk songs and ballads. Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson were two of the chief exponents of these popular ballads, and 'Banjo' himself was responsible for creating what is probably the most famous Australian verse, "Waltzing Matilda". At one point, Lawson and Paterson contributed a series of verses to The Bulletinmagazine in which they engaged in a literary debate about the nature of life in Australia. Lawson said Paterson was a romantic and Paterson said Lawson was full of doom and gloom.[2] Lawson is widely regarded as one of Australia's greatest writers of short stories, while Paterson's poems "The Man From Snowy River" and "Clancy of the Overflow" remain amongst the most popular Australian bush poems. Romanticised views of the outback and the rugged characters that inhabited it played an important part in shaping the Australian nation's psyche, just as the cowboys of the American Old West and thegauchos of the Argentine pampa became part of the self-image of those nations. Other poets who reflected a sense of Australian identity include C J Dennis and Dorothea McKellar. Dennis wrote in the Australian vernacular ("The Sentimental Bloke"), while McKellar wrote the iconic patriotic poem "My Country". Prominent Australian poets of the 20th century include Dame Mary Gilmore, A. D. Hope, Judith Wright, Gwen Harwood,Kenneth Slessor, Les Murray, Bruce Dawe and more recently Robert Gray, John Forbes, John Tranter, John Kinsella andJudith Beveridge. Contemporary Australian poetry is mostly published by small, independent book publishers. However, other kinds of publication, including new media and online journals, spoken word and live events, and public poetry projects are gaining an increasingly vibrant and popular presence. 1992-1999 saw poetry/art collaborations in Sydney/Newcastle buses & Ferries - Artransit from Meuse Press. Some of the more interesting and innovative contributions to Australian poetry have emerged from artist-run galleries in recent years, such as Textbase which had its beginnings as part of the 1st Floor gallery in Fitzroy. In addition, Red Room Company is a major exponent of innovative projects.

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Automatic poetry is poetry written using the automatic method. It has probably been the chief surrealist method from the founding of surrealism to the present day. One of the oddest uses of automatic writing by a great writer was that of W. B. Yeats. His wife, a spiritualist, practised it, and Yeats put large chunks of it into his prose work, A Visionand much of his later poetry. Yeats, however, was not a surrealist.

Automatic poetry generators exist online, but they do not actually generate automatic poetry in this sense. The Czech writer Bohumil Hrabal used the method of automatic text in his famous book I served a British king. One chapter in the book is written as a single sentence, and at the end of the book Hrabal endorses the use of automatic writing.

Black Mountain poets From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Black Mountain poets, sometimes called projectivist poets, were a group of mid 20th century American avant-garde or postmodern poets centered on Black Mountain College in North Carolina.[1] Contents [hide]

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1Background

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2Projective verse

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3Principal figures

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4Legacy

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5References

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6Further reading

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7External links

Background[edit] Although it lasted only twenty-three years (1933–1956) and enrolled fewer than 1,200 students, Black Mountain College was one of the most fabled experimental institutions in art education and practice. It launched a remarkable number of the artists who spearheaded the avant-garde in the America of the 1960s. It boasted an extraordinary curriculum in the visual, literary, and performing arts as evidenced by some of the artists and teachers listed here: Its art teachers included Anni and Josef Albers, Eric Bentley, Ilya Bolotowsky, Willem and Elaine de Kooning, Buckminster Fuller, Lyonel Feininger, Franz Kline, Walter Gropiusand Robert Motherwell. Among their students were John Chamberlain, Kenneth Noland, Robert Rauschenberg, Dorothea Rockburne, James Bishop, Ruth Asawa, Stan Vanderbeek, Kenneth Snelson, and Cy Twombly. The performing arts teachers included John Cage, Merce Cunningham, Lou Harrison, Roger Sessions, David Tudor, and Stefan Wolpe. Among the literature teachers and students were Robert Creeley, Fielding Dawson, Ed Dorn, Robert Duncan, Paul Goodman, Francine du Plessix Gray, Hilda Morley, Charles Olson, M. C. Richards, Arthur Penn, and John Wieners. Guest lecturers included Albert Einstein, Clement Greenberg, and William Carlos Williams.

Projective verse[edit] In 1950, Charles Olson published his seminal essay, Projective Verse. In this, he called for a poetry of "open field" composition to replace traditional closed poetic forms with an improvised form that should reflect exactly the content of the poem. This form was to be based on the line, and each line was to be a unit of breath and of utterance. The content was to consist of "one perception immediately and directly (leading) to a further perception". This essay was to become a kind of de facto manifesto for the Black Mountain poets. One of the effects of narrowing the unit of structure in the poem down to what could fit within an utterance was that the Black Mountain poets developed a distinctive style of poetic diction (e.g. "yr" for "your").[citation needed]

Principal figures[edit] In addition to Olson, the poets most closely associated with Black Mountain include Larry Eigner, Robert Duncan, Ed Dorn, Paul Blackburn, Hilda Morley, John Wieners, Joel Oppenheimer, Denise Levertov, Jonathan Williams and Robert Creeley. Creeley worked as a teacher and editor of the Black Mountain Review for two years, moving to San Francisco in 1957. There, he acted as a link between the Black Mountain poets and the Beats, many of whom he had published in the review. Also, the appearance in 1960 ofDonald Allen's anthology The New American Poetry 1945-1960 (which divides the poets included in its pages into various schools) was crucial: it established a legacy and promoted the influence of the Black Mountain poets worldwide.[2]

Legacy[edit] Apart from their strong interconnections with the Beats, the Black Mountain poets influenced the course of later American poetry via their importance for the poets later identified with the Language School. They were also important for the development of innovative British poetry since the 1960s, as evidenced by such poets as Tom Raworth and J. H. Prynne. Modern projectivist poets include Charles Potts. Also, Deconstructionist poet and pagan priest, David William Parry, remains influenced by Edward Dorn, who is mentioned by name in Parry's prose-poetry collection Grammar of Witchcraft.

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Dewey, Anne Day. 2007. Beyond Maximus: the construction of public voice in Black Mountain poetry. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.

2; Jump up^ Baldick, Chris (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Literary . Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 9780199208272. Retrieved 26 August 2013.

Further reading[edit] 

Dawson, Fielding The Black Mountain Book. Croton Press, Ltd., NY 1970 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 70-135203

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Edith C. Blum Art Institute. 1987. The Black Mountain poets: the emergence of an American school of poetics, June 26-28, 1987. Annandale-on-Hudson, NY: Edith C. Blum Art Institute, Bard College.

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Harris, Mary Emma. The Arts at Black Mountain College. MIT Press, 2002. ISBN 0-262-58212-0

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Katz, Vincent (editor). Black Mountain College: Experiment in Art. MIT Press, 2003. ISBN 0-26211279-5

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Dewey, Anne. "Beyond Maximums: The Construction of Public Voice in Black Mountain Poetry." Stanford U Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0804756471

External links[edit] 

blackmountaincollege.org

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1984 audio interview with Robert Creeley by Don Swaim of CBS Radio

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Projective Verse essay by Charles Olson

British Poetry Revival From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) "The British Poetry Revival" is the general name given to a loose poetry movement in Britain that took place in the 1960s and 1970s. The revival was a modernist-inspired reaction to the Movement's more conservative approach to British poetry. The poets included Bill Griffiths, Allen Fisher, Iain Sinclair, Gilbert Adair, Lawrence Upton, Peter Finch, Ulli Freer, Gavin Selerie, s Presley, Elaine Randell, Robert Sheppard, Adrian Clarke, Clive Fencott, Maggie O'Sullivan, cris cheek, Tony Lopez and Denise Riley. Contents [hide]

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1Beginnings

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2London

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3Northumbria and Northern England

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4Cambridge

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5Wales and Scotland

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6"A treacherous assault on British poetry"

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7The 1980s and after

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8See also

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9Notes

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10External links

Beginnings[edit] If the Movement poets looked to Thomas Hardy as a poetic model, the poets associated with the British Poetry Revival were more likely to look to modernist models, such as the American poets Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams and British figures such as David Jones, Basil Bunting and Hugh MacDiarmid. Although these major British poets had effectively been written out of official histories of 20th century British poetry, by the beginning of the 1960s a number of younger poets were starting to explore poetic possibilities that the older writers had opened up. These poets included Roy Fisher, Gael Turnbull, Ian Hamilton Finlay, Bob Cobbing, Jeff Nuttall, Tom Raworth, Michael Horovitz, Eric Mottram, Peter Finch, Edwin Morgan, Jim Burns, Elaine Feinstein, Lee Harwood, Dick Russell and Christopher Logue. Many of these poets ed Allen Ginsberg and an audience of 7,000 people at the Albert HallInternational Poetry Incarnation on 11 June 1965 to create what was, effectively, the first British happening. These poets provided a wide range of modes and models of how modernism could be integrated into British poetry. Fisher, also a professional jazz pianist, applied the lessons ofWilliam Carlos Williams' Paterson to his native Birmingham in his long poem City. Turnbull, who spent some time in the U. S., was also influenced by Williams. His fellow ScotsMorgan and Finlay both worked with found, sound and visual poetry. Mottram, Nuttall, Horovitz and Burns were all close to the Beat generation writers. Mottram and Raworth were also influenced by the Black Mountain poets while Raworth and Harwood shared an interest in the poets of the New York School. A number of publishing outlets for this new experimental poetry also began to spring up, including Turnbull's Migrant Press, Raworth's Matrix Press and Goliard Press, Horovitz'sNew Departures, Stuart Montgomery's Fulcrum Press, Tim Longville's Grosseteste Review, Galloping Dog Press and its Poetry

Information magazine, Pig Press, Andrew Crozierand Peter Riley's The English Intelligencer, Crozier's Ferry Press, and Cobbing's Writers Forum. In addition to the poets of the revival, many of these presses and magazines also published avant-garde American and European poetry. The first anthology to present a wide-ranging selection of the new movement was Horovitz's Children of Albion: Poetry of the Underground in Britain (1969).

London[edit] Thanks in no small part to Cobbing's Writers Forum and its associated writers' workshop, London was a hub for many young poets, including Bill Griffiths, Allen Fisher, Iain Sinclair, Gilbert Adair, Lawrence Upton, Peter Finch, Ulli Freer, Gavin Selerie, s Presley, Elaine Randell, Robert Sheppard, Adrian Clarke, Clive Fencott, Maggie O'Sullivan, cris cheek, Tony Lopez and Denise Riley. Griffiths writes a poetry of dazzling surface and deep political commitment that incorporates such matter as his professional knowledge of Anglo-Saxon and his years as a Hells Angel. Both Sinclair and Fisher share a taste for William Blake and an interest in exploring the meaning of place, particularly London, which can be seen in Sinclair's Suicide Bridge and Lud Heat and Fisher's Place sequence of books. O'Sullivan explores a view of the poet as shaman in her work, while Randell and Riley were among the first Britishwomen poets to combine feminist concerns with experimental poetic practice. For more on Griffiths's poetry, see William Rowe (ed.), Bill Griffiths (Salt, 2007). Griffiths started Pirate Press to publish work by himself and others. Allen Fisher set up Spanner for similar reasons, and Sinclair's early books were published by his own Albion Village Press, which also published work by Chris Torrance and Brian Catling. Book production has always been an important part of Revival practice. Many of these writers also participated enthusiastically in performance poetry events, both individually or in groups like Cobbing's Bird Yak and Konkrete Canticle. Eric Mottram was a central figure on the London scene, both for his personal and professional knowledge of the Beat generation writers and the US poets linked with the New American Poetry more generally, and his abilities as a promoter and poet. In large part through Mottram's presence there, King's College London was another important site for the British Poetry Revival. Poets who attended there (a number of them also students taught by Mottram) included Gilbert Adair, Peter Barry, Sean Bonney, Hannah Bramness, Clive Bush, Ken Edwards, Bill Griffiths, Robert Gavin Hampson, Jeff Hilson and Will Rowe.

Northumbria and Northern England[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) By the early 1950s, Basil Bunting had returned to live in Newcastle and, in 1966, Fulcrum Press published Briggflatts, which is widely considered to be his masterpiece. A number of younger poets began to gather around Bunting. In 1963, Connie and Tom Pickard started a reading series and bookshop in the Morden Tower Book Room. The first reading was by Bunting, and Ginsberg, Robert Creeley, Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Gregory Corso all read there. They were soon ed by Richard Caddel, brought up in Kent but an honorary Northumbrian, Barry MacSweeney and Colin Simms. Through Bunting, these younger writers became familiar with the work of the Objectivist poets. Specifically, Louis Zukofsky and Lorine Niedecker were to become important models for Caddel and Simms in their writing about the Northumbrian environment. Pickard and MacSweeney shared Bunting's interest in reviving Northumbrian vowel patterns and verbal music in poetry and all of these poets were influenced by the older poet's insistence on poetry as sounded speech rather than purely written text. At Easter, 1967 MacSweeney organised the Sparty Lea Poetry Festival. This was a ten-day session of reading, writing and discussion. The participants, including the Pickards, MacSweeney, Andrew Crozier, John James, John Temple, Pete Armstrong, Tim Longville, Peter Riley, John Hall, J. H. Prynne and Nick Waite, stayed in a group of four cottages in the village of Sparty Lea. This was to be a

pivotal event in the British Poetry Revival, bringing together poets who were separated geographically and in of poetic influences and encouraging them to and publish each other's work. Although published by Writers Forum and Pirate Press, Geraldine Monk is very much a poet of the North of England. Like Maggie O'Sullivan, she writes for performance as much as for the page and there is an undercurrent of feminist concerns in her work. Other poets associated with the North of England included Paul Buck, Glenda George, and John Seed. Paul Buck and Glenda George for many years edited Curtains, a magazine instrumental in disseminating contemporary French poetry and philosophical/theoretical writing. John Seed had picked up on Objectivism while still in the North-East.

Cambridge[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) The Cambridge poets were a group centred around J. H. Prynne and included Andrew Crozier, John James, Douglas Oliver, Veronica Forrest-Thomson, Peter Riley, Tim Longville and John Riley. Prynne was influenced by Charles Olson and Crozier was partly responsible for Carl Rakosi's return to poetry in the 1960s. The New York school were also an important influence for many of the Cambridge poets - most obviously in the work of John James. The Grosseteste Review, which published these poets, was originally thought of as a kind of magazine of British Objectivism. The Cambridge poets in general wrote in a cooler, more measured style than many of their London or Northumbrian peers (although Barry MacSweeney, for example, felt an affinity with them) and many taught at Cambridge University or at Anglia Polytechnic. There was also less emphasis on performance than there was among the London poets.

Wales and Scotland[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014) In the 60s and early 70s Peter Finch, an associate of Bob Cobbing, ran the No Walls Poetry readings and the ground breaking inclusive magazine, second aeon. He began Oriel Books in Cardiff in 1974 and the shop served as a focal point for young Welsh poets. However, some of the more experimental poets in Wales were not of Welsh origins. Two of the most important expatriate poets operating in Wales were John Freeman and Chris Torrance. Freeman is another British poet influenced by the Objectivists, and he has written on both George Oppen and Niedecker. Torrance has expressed his debt to David Jones. His ongoing Magic Door sequence is widely regarded as one of the major long poems to come out of the Revival. In Scotland, Edwin Morgan, Ian Hamilton Finlay and Tom Leonard emerged as key individual poets during this time, each interested in, among other forms, sound and visual poetry. The viability of a wider, deeper experimental infrastructure in poetry was helped by the gallery, performance space and bookshop at the Third Eye Centre in Glasgow (later renamed the Centre for Contemporary Arts). Magazines such as Scottish International, "Chapman", and Duncan Glen's magazine Akros maintained links with the modernist legacy of the inter-war and post-war years while publishing contemporary poets; often, however, by mixing the avant-garde with aesthetically conservative texts.

"A treacherous assault on British poetry"[edit] In 1971, a large number of the poets associated with the British Poetry Revival ed the dormant, if not moribund Poetry Society and in the elections became the Poetry Society's new council. The Society had been traditionally hostile to modernist poetry, but under the new council this position was reversed. Eric

Mottram was made editor of the society's magazine Poetry Review. Over the next six years, he edited twenty issues that featured most, if not all, of the key Revival poets and carried reviews of books and magazines from the wide range of small presses that had sprung up to publish them. Nuttall and MacSweeney both served as chairperson of the society during this period and Bob Cobbing used the photocopying facilities in the basement of the society's building to produce Writers Forum books. Around this time, Cobbing, Finch and others established the Association of Little Presses (ALP) to promote and small press publishers and organise book fairs at which they could sell their productions. In the late 1970s, in response to the number of foreign poets being featured in Poetry Review, Mottram was removed as editor of the magazine; his editorial practices being described [by whom?] as "a treacherous assault on British poetry". At the same time, the Arts Council set up an inquiry that overturned the result of the Society's elections that had once more brought in a council dominated by those sympathetic to the Poetry Revival.[1]

The 1980s and after[edit] A number of younger poets, many of whom who first found an outlet in Poetry Review under Mottram, began to emerge around the end of the 1970s. In London, Bill Griffiths, Ulli Freer, cris cheek, Lawrence Upton, Robert Gavin Hampson, Robert Sheppard, and Ken Edwards were among those who were to the fore. These, and others, met regularly atGilbert Adair's Subvoicive reading series. Edwards ran Reality Studios, a magazine that grew out of Alembic (UK poetry magazine), the magazine he had co-edited through the 1970s. Through Reality Studios, he helped introduce the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets to a British readership. He also ran Reality Street Editions with Cambridge-based Wendy Mulford, which continues to be a major publisher of contemporary poetry. The London-based Angel Exhaust magazine brought many of the younger poets together - in particular, Adrian Clarke, Robert Sheppard and Andrew Duncan. In the Midlands, Tony Baker's Figs magazine focused more on the Objectivist and Buntinginspired poetry of the Northumbrian school while introducing a number of new poets. In 1988 an anthology called The New British Poetry was published. It featured a section on the Revival poets edited by Mottram and another on the younger poets edited by Edwards. In 1987, Crozier and Longville published their anthology A Various Art, which focused mainly on the Cambridge poets, and Iain Sinclair edited yet another anthology of Revival-related work Conductors of Chaos (1996). For an of some of the work produced by these poets, see Robert Hampson and Peter Barry (eds.), The New British poetries: The Scope of the possible (Manchester University Press, 1993). In 1994 W. N. Herbert and Richard Price co-edited the anthology of Scottish Informationist poetryContraflow on the SuperHighway (Gairfish and Southfields Press). The anthology Conductors of Chaos featured another aspect of the Revival; the recovery of neglected British modernists of the generation after Bunting. Poets David Gascoyne, selected by Jeremy Reed; W. S. Graham, selected by Tony Lopez; David Jones, selected by Drew Milne; J.F. Hendry, selected by Andrew Crozier and Nicholas Moore, selected by Peter Riley were reappraised and returned to their rightful place in the history of 20th century British poetry. Another interesting development was the establishment of the British and Irish poetry discussion list by Richard Caddel. This continues to provide an international forum for discussion and the exchange of news on experimental British poetry. Much wider publication for Revival poetry was arranged via the USA. Caddel, together with Peter Middleton, edited a selection of new UK poetry for US readers in a special issue of Talisman (1996).[2] With Peter Quartermain Caddel also edited Other: British and Irish Poetry since 1970 (USA, 1999); whereas Keith Tuma's Anthology of Twentieth-Century British and Irish Poetry (Oxford University Press, USA, 2001) incorporates this poetry into a wider retrospective of the whole century. Into the 1990s and beyond poets such as Johan de Wit (poet), Sean Bonney, Jeff Hilson, and Piers Hugill have surfaced after direct involvement in the Cobbing-led Writers Forum workshop. An interesting sub-development of the workshop was the instigation of the Foro De Escritores workshop, in Santiago Chile, run on similar aesthetic principles. This workshop has contributed to the development of Martin Gubbins, Andreas Aandwandter, and Martin Bakero, to name but few. Those associated with the Barque Press (most obviously Andrea Brady and Keston Sutherland), and more recently Bad Press (in particular, Marianne Morris and Jow Lindsay), have made a similar impact via the Cambridge scene. Perdika Press in North London has been instrumental in bringing to wider attention contemporary

Modernist writers such as Nicholas Potamitis, Mario Petrucci, Robert Vas Dias and Peter Brennan; the press was also responsible for the first publication in Britain of Bill Berkson. From Scotland, Peter Manson, who had co-edited the magazine Object Permanence in the mid-1990s, Drew Milne, editor of Parataxis, David Kinloch and Richard Price (previously editors of Verse and Southfields) also emerged more fully as poets in their own right. New writings have arisen from the involvement of cris cheek, Bridgid Mcleer, and Alaric Sumner, under the direction of Caroline Bergvall and John Hall through thePerformance Writing programme at Dartington College of Arts including Kirsten Lavers, Andy Smith, and Chris Paul; from the involvement of Redell Olsen in the MA in Poetic Practice at Royal Holloway, University of London, including Becky Cremin, s Kruk, Ryan Ormond, Sophie Robinson, John Sparrow and Stephen Willey; and Keith Jebb at University of Bedfordshire's Creative Writing programme, including Alyson Torns and Allison Boast.

See also[edit] 1960s portal 1970s portal



Black Mountain poets



Language poetry



The Movement



Situationism

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ For a detailed of these events, see Peter Barry, The Battle of Earl's Court (Manchester University Press, 2007).

2; Jump up^ Talisman: a Journal of Contemporary Poetry and Poetics 16 (1996): 110-173.

External links[edit] 

List of related links



The English Intelligencer Archive



The Morden Tower



Archives of the British and Irish poetry discussion list



The Life and Works of Jeff Nuttall



Piers Hugill on British Poetry since 1977

Chanson de geste From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The eight phases of The Song of Roland in one picture.

The chanson de geste, Old French for "song of heroic deeds" (from gesta: Latin: "deeds, actions accomplished"[1]), is a medieval narrative, a type of epic poem that appears at the dawn of French literature. [2] The earliest known poems of this genre date from the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, before the emergence of the lyric poetry of the trouvères (troubadours) and the earliest verse romances. They reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250.[3] Composed in verse, these narrative poems of moderate length (averaging 4000 lines [4]) were originally sung, or (later) recited, by minstrels or jongleurs. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three hundred manuscripts[5] that date from the 12th to the 15th century. Contents [hide]



1Origins



2Subject matter and structure



3Versification



4Composition and performance



5The poems themselves

o 5.1Geste du roi o 5.2Geste de Garin de Monglane o 5.3Geste de Doon de Mayence o 5.4Lorraine cycle

o 5.5Crusade cycle o 5.6Others 

6Legacy and adaptations



7See also



8Notes



9References



10External links

Origins[edit] Since the 19th century, much critical debate has centered on the origins of the chansons de geste, and particularly on explaining the length of time between the composition of the chansons and the actual historical events which they reference.[6] The historical events the chansons allude to occur in the eighth through tenth centuries, yet the earliestchansons we have were probably composed at the end of the eleventh century: only three chansons de geste have a composition that incontestably dates from before 1150: theChanson de Guillaume, The Song of Roland and Gormont et Isembart:[6] the first half of the Chanson de Guillaume may date from as early as the eleventh century;[7][8] Gormont et Isembart may date from as early as 1068, according to one expert;[9] and The Song of Roland probably dates from after 1086[10] to c.1100.[6][11] Three early theories of the origin of chansons de geste believe in the continued existence of epic material (either as lyric poems, epic poems or prose narrations) in these intervening two or three centuries. [12] Critics like Claude Charles Fauriel, François Raynouard and German Romanticists like Jacob Grimm posited the spontaneous creation of lyric poems by the people as a whole at the time of the historic battles, which were later put together to form the epics.[13] This was the basis for the "cantilena" theory of epic origin, which was elaborated by Gaston Paris, although he maintained that single authors, rather than the multitude, were responsible for the songs.[14] This theory was also ed by Robert Fawtier and by Léon Gautier (although Gautier thought the cantilenae were composed in Germanic languages).[14] At the end of the nineteenth century, Pio Rajna, seeing similarities between the chansons de geste and old Germanic/Merovingian tales, posited a Germanic origin for the French poems.[14] A different theory, introduced by the medievalist Paul Meyer, suggested the poems were based on old prose narrations of the original events. [12][15] Another theory (largely discredited today[16]), developed by Joseph Bédier, posited that the early chansons were recent creations, not earlier than the year 1000, developed by singers who, emulating the songs of "saints lives" sung in front of churches (and collaborating with the church clerics [16]), created epic stories based on the heroes whose shrines and tombs dotted the great pilgrimage routes, as a way of drawing pilgrims to these churches.[17] Critics have also suggested that knowledge by clerics of ancient Latin epics may have played a role in their composition.[15][17] Subsequent criticism has vacillated between "traditionalists" (chansons created as part of a popular tradition) and "individualists" (chansons created by a unique author),[15] but more recent historical research has done much to fill in gaps in the literary record and complicate the question of origins. Critics have discovered manuscripts, texts and other traces of the legendary heroes, and further explored the continued existence of a Latin literary tradition (c.f. the scholarship of Ernst Robert Curtius) in the intervening centuries.[18] The work of Jean Rychner on the art of the minstrels[16] and the work of Parry and Lord on Yugoslavian oral traditional poetry, Homeric verse and oral compositionhave also been suggested to shed light on the oral composition of the chansons, although this view is not without its critics[19] who maintain the importance of writing not only in the preservation of the texts, but also in their composition, especially for the more sophisticated poems.[19]

Subject matter and structure[edit] Composed in Old French and apparently intended for oral performance by jongleurs, the chansons de geste narrate legendary incidents (sometimes based on real events) in the history of during the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries, the age of Charles Martel, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, with emphasis on their conflicts with the Moors andSaracens, and also disputes between kings and their vassals. The traditional subject matter of the chansons de geste became known as the Matter of . This distinguished them from romances concerned with the Matter of Britain, that is, King Arthur and his knights; and with the so-called Matter of Rome, covering the Trojan War, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the life of Julius Cæsar and some of hisImperial successors, who were given medieval makeovers as exemplars of chivalry.[20] A key theme of the chansons de geste, which set them off from the romances (which tended to explore the role of the "individual"), is their critique and celebration of community/collectivity (their epic heroes are portrayed as figures in the destiny of the nation and Christianity) [21] and their representation of the complexities of feudal relations and service. The subject matter of the chansons evolved over time, according to public taste. Alongside the great battles and scenes of historic prowess of the early chansons there began to appear other themes. Realistic elements (money, urban scenes) and elements from the new court culture (female characters, the role of love) began to appear.[3] Other fantasyand adventure elements, derived from the romances, were gradually added: [3] giants, magic, and monsters increasingly appear among the foes along with Muslims. There is also an increasing dose of Eastern adventure, drawing on contemporary experiences in the Crusades; in addition, one series of chansons retells the events of the First Crusade and the first years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The conflicts of the 14th century (Hundred Years' War) brought a renewed epic spirit and nationalistic (or propagandistic[22]) fervor to some chansons de geste (such as La Chanson de Hugues Capet).[23] The poems contain an assortment of character types; the repertoire of valiant hero, brave traitor, shifty or cowardly traitor, Saracen giant, beautiful Saracen princess, and so forth. As the genre matured, fantasy elements were introduced. Some of the characters that were devised by the poets in this manner include the fairy Oberon, who made his literary debut in Huon de Bordeaux; and the magic horse Bayard, who first appears in Renaud de Montauban. Quite soon an element of self-parody appears; even the august Charlemagne was not above gentle mockery in the Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. The narrative structure of the chanson de geste has been compared to the one in the Nibelungenlied and in creole legends by Henri Wittmann[24] on the basis of commonnarreme structure as first developed in the work of Eugene Dorfman[25] and Jean-Pierre Tusseau[26]

Versification[edit] Early chansons de geste were typically composed in ten-syllable lines grouped in assonanced (meaning that the last stressed vowel is the same in each line throughout the stanza, but the last consonant differs from line to line) stanzas (called laisses). These stanzas are of variable length. An example from the Chanson de Roland illustrates the technique of the ten-syllable assonanced form. The assonance in this stanza is on e: Desuz un pin, delez un eglanter Un faldestoed i unt, fait tout d'or mer: La siet li reis ki dulce tient. Blanche ad la barbe et tut flurit le chef, Gent ad le cors et le cuntenant fier. S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner. Under a pine tree, by a rosebush, there is a throne made entirely of gold. There sits the king who rules sweet ;

his beard is white, with a full head of hair. He is noble in carriage, and proud of bearing. If anyone is looking for the King, he doesn't need to be pointed out. Later chansons were composed in monorhyme stanzas, in which the last syllable of each line rhymes fully throughout the stanza. Later chansons also tended to be composed using alexandrines (twelvesyllable) lines, instead of ten-syllable lines (some early chansons, such as Girart de Vienne, were even adapted into a twelve-syllable version). The following example of the twelve-syllable rhymed form is from the opening lines of Les Chétifs, a chanson in the Crusade cycle. The rhyme is on ie: Or s'en fuit Corbarans tos les plains de Surie, N'enmaine que .ii. rois ens en sa conpaignie. S'enporte Brohadas, fis Soudan de Persie; En l'estor l'avoit mort a l'espee forbie Li bons dus Godefrois a le chiere hardie Tres devant Anthioce ens en la prairie. So Corbaran escaped across the plains of Syria; He took only two kings in his company. He carried away Brohadas, son of the Sultan of Persia, Who had been killed in the battle by the clean sword Of the brave-spirited good duke Godfrey Right in front of Antioch, down in the meadow. These forms of versification were substantially different than the forms found in the Old French verse romances (romans) which were written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets.

Composition and performance[edit] The public of the chansons de geste—the lay (secular) public of the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries—was largely illiterate, [27] except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) of the great courts and (in the south) smaller noble families. [28] Thus, the chansons were primarily an oral medium. Opinions vary greatly on whether the early chansons were first written down and then read from manuscripts (although parchment was quite expensive[29]) or memorized for performance,[30] or whether portions were improvised,[29] or whether they were entirely the product of spontaneous oral composition and later written down. Similarly, scholars differ greatly on the social condition and literacy of the poets

themselves; were they cultured clerics or illiterate jongleurs working within an oral tradition? As an indication of the role played by orality in the tradition of the chanson de geste, lines and sometimes whole stanzas, especially in the earlier examples, are noticeably formulaic in nature, making it possible both for the poet to construct a poem in performance and for the audience to grasp a new theme with ease. Scholarly opinions differ on the exact manner of recitation, but it is generally believed that the chansons de geste were originally sung (whereas the medieval romances were probably spoken)[30] by poets, minstrels or jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the vielle, a mediæval fiddle played with a bow. Several manuscript texts include lines in which the jongleur demands attention, threatens to stop singing, promises to continue the next day, and asks for money or gifts.[29] By the middle of the 13th century, singing had probably given way to recitation.[3] It has been calculated that a reciter could sing about a thousand verses an hour[31] and probably limited himself to 1000–1300 verses by performance,[27] making it likely that the performance of works extended over several days.[31] Given that many chansons from the late twelfth century on extended to over 10,000 verses or more (for example,Aspremont comprises 11, 376 verses, while Quatre Fils Aymon comprises 18,489 verses), it is conceivable that few spectators heard the longest works in their entirety.[32] While poems like The Song of Roland were sometimes heard in public squares and were no doubt warmly received by a broad public,[33] some critics caution that the chansonsshould probably not be characterized as popular literature[34] and some chansons appear particularly tailored for an audience of aristocratic, privileged or warrior classes.[35]

The poems themselves[edit] More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three

hundred manuscripts[5] that date from the 12th to the 15th century. Several popular chansons were written down more than once in varying forms. The earliest chansons are all (more or less) anonymous; many later ones have named authors. By the middle of the 12th century, the corpus of works was being expanded principally by "cyclisation", that is to say by the formation of "cycles" of chansons attached to a character or group of characters—with new chansons being added to the ensemble by singing of the earlier or later adventures of the hero, of their youthful exploits ("enfances"), the great deeds of their ancestors or descendants, or their retreat from the world to a convent ("moniage") – or attached to an event (like the Crusades). [36]

About 1215 Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, in the introductory lines to his Girart de Vienne, subdivided the Matter of , the usual subject area of the chansons de geste, into three cycles, which revolved around three main characters (see quotation at Matter of ). There are several other less formal lists of chansons, or of the legends they incorporate. One can be found in the fabliau entitled Des Deux Bordeors Ribauz, a humorous tale of the second half of the 13th century, in which a jongleur lists the stories he knows. [37] Another is included by the Catalan troubadour Guiraut de Cabrera in his humorous poem Ensenhamen, better known from its first words as "Cabra juglar": this is addressed to a juglar (jongleur) and purports to instruct him on the poems he ought to know but doesn't.[38] The listing below is arranged according to Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube's cycles, extended with two additional groupings and with a final list of chansons that fit into no cycle. There are numerous differences of opinion about the categorization of individual chansons.

Geste du roi[edit] The chief character is usually Charlemagne or one of his immediate successors. A pervasive theme is the King's role as champion of Christianity. This cycle contains the first of the chansons to be

written down, the Chanson de Roland or "Song of Roland".



Chanson de Roland (c. 1100 for the Oxford text, the earliest written version); several other versions exist, including the Occitan Ronsasvals[39], the Middle High GermanRuolandsliet and the Latin Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis.



Pèlerinage de Charlemagne or Voyage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople dealing with a fictional expedition by Charlemagne and his knights (c. 1140; two 15th century reworkings)



Fierabras (c. 1170)[40][41]

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Aspremont (c. 1190); a later version formed the basis of Aspramonte by Andrea da Barberino



Anseïs de Carthage (c. 1200)

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Chanson de Saisnes or "Song of the Saxons", by Jean Bodel (c. 1200)



Huon de Bordeaux originally c. 1215– 1240, known from slightly later manuscripts. A "prequel" and four sequels were later added:



Auberon



Chanson d'Esclarmonde

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Clarisse et Florent

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Yde et Olive

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Godin

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Gaydon (c. 1230)[42]

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Jehan de Lanson (before 1239)[43]

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Berthe aux Grands Pieds by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275), and a later FrancoItalian reworking



Les Enfances Ogier by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275) | to Ogier the Dane.



Entrée d'Espagne (c. 1320)[44]



Hugues Capet (c. 1360)

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Galiens li Restorés known from a single manuscript of about 1490[45]

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Aiquin or Acquin[46]



Otuel or Otinel



Mainet



Basin

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Ogier le Danois by Raimbert de Paris[47]

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Gui de Bourgogne[48]



Macaire or La Chanson de la Reine Sebile



Huon d'Auvergne, a lost chanson known from a 16thcentury retelling. The hero is mentioned among epic heroes in the Ensenhamen of Guiraut de Cabrera, and figures as a character in Mainet

Geste de Garin de Monglane[edit] Main article: La Geste de Garin de Monglane The central character is not Garin de Monglane but his supposed greatgrandson, Guillaume d'Orange. These chansons deal with knights who were typically younger sons, notheirs, who seek land and glory through combat with the Infidel (in practice, Muslim) enemy.



Chanson de Guillaume (c. 1100)



Couronnement de Louis (c. 1130)



Le Charroi de Nîmes (c. 1140)



La Prise d'Orange (c. 1150), reworking of a lost version from before 1122



Aliscans (c. 1180), with several later versions



La Bataille Loquifer by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170)



Le Moniage Rainouart by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170)

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Foulques de Candie, by Herbert le Duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170)



Simon de Pouille or "Simon of Apulia", fictional eastern adventures; the hero is said to be a grandson of Garin de Monglane[49]



Floovant (late 12th); the hero is a son of Merovingian King Clovis I



Aymeri de Narbonne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th)



Girart de Vienne by Bertrand de Barsur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th); also found in a later shorter version alongside Hernaut de Beaulande and Renier de Gennes[50]



Les Enfances Garin de Monglane (15th century)



Garin de Monglane (13th century)



Hernaut de Beaulande; a fragment of the 14th century and a later version[50]



Renier de Gennes[50]



Les Enfances Guillaume (before 1250)



Les Narbonnais (c. 1205), in two parts, known as Le département des enfants Aymeri, Le siège de Narbonne



Les Enfances Vivien (c. 1205)[51]



Le Covenant Vivien or La Chevalerie Vivien



Le Siège de Barbastre (c. 1180)



Bovon de Commarchis (c. 1275), reworking by Adenet le Roi of the Siege de Barbastre



Guibert d'Andrenas (13th century)



La Prise de Cordres (13th century)



La Mort Aymeri de Narbonne (c. 1180)



Les Enfances Renier



Le Moniage Guillaume (1160–1180)[52]

Geste de Doon de Mayence[edit] Main article: Doon de Mayence This cycle concerns traitors and rebels against royal authority. In each case the

revolt ends with the defeat of the rebels and their eventual repentance.



Gormond et Isembart



Girart de Roussillon (1160–1170). The hero Girart de Roussillon also figures in Girart de Vienne, in which he is identified as a son of Garin de Monglane. There is a later sequel:



Auberi le Bourgoing



Renaud de Montauban or Les Quatre Fils Aymon (end of the 12th century)



Raoul de Cambrai, apparently begun by Bertholais; existing version from end of 12th century



Doön de Mayence (mid 13th century)



Doon de Nanteuil current in the second half of the 12th century, now known only in fragments which derive from a 13th-century version.[53] To this several sequels were attached:



Aye d'Avignon, probably composed between 1195 and 1205. The fictional heroine is first married to Garnier de Nanteuil, who is son of Doon de Nanteuil and grandson of Doon de Mayence. After Garnier’s death she marries the Saracen Ganor



Gui de Nanteuil, evidently popular around 1207 when the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the story. The fictional hero is son of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon(to which Gui de Nanteuil forms a sequel)



Tristan de Nanteuil. The fictional hero is son of the hero of Gui de Nanteuil



Parise la Duchesse. The fictional heroine is daughter of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon. Exiled from , she gives birth to a son, Hugues, who becomes king of Hungary[54]



Maugis d'Aigremont



Vivien l'Amachour de Monbranc

Lorraine cycle[edit] Main article: Garin le Loherain This local cycle of epics of Lorraine traditional history, in the late form in which it is now known, includes details evidently drawn from Huon de Bordeaux and Ogier le Danois.



Garin le Loherain



Hervis de Metz



Gerbert de Metz



Anseïs fils de Girbert

Crusade cycle[edit] Main article: Crusade cycle Not listed by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, this cycle deals with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath.



Chanson d'Antioche, apparently begun by Richard le Pèlerin c. 1100; earliest surviving text by Graindor de Douai c. 1180; expanded version 14th century



Les Chétifs telling the adventures (mostly fictional) of the poor crusaders led by Peter the Hermit; the hero is Harpin de Bourges. The episode was eventually incorporated, c. 1180, by Graindor de Douai in his reworking of the Chanson d'Antioche



Matabrune tells the story of old Matabrune and of the greatgrandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon



Le Chevalier au Cigne tells the story of Elias, grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon. Originally composed around 1192, it was afterwards extended and divided into severalbranches



Les Enfances Godefroi or "Childhood exploits of Godefroi" tells the story of the youth of Godefroi de Bouillon and his three brothers



Chanson de Jérusalem



La Mort de Godefroi de Bouillon, quite unhistorical, narrates Godefroi’s poisoning by the Patriarch of Jerusalem



Baudouin de Sebourc (mid-14th century)



Bâtard de Bouillon (early 14th century)

Others[edit] 

Gormont et Isembart[55]



Ami et Amile, followed by a sequel:

 

Jourdain de Blaye

Beuve de Hanstonne, and a related poem:



Daurel et Beton, whose putative Old French version is lost; the story is known from an Occitan version of c. 1200



Aigar et Maurin



Aïmer le Chétif, a lost chanson[56]



Aiol (13th century)[57]



Théséus de Cologne, possibly a romance

The chansons de geste reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250.[3] By the middle of the 13th century, public taste in had begun to abandon these epics, preferring, rather, the romances.[58] As the genre progressed in the middle of the 13th century, only certain traits (like versification, laisse structure, formulaic forms, setting, and other clichés of the genre) remained to set the chansons apart from the romances.[58] The 15th century saw the cycles of chansons (along with other chronicles) converted into large prose compilations (such as the compilation made by David Aubert).[23] [59] Yet, the themes of the epics continued to exert an influence through the 16th century.[59]

Legacy and adaptations[edit] The chansons de geste created a body of mythology that lived on well after they ceased to be produced in . The French chanson gave rise to the Old Spanish tradition of the cantar de gesta.

The chanson de geste was also adapted in southern (Occitan-speaking) . One of the three surviving manuscripts of the chanson Girart de Roussillon (12th century) is in Occitan,[60] as are two works based on the story of Charlemagne and Roland, Rollan a Saragossa[61] and Ronsasvals (early 12th century).[62] The chanson de geste form was also used in such Occitan texts as Canso d'Antioca (late 12th century), Daurel e Betó (first half of the 13th century), and Song of the Albigensian Crusade (c.1275) (cf Occitan literature). In medieval , the chansons de geste elicited little interest from the German courtly audience, unlike the romances which were much appreciated. While The Song of Roland was among the first French epics to be translated into German (by Konrad der Pfaffe as the Rolandslied, c.1170), and the German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach based his (incomplete) 13th century epic Willehalm (consisting of seventy-eight manuscripts) on the Aliscans, a work in the cycle of William of Orange (Eschenbach's work had a great success in ), these remained isolated examples. Other than a few other works translated from the cycle of Charlemagne in the 13th century, the chansons de geste were not adapted into German, and it is believed that this was because the epic poems lacked what the romances specialized in portraying: scenes of idealized knighthood, love and courtly society.[63] In the late 13th century, certain French chansons de geste were adapted into the Old Norse Karlamagnús saga. In Italy, there exist several 14th-century texts in verse or prose which recount the feats of Charlemagne in Spain, including a chanson de geste in Franco-Venetian, the Entrée d'Espagne (c.1320)[64] (notable for transforming the character of Roland into a knight errant, similar to heroes from the Arthurian romances[65]), and a similar Italian epic La Spagna (1350–1360) in ottava rima. Through such works, the "Matter of " became an important source of material (albeit significantly transformed) in Italian romantic epics. Morgante (c.1483) by Luigi Pulci, Orlando innamorato (1495) by Matteo Maria Boiardo, Orlando

furioso (1516) by Ludovico Ariosto, and Jerusalem Delivered (1581) byTorquato Tasso are all indebted to the French narrative material (the Pulci, Boiardo and Ariosto poems are founded on the legends of the paladins of Charlemagne, and particularly, of Roland, translated as "Orlando"). The incidents and plot devices of the Italian epics later became central to works of English literature such as Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene; Spenser attempted to adapt the form devised to tell the tale of the triumph of Christianity over Islam to tell instead of the triumph of Protestantism over Roman Catholicism.

See also[edit] 

Medieval French literature

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Crosland, 1. 2; Jump up^ , Peter (1995). The new Oxford companion to literature in French. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198661258.

3; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d e

Hasenohr, 242.

4; Jump up^ Holmes, 66. 5; ^ Jump up to: La Chanson de a b

Roland, 12.

6; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

Hasenohr, 239.

7; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 520–522. 8; Jump up^ Holmes, 102–104. 9; Jump up^ Holmes, 90–92. 10; Jump up^ La Chanson de Roland, 10.

11; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 1300. 12; ^ Jump up to: Holmes, 68. a b

13; Jump up^ Holmes, 66–67. 14; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

Holmes, 67.

15; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

see also Hasenohr,

a b c

La Chanson de

239.

16; ^ Jump up to: Roland, 11.

17; ^ Jump up to: Holmes, 68-9. a b

18; Jump up^ see also Hasenohr, 240. 19; ^ Jump up to: Hasenohr, 240. a b

20; Jump up^ This three-way classification of mythology is set out by the twelfth-century poet Jean Bodel in the Chanson de Saisnes: for details see Matter of .

21; Jump up^ La Chanson de Roland, 16–17.

22; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 242 23; ^ Jump up to: Adam, 45. a b

24; Jump up^ Wittmann, Henri. 1995. "La structure de base de la syntaxe narrative dans les contes et légendes du créole haïtien." Poétiques et imaginaires: francopolyphonie littéraire des Amériques. Edited by Pierre Laurette & Hans-George Ruprecht. Paris: L'Harmattan, pp. 207–218. [1]

25; Jump up^ Dorfman, Eugène. 1969. The narreme in the medieval romance epic: An introduction to narrative structures. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

26; Jump up^ *Tusseau, Jean-Pierre & Henri Wittmann. 1975. "Règles de narration dans les chansons de geste et le roman courtois". Folia linguistica 7.401-12.[2]

27; ^ Jump up to: La Chanson de a b

Roland, 12.

28; Jump up^ Bumke, 429. 29; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

La Chanson de

Roland, 14.

30; ^ Jump up to: Bumke, 521-2. a b

31; ^ Jump up to: Bumke, 522. a b

32; Jump up^ see Bumke, 522. 33; Jump up^ Brault, 28. 34; Jump up^ Brault, 353 (note 166). 35; Jump up^ see Brault, 28. 36; Jump up^ Adam, 10. 37; Jump up^ Recueil général et complet des fabliaux ed. A. de Montaiglon (1872) vol. 1 p. 3

38; Jump up^ Martín de Riquer, Los cantares de gesta ses (1952) pp. 390–404

39; Jump up^ Le Roland occitan ed. and tr. Gérard Gouiran, Robert Lafont (1991)

40; Jump up^ La geste de Fierabras, le jeu du réel et de l'invraissemblable ed. André de Mandach. Geneva, 1987.

41; Jump up^ "Fierabras and Floripas: A French Epic Allegory" ed. and trans. by Michael A.H. Newth. New York: Italica Press, 2010.

42; Jump up^ Ed. F. Guessard, S. Luce. Paris: Vieweg, 1862.

43; Jump up^ Jehan de Lanson, chanson de geste of the 13th Century ed. J. Vernon Myers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.

44; Jump up^ Ed. A. Thomas. Paris: Société des anciens textes français, 1913.

45; Jump up^ Galiens li Restorés ed. Edmund Stengel (1890); Le Galien de Cheltenham ed. D. M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1981.

46; Jump up^ Aiquin ou la conquête de la Bretagne par le roi Charlemagne ed. F. Jacques. Aixen-Provence: Publications du CUER MA, 1977.

47; Jump up^ Raimbert de Paris, La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche ed. J. Barrois (1842)

48; Jump up^ Ed. François Guessard, Henri Michelant. Paris, 1859.

49; Jump up^ Simon de Pouille ed. Jeanne Baroin (1968)

50; ^ Jump up to:

La geste de Beaulande ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966) a b c

51; Jump up^ Ed. C. Wahlund, H. von Feilitzen. Upsala and Paris, 1895.

52; Jump up^ Ed. W. Cloetta. Paris, 1906–13.

53; Jump up^ "La chanson de Doon de Nanteuil: fragments inédits" ed.

Paul Meyer in Romania vol. 13 (1884)

54; Jump up^ Parise la Duchesse ed. G. F. de Martonne (1836); Parise la Duchesse ed. F. Guessard, L. Larchey (1860)

55; Jump up^ Gormont et Isembart ed. Alphonse Bayot (1931)

56; Jump up^ R. Weeks, "Aïmer le chétif" in PMLA vol. 17 (1902) pp. 411–434.

57; Jump up^ Ed. Jacques Normand and Gaston Raynaud. Paris, 1877.

58; ^ Jump up to: Adam, 38. a b

59; ^ Jump up to: Haseonohr, 243. a b

60; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 547. 61; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 1305. 62; Jump up^ Hasenohr, 1320. 63; Jump up^ Bumke, 92–93. 64; Jump up^ Hasenohr. Article: "Entrée d'Espagne", pp. 412–3.

65; Jump up^ Brand, 168.

References[edit] 

(French) Antoine Adam, Georges

Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds. Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle," Paris: Larousse, 1967.



Peter Brand and Lino Pertile, eds. The Cambridge History of Italian Literature Cambridge. 1996; revised edition: 1999. ISBN 0-521-66622-8



Gerard J. Brault. The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition. Tome I: Introduction and Commentary. Pennsylvania State University, 1978. ISBN 0-271-00516-5



Joachim Bumke. Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages. English translation: 1991. The Overlook Press: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-58567-051-0



Jesse Crosland. The Old French Epic. New York: Haskell House, 1951.



(French) Geneviève Hasenohr and

Michel Zink, eds. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age. Collection: La Pochothèque. Paris: Fayard, 1992. ISBN 2-253-05662-6



Urban T. Holmes, Jr. A History of Old French Literature from the Origins to 1300. New York: F.S. Crofts, 1938.



(French) La Chanson de

Roland. Edited and Translated into Modern French by Ian Short. Paris: Livre de Poche, 1990. p. 12. ISBN 978-2-253-05341-5

External links

Chinese poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Quatrain on Heavenly Mountain" byEmperor Gaozong

Chinese poetry is poetry written, spoken, or chanted in the Chinese language. While this last term comprises Classical Chinese,Standard Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, Yue Chinese, and other historical and vernacular forms of the language, its poetry generally falls into one of two primary types, Classical Chinese poetry and Modern Chinese poetry. Poetry has consistently been held in extremely high regard in China, often incorporating expressive folk influences filtered through the minds of Chinese literati. In Chinese culture, poetry has provided a format and a forum for both public and private expressions of deep emotion, offering an audience of peers, readers, and scholars insight into the inner life of Chinese writers across more than two millennia. Westerners also have found in it an interesting and pleasurable field of study, in its exemplification of essential contrasts between the Western world and Chinese civilization, and on its own . [1]

Contents [hide]



1Classical Chinese poetry



2Beginnings of the tradition: Shijing and Chuci

o 2.1Shijing o 2.2Chuci 

3Han poetry



4Jian'an poetry



5Six Dynasties poetry



6Tang poetry



7Song poetry



8Yuan poetry



9Ming poetry



10Ming-Qing Transition



11Qing poetry



12Post-imperial Classical Chinese poetry



13Modern (post-classical) poetry



14Influence



15See also

o 15.1General o 15.2Poetry of particular (dynastic) periods o 15.3Poetry works and collections o 15.4Individual poets, poems, and translators o 15.5Lists of poets o 15.6Important translators of Chinese poetry into English o 15.7English-language translation collections o 15.8Poetic modes, genres, and forms o 15.9Technical factors of poetry o 15.10Influence outside of China 

16Category tree



17Notes and references



18Bibliography



19External links

Classical Chinese poetry[edit]

Hand-painted Chinese New Year'sduilian (对联 "couplet"), a by-product of Chinese poetry, pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, atLijiang City, Yunnan.

Main article: Classical Chinese poetry Classical Chinese poetry includes, perhaps first and foremost shi (詩/诗), and also other major types such as ci (詞/词) and qu (曲). There is also a traditional Chinese literary form called fu (賦/赋), which defies categorization into English more than the other , but perhaps can best be described as a kind of prosepoem. During the modern period, there also has developed free verse in Western style. Traditional forms of Chinese poetry are rhymed, however the mere rhyming of text may not qualify literature as being poetry; and, as well, the lack of rhyme would not necessarily disqualify a modern work from being considered poetry, in the sense of modern Chinese poetry. For example, lines from I Ching are often rhymed, but may not be considered to be poetry, whereas modern verse may be considered to be poetry even without rhyme. A cross-cultural comparison to this might be the Pre-Socratic philosophical works in ancient Greece which were often written in verse versus free verse.

Beginnings of the tradition: Shijing and Chuci[edit] The earliest extant anthologies are the Shi Jing (诗经）and Chu Ci （楚辞). Both of these have had a great impact on the subsequent poetic tradition. Earlier examples of ancient Chinese poetry may have been lost because of the vicissitudes of history, such as the burning of books and scholars( 焚书坑儒） byQin Shihuang, although one of the targets of this last event was the Shi Jing, which has nevertheless survived.

Shijing[edit] Main article: Shijing The elder of these two works, the Shijing (also familiarly known, in English, as the Classic of Poetry and as the Book of Songs or transliterated as the Sheh Ching) is a preserved collection of Classical Chinese poetry from over two millennia ago. its content divided into 3 parts: feng(风，folk songs from 15 small countries,160 songs in total ), ya(雅,Imperial court songs,subdiviede in daya and xiaoya,105 songs in total）and song(颂,singing in ancestral worship, 40 songs in total）.This anthology received its final compilation sometime in the 7th century BCE.[2] The collection contains both aristocratic poems regarding life at the royal court ("Odes") and also more rustic poetry and images of natural settings, derived at least to some extent from folk songs ("Songs"). The Shijing poems are predominantly composed of fourcharacter lines( 四言), rather than the five and seven character lines typical of later Classical Chinese

poetry. The main techniques of espression( rhetorics) are fu(赋，Direct elaborate narrative)，bi(比，metaphor) and xing(兴，describe other thing to foreshadowing the main content).

Chuci[edit] Main article: Chuci In contrast to the classic Shijing, the Chu Ci anthology (also familiarly known, in English, as the Songs of Chu or the Songs of the South or transliterated as the Chu Tz'u) consists of verses more emphasizing lyric and romantic features, as well as irregular line-lengths and other influences from the poetry typical of the state of Chu. The Chuci collection consists primarily of poems ascribed to Qu Yuan(屈原） (329-299 BCE) and his follower Song Yu, although in its present form the anthology dates to Wang I's 158 CE compilation and notes, which are the only historically reliable source of both the text and information regarding its composition.[3] During the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220AD), theChu Ci style of poetry contributed to the evolution of the fu ("descriptive poem") style, typified by a mixture of verse and prose ages (often used as a virtuoso display the poet's skills and knowledge rather than to convey intimate emotional experiences). The fu form remained popular during the subsequent Six Dynasties period, although it became shorter and more personal. The fu form of poetry remains as one of the generic pillars of Chinese poetry; although, in the Tang Dynasty, five-character and seven-character shipoetry begins to dominate.

Han poetry[edit] Main article: Han poetry Also during the Han Dynasty, a folk-song style of poetry became popular, known as yuefu (樂府/乐府) "Music Bureau" poems, so named because of the government's role in collecting such poems, although in time some poets began composing original works in yuefu style. Many yuefu poems are composed of fivecharacter (五言) or seven-character (七言) lines, in contrast to the four-character lines of earlier times. A characteristic form of Han Dynasty literature is the fu. The poetic period of the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Six Dynasties era is known as Jian'an poetry. An important collection of Han poetry is the Nineteen Old Poems.

Jian'an poetry[edit] Main article: Jian'an poetry Between and over-lapping the poetry of the latter days of the Han and the beginning period of the Six Dynasties was Jian'an poetry. Examples of surviving poetry from this period include the works of the "Three Caos": Cao Cao, Cao Pi, and Cao Zhi.

Six Dynasties poetry[edit] Main article: Six Dynasties poetry The Six Dynasties era (220CE -589CE) was one of various developments in poetry, both continuing and building on the traditions developed and handed down from previous eras and also leading up to further developments of poetry in the future. Major examples of poetry surviving from this dynamic era include

the works of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, the poems of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, the Midnight Songs poetry of the four seasons, the great "fields and garden" poet "Tao Yuanming", the Yongmingepoch poets, and the poems collected in the anthology New Songs from the Jade Terrace, compiled by Xu Ling (507-83). The general and poet Lu Ji used Neo-Taoist cosmology to take literary theory in a new direction with his Wen fu, or "Essay on Literature" in the Fu poetic form.

Tang poetry[edit] Main article: Tang poetry A high point of classical Chinese poetry occurred during the Tang period (618 - 907): not only was this period prolific in poets; but, also in poems (perhaps around 50,000 poems survive, many of them collected in the Collected Tang Poems). During the time of Tang, in China, poetry was integrated into almost every aspect of the professional and social life of the literate class, including becoming part of the Imperial examinations taken by anyone wanting a government post. By this point, poetry was being composed according to regulated tone patterns. Regulated and unregulated poetry were distinguished as "ancientstyle" gushi poetry and regulated, "recent-style" jintishi poetry. Jintishi (meaning "new style poetry"), or regulated verse, is a stricter form developed in the early Tang Dynasty with rules governing the structure of a poem, in of line-length, number of lines, tonal patterns within the lines, the use of rhyme, and a certain level of mandatory parallelism. Good examples of the gushi and jintishi forms can be found in, respectively, the works of the poets Li Bai and Du Fu. Tang poetic forms include: lushi, a type of regulated verse with an eight-line form having five, six, or seven characters per line; ci (verse following set rhythmic patterns); and jueju (truncated verse), a four-line poem with five, six, or seven characters per line. Good examples of the jueju verse form can be found in the poems of Li Bai[4] and Wang Wei. Over time, some Tang poetry became more realistic, more narrative and more critical of social norms; for example, these traits can be seen in the works of Bai Juyi. The poetry of the Tang Dynasty remains influential today. Other Late Tang poetry developed a more allusive and surreal character, as can be seen, for example, in the works of Li He and Li Shangyin.

Song poetry[edit] Main article: Song poetry By the Song Dynasty (960-1279), another form had proven it could provide the flexibility that new poets needed: the ci (词/詞) lyric—new lyrics written according to the set rhythms of existing tunes. Each of the tunes had music that has often been lost, but having its own meter. Thus, each ci poem is labeled "To the tune of [Tune Name]" (调寄[词牌]/調寄[詞牌]) and fits the meter and rhyme of the tune (much in the same way that Christian hymn writers set new lyrics to pre-existing tunes). The titles of ci poems are not necessarily related to their subject matter, and many poems may share a title. In of their content, ci poetry most often expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona. However, great exponents of the form, such as the Southern Tang poet Li Houzhu and the Song Dynasty poet Su Shi, used the ci form to address a wide range of topics.

Yuan poetry[edit] Main article: Yuan poetry Major developments of poetry during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) included the development of types of poetry written to fixed-tone patterns, such as for the Yuan operalibrettos. After the Song Dynasty, the set rhythms of the ci came to be reflected in the set-rhythm pieces of Chinese Sanqu poetry (散曲), a freer form based on new popular songs and dramatic arias, that developed and lasted into the Ming Dynasty (14th-17th centuries). Examples can be seen in the work of playwrights Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 (c. 1270-1330) and Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 (c. 1300).

Ming poetry[edit] Main article: Ming poetry The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) poets include Gao Qi (1336–1374), Li Dongyang (1447–1516), and Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610).

Ming-Qing Transition[edit] Ming-Qing Transition includes the interluding/overlapping periods of the brief so-called Shun Dynasty (also known as Dashun, 1644–1645) and the Southern Ming Dynasty (1644 to 1662). One example of poets who wrote during the difficult times of the late Ming, when the already troubled nation was ruled by Chongzhen Emperor (reigned 1627 to 1644), the short-lived Dashun regime of peasantrebel Li Zicheng, and then the Manchu Qing Dynasty are the so-called Three Masters of Jiangdong: Wu Weiye (1609–1671), Qian Qianyi (1582–1664), and Gong Dingzi (1615–1673).

Qing poetry[edit] Main article: Qing poetry The Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1912) is notable in of development of the criticism of poetry and the development of important poetry collections, such as the Qing era collections of Tang Dynasty poetry known as the Quantangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Both shi and ci continued to be composed beyond the end of the imperial period.

Post-imperial Classical Chinese poetry[edit] Both shi and ci continued to be composed past the end of the imperial period; one example being Mao Zedong, former Chairman of the Communist Party of China, who wrote Classical Chinese poetry in his own calligraphic style.

Modern (post-classical) poetry[edit] Main article: Modern Chinese poetry Modern Chinese poetry (新诗/新詞 "new poetry") refers to the modern vernacular style of poetry, as opposed to the traditional poetry written in Classical Chinese language. Usually Modern Chinese poetry

does not follow prescribed patterns. Poetry was revolutionized after 1919's May Fourth Movement, when writers (like Hu Shih) tried to use vernacular styles closer to what was being spoken (baihua) rather than previously prescribed forms. Early 20th-century poets like Xu Zhimo, Guo Moruo and Wen Yiduo sought to break Chinese poetry from past conventions by adopting Western models. For example, Xu consciously follows the style of the Romantic poets with end-rhymes. In the post-revolutionary Communist era, poets like Ai Qing used more liberal running lines and direct diction, which were vastly popular and widely imitated. In the contemporary poetic scene, the most important and influential poets are in the group known as Misty Poets, who use oblique allusions and hermetic references. The most important Misty Poets include Shu Ting, Bei Dao, Gu Cheng, Duo Duo, and Yang Lian, most of whom were exiled after the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. A special case is the mystic poet Hai Zi, who became very famous after his suicide. However, even today, the concept of modern poetry is still debated. There are arguments and contradiction as to whether modern poetry counts as poetry. Due to the special structure of Chinese writing and Chinese grammar, modern poetry, or free verse poetry, may seem like a simple short vernacular essay since they lack some of the structure traditionally used to define poetry.

Influence[edit] Chinese poetry early on influenced poets in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. For example, the Kanshi and Shichigon-zekku poetry of Japan. Later on, it would be a big influence in the rest of the world, ranging from the poetic movement known as Beat poetry to the pop song "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".

See also[edit] General[edit] 

Classical Chinese poetry



Chinese art



Shi (poetry) (the Chinese term for poetry)



Chinese literature



Chinese classic texts



List of national poetries



Modern Chinese poetry



Category:Chinese translators

Poetry of particular (dynastic) periods[edit] 

Han poetry



Jian'an poetry



Six Dynasties poetry



Tang poetry



Song poetry

Poetry works and collections[edit] Further information: List of Classical Chinese poetry anthologies



300 Tang poems



Gao Bing



List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets



Li Sao



Classic of Poetry



New Songs from the Jade Terrace



Orchid Pavilion Gathering



Quantangshi



Sun Zhu



Wangchuan ji



Yan Yu (poetry theorist)

Individual poets, poems, and translators[edit] 

List of Chinese language poets



List of poems in Chinese or by Chinese poets



Poetry of Cao Cao



Du Fu



Li Bai



Poetry of Mao Zedong



Qu Yuan



Su Shi



Wang Wei



Xu Zhimo

Lists of poets[edit] 

List of Chinese-language poets



List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets

Important translators of Chinese poetry into English[edit] 

Archie Barnes



Witter Bynner



Herbert Giles



David Hawkes



David Hinton



Bernard Karlgren



James Legge



Amy Lowell



Ezra Pound



Arthur Waley



Burton Watson



Jonathan Chaves (professor)

English-language translation collections[edit] 

Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry

Poetic modes, genres, and forms[edit] 

Ci (poetry)



Classical Chinese poetry forms



Classical Chinese poetry genres



Fu (poetry)



Jueju



Pailu



Qu (poetry)



Shi



Yuefu

Technical factors of poetry[edit] 

Classical Chinese poetry



Classical Chinese poetry forms



Rime dictionary



Tone pattern



Rime table

Influence outside of China[edit] 

Japanese poetry



Korean poetry



Vietnamese poetry



Ernest Fenellosa



Shigin Shiyin (詩吟)

Category tree[edit] ▼ Chinese poetry ► Chinese poems ► Chinese poetry allusions ► Chinese poetry by era ► Chinese poetry groups and movements ► Chinese poetry collections ► Chinese poetry forms ► Chinese poetry genres ► Poetry in Classical Chinese ► Chinese poets Chinese poetry Autumn Day in Kui Prefecture Classical Chinese poetry Contemporary review (Chinese magazine) Kokka taikan Renditions Three perfections Tone pattern Wen fu

Notes and references[edit] 1; Jump up^ Cai 2008, p. xxi and p. 1 2; Jump up^ Yip, 31 3; Jump up^ Yip, 54 4; Jump up^ 五言絕右丞，供奉(白曾供奉翰林，故云)，七言絕龍標，供奉，絕妙古今 ，別有天 地。

Bibliography[edit] 

Cai, Zong-qi, ed. (2008). How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13941-1



Cui, Jie and Zong-qi Cai (2012). How to Read Chinese Poetry Workbook. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-15658-8



Davis, A. R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction, The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse. (Baltimore: Penguin Books (1970).



Holland, Gill (1986). Keep an Eye on South Mountain: Translations of Chinese Poetry.



Liu, James J.Y. (1966). The Art of Chinese Poetry. ISBN 0-226-48687-7



Lupke, Christopher (2008). New Perspectives on Contemporary Chinese Poetry.



Owen, Stephen (1996). An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911.



Yip, Wai-lim (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres . Durham and London: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-1946-2

External links[edit] 

The Red Brush - Writing Women of Imperial China



The Columbia University Press web page accompanying Cai 2008 has PDF and MP3 files for more than 75 poems and CUP's web page accompanying Cui 2012 includes MP3 files of modern Chinese translations for dozens of these.



Olga Lomová, Traditional Chinese Poetry (Oxford Bibliographies Online: Chinese Studies). Available through libraries by subscription. Selective, annotated bibliography.

Concrete poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Constantinople", a 'ferro-concrete poem' from Tango with Cows by the Russian Futurist Vasily Kamensky, 1914

Concrete, pattern, or shape poetry is an arrangement of linguistic elements in which the typographical effect is more important in conveying meaning than verbal significance. It is sometimes referred to as visual poetry, a term that has now developed a distinct meaning of its own. As such, concrete poetry relates more to the visual than to the verbal arts and there is a considerable overlap in the kind of product to which it refers. Historically, however, concrete poetry has developed from a long tradition of shaped poems in which the words are arranged in such a way as to depict their subject. Contents [hide]



1Development



2Post-war concrete poetry



3Bibliography



4See also



5References



6Further reading



7External links

Development[edit] Though the term ‘concrete poetry’ is modern, the idea of using letter arrangements to enhance the meaning of a poem is old. Such shaped poetry was popular in Greek Alexandria during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, although only the handful which were collected together in the Greek Anthology now survive. Examples include poems by Simmias of Rhodes in the shape of an egg,[1] wings[2] and a hatchet,[3] as well as Theocritus’ pan-pipes.[4] The post-Classical revival of shaped poetry seems to begin with the Gerechtigkeitsspirale (spiral of justice), a relief carving of a poem at the pilgrimage church of St. Valentin in the German town of Hesse. The text is carved in the form of a spiral on the front of one of the church pews[5] and is one of several decorative designs there created in 1510 by master carpenter Erhart Falckener.

George Herbert's "Easter Wings" (1633), printed sideways on facing pages so that the lines would call to mind angels flying with outstretched wings

Early religious examples of shaped poems in English include "Easter Wings" and "The Altar" in George Herbert’s The Temple(1633)[6] and Robert Herrick’s "This cross tree here" (in the shape of a cross) from his Noble Numbers (1647).[7] An alternative religious precursor is Micrography, a technique for creating

visual images by Hebrew-speaking artists who create pictures using tiny arrangements of Biblical texts organized usually on paper in images which illustrate the text used. As noted in the entry, micrography allows the creation of images of natural objects by observant Jews without directly breaking the prohibition of creating "graven images" that might be interpreted as idolatry. The technique is now used by both religious and secular artists and is similar to the use of Arabic texts in Islamic calligraphy.[8] European secular examples include poems in the shape of wine flagons by Rabelais[9] and Charles-François Panard,[10] and the Slovene Prešeren's "A Toast" (Zdravljica, 1844) with stanzas in the shape of wine-glasses.[11] This approach was taken up at the start of the 20th century by Guillaume Apollinaire in his inventive calligrammes, with poems in, among others, the shape of a necktie, a fountain and raindrops running down a window. In that era also there were typographical experiments by of avant-garde movements such as Futurism, Dada andSurrealism in which lay-out moved from an auxiliary expression of meaning to artistic primacy. Thus the significance of thesound poetry in Marinetti’s Zang Tumb Tumb (1912) is expressed through pictorial means. Similarly in Raoul Hausmann claimed that the typographic style of his 'Phonemes' allowed the reader to recognise what sound was intended. [12] In Russia the Futurist poet Vasily Kamensky went so far as to term the typography of his Tango with Cows, published in 1914, 'ferro-concrete poems' (zhelezobetonnye poemy), long before the name became current elsewhere. A further move away from overt meaning occurred where ‘poems’ were simplified to a simple arrangement of the letters of the alphabet. Louis Aragon, for example, exhibited the sequence from a to z and titled it "Suicide" (1926), while Kurt Schwitters’ "ZA (elementary)" has the alphabet in reverse,[13] and the Catalan writer Josep Maria Junoy (1885-1955) placed just the letters Z and A at the top and bottom of the page under the title "Ars Poetica".[14] Eventually the Dutch typographer H.N. Werkman progressed to using the typewriter to create abstract patterns (which he called tiksels), using not just letters but also purely linear elements.[15] Created during the 1920s, they anticipate the ‘typestracts’ of the concrete poet Dom Sylvester Houédard during the 1960s.[16]

Post-war concrete poetry[edit] During the early 1950s two Brazilian artistic groups producing severely abstract and impersonal work were ed by poets linked to the São Paolo magazine Noigrandes who began to treat language in an equally abstract way. Their work was termed "concrete poetry" after they exhibited along with the artists in the National Exhibition of Concrete Art (1956/57). The poets included Augusto de Campos, Haroldo de Campos and Décio Pignatari, who were ed in the exhibition by Ferreira Gullar, Ronaldo Azeredo and Wlademir Dias Pino from Rio de Janeiro. In 1958 a Brazilian concrete poetry manifesto was published and an anthology in 1962.[17] Houédard claimed that it was the 1962 publication in The Times Literary Supplement of a letter from the Brazilian E.M. de Melo e Castro that awakened British writers such as himself, Ian Hamilton Finlay and Edwin Morgan to the possibilities of Concrete Poetry.[18] However, there were by this time other European writers producing similar work, principally Eugen Gomringer, who considered that a poem should be "a reality in itself" rather than a statement about reality,[19] and "as easily understood as signs in airports and traffic signs".[20] The difficulty in defining such a style is itted by Houédard’s statement that "a printed concrete poem is ambiguously both typographic-poetry and poetic-typography". [21]

Ian Hamilton Finlay sculpture in Stuttgart, 1975; the word schiff (ship) is carved in reverse and can only be decoded when it floats reflected on water

Another difficulty of definition is caused by the way such works cross artistic boundaries into the areas of music and sculpture, or can alternatively be defined as sound poetry, visual poetry, found poetry and typewriter art.[22] Henri Chopin’s work was related to his musical treatment of the word. Kenelm Cox (1927-68) was a kinetic artist "interested in the linear, serial aspects of visual experience but particularly in the process of change," whose revolving machines transcended the static page in being able to express this. [23] Ian Hamilton Finlay’s concrete poetry began on the page but then moved increasingly towards three dimensional figuration and afterwards to site-specific art in the creation of his sculpture garden at Little Sparta. Bob Cobbing, who was also a sound poet, had been experimenting with typewriter and duplicator since 1942. Of its possibilities in suggesting the physical dimension of the auditory process, he declared that "One can get the measure of a poem with the typewriter’s accurate left/right & up & down movements; but superimposition by means of stencil and duplicator enable one to dance to this measure." [24] Houédard’s entirely different work was also produced principally on the typewriter but approximates more to painterly and sculptural procedures.[25] So too does that of the AmericanMinimalist artist Carl André, beginning from about 1958 and in parallel with his changing artistic procedures.[26] Edwin Morgan’s experiments with concrete poetry covered several aspects of it, including elements of found poetry ‘discovered’ by misreading and isolating elements from printed sources. "Most people have probably had the experience of scanning a newspaper page quickly and taking a message from it quite different from the intended one. I began looking deliberately for such hidden messages…preferably with the visual or typographical element part of the point."[27] Another aspect of the search for unintended concordances of meaning emerges in A Humument, the lifework of the visual artist Tom Phillips, who uses painterly and decorative procedures to isolate them on the page.[28] Despite such blurring of artistic boundaries, concrete poetry can be viewed as taking its place in a predominantly visual tradition stretching over more than two millennia that seeks to draw attention to the word in the space of the page, and to the spaces between words, as an aid to emphasising their significance. [29]

Bibliography[edit] 

Bob Cobbing (ed), GLOUP and WOUP, Gillingham 1974



Peter Finch (ed), Typewriter Poems, Cardiff 1972



Dick Higgins, Pattern Poetry: Guide to an Unknown Literature, State University of New York, 1987



John Sharkey (ed), Mindplay, an anthology of British Concrete Poetry, London 1971

See also[edit] 

List of concrete and visual poets



Lyco art



Something Else Press

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ FAMSF 2; Jump up^ Wikimedia 3; Jump up^ Text art history 4; Jump up^ FAMSF 5; Jump up^ Higgins, p.71 6; Jump up^ Online example 7; Jump up^ Online text 8; Jump up^ Online examples 9; Jump up^ Wikimedia 10; Jump up^ FAMSF 11; Jump up^ "The Manuscript of Zdravica by Prešeren" – via Wikimedia. 12; Jump up^ Christian Scholz, "Relations between sound poetry and visual poetry", in Visible Language 35.1, 2001, p.94

13; Jump up^ Peter Mayer, Alphabetic and Letter Poems, London 1978, pp.51-2 14; Jump up^ Poemes i cal·ligrames (1920) 15; Jump up^ Groningen Museum 16; Jump up^ Yann Lovelock, The Line Forward, Amsterdam 1984, p.37 17; Jump up^ Claus Clüver, "The Noigandres Poets and Concrete Art", 2006 18; Jump up^ Sharkey, p.9 19; Jump up^ "From Line to Constellation", 1954, trans. by Mike Weaver in Image Magazine, Dec. 1964. 20; Jump up^ Sharkey, p.12 21; Jump up^ Peter Mayer, "Concrete poems just are", Eye Magazine 20, Spring 1996 22; Jump up^ Alan Riddell’s 1975 anthology Typewriter Art is available online 23; Jump up^ Cobbing, GLOUP & WOUP 24; Jump up^ Finch, pp.45-6 25; Jump up^ Examples in Socks, June 2014 26; Jump up^ Examples in Socks, April 2014 27; Jump up^ The section Newspoems 1965-71 in Themes on a Variation, Manchester 1988, pp.63-112 28; Jump up^ Tom Phillips, A Humument, a treated Victorian novel, London 1980, pp.1-41 online; and a selection of pages in the Tate Gallery

29; Jump up^ "Reading space in visual poetry", Writing Technologies, Vol.4 2012, pp.75-106

Further reading[edit] 

Medium-Art, Selection of Hungarian Experimental Poetry, editors Zoltan Frater and Andras Petocz, published by Magveto, 1990, Budapest, ISBN 963-14-1680-1



Rasula, Jed and Steve McCaffery: Imagining Language: An Anthology, The MIT Press, 2001



Solt, Mary Ellen:Concrete Poetry: A World View, Indiana University Press, 1970



Robert G. Warnock and Roland Folter: "The German Pattern Poem", in Festschrift Detlev Schumann, Munich 1970, pp. 40–73

External links

Cowboy poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Cowboy poetry is a form of poetry which grew out of a tradition of extemporaneous composition carried on by workers on cattle drives and ranches.[citation needed] After a day of work, cowboys would gather around a campfire and entertain one another with tall tales and folk songs. Illiteracy was common, so poetic forms were employed to aid memory.[citation needed] Contents [hide]



1Authorship



2Style



3Themes



4Poetry weeks



5Prominent cowboy poets



6See also



7Notes



8External links

Authorship[edit] Contrary to common belief, cowboy poetry does not actually have to be written by cowboys, though adherents would claim that authors should have some connection to the cowboy life such that they can write poetry with an "insider's perspective". One example of a popular "cowboy poem" written by a noncowboy is "The Ride of Paul Venarez" byEben E. Rexford, a 19th-Century freelance author.

Style[edit] Newcomers are surprised to hear cowboy poetry that is contemporary. Many people tend to focus on the historic cowboy lifestyle, but the work that cowboys do continues. The cowboy lifestyle is a living tradition that exists in western North America and other areas, thus, contemporary cowboy poetry is still being created, still being recited, and still entertaining many camp visitors around campfires and convention halls. Much of what is known as "old time" country music originates from the rhyming couplet style often seen in cowboy poetry along with guitar music.

Themes[edit] Typical themes of cowboy poetry include:[citation needed]



Ranch work and those who perform it



Western lifestyle



Landscape of the American and Canadian West



Cowboy values and practices



Humorous anecdotes



Memories of times and people long gone



Sarcasm regarding modern contraptions and/or ways

The following is a verse from LaVerna Johnson's poem "Homestead", which exhibits traditional cowboy poetry features: We hear calls of cattle lowing, voices carry on the breeze As it wanders down the canyon, then meanders through the trees. While we stop to smell the sage, light shimmers "quakie's" golden leaves, And it sure feels good to be back home again. (Note the use of cowboy vernacular such as quakie (Populus tremuloides, trembling poplar or aspen known as a "quakie tree"). Though it deals with those who work with livestock and nature, it would be incorrect to categorize cowboy poetry as pastoral. Cowboy poetry is noted for its romantic imagery, but at no time does it sacrifice realism in favor of it. Few examples of experimental verse are known in cowboy poetry. One argument is that cowboy poetry is meant to be recited and should "sound like poetry." The counterargument runs that imposing a particular structure on cowboy poetry would move the focus away from the subject matter. Regardless, most cowboy poets stay within more classical guidelines, especially rhyming verse. So-called free verse poetry is uncommon in cowboy poetry.

Poetry weeks[edit] Cowboy poetry continues to be written and celebrated today. Baxter Black is probably the most famous, and possibly the most prolific, contemporary cowboy poet. Many cities in the United States and Canada have annual "roundups" dedicated to cowboy poetry. Cowboy Poetry week is celebrated each April in the United States and Canada.[1]

Prominent cowboy poets[edit] 

Mag Mawhinney



Gary Brace



S. Omar Barker



Baxter Black



Arthur Chapman



Badger Clark



Curley Fletcher



Bruce Kiskaddon



Wally McRae



Joel Nelson



Georgie Sicking



Red Steagall



Steven Fromholz



Waddie Mitchell



Paul Zarzyski



Dan Hess



Dalton Wilcox, "Poet Laureate of the West"

In addition, Robert W. Service is sometimes classified as a cowboy poet. Famed spoken-word artist Bingo Gazingo has done at least one cowboy poem, "Everything's OK at the OK Corral."

See also[edit] 

Bush ballads



Cowboy



Rodeo

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ http://www.cowboypoetry.com/week.htm

External links[edit] 

National Cowboy Poetry Gathering, Elko, Nevada



Cowboy Poetry Gathering, Heber City, Utah



Pincher Creek, Alberta, Cowboy Gathering



Cowboy and Western Poetry at the Bar-D Ranch



Jim Janke's Old West Cowboy Poetry



Texas Cowboy Poetry Gathering



Video from Texas Cowboy Poetry Gathering



cowboy poetry gathering in Cartersville, GA

Digital poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

game, game, game and again game, a digital poetry game by Jason Nelson, 2011

22.2 QR code poem by Genco Gulan, 2010

Digital poetry is a form of electronic literature, displaying a wide range of approaches to poetry, with a prominent and crucial use ofcomputers. Digital poetry can be available in form of CD-ROM, DVD, as installations in art galleries, in certain cases also recorded as digital video or films, as digital holograms and on the World Wide Web or Internet. A significant portion of current publications of poetry are available either only online or via some combination of online and offline publication. There are many types of 'digital poetry' such as hypertext, kinetic poetry, computer generated animation, digital visual poetry, interactive poetry, code poetry, holographic poetry (holopoetry), experimental video poetry, and poetries that take advantage of theprogrammable nature of the computer to create works that are interactive, or use generative or combinatorial approach to create text (or one of its states), or involve sound poetry, or take advantage of things like listservs, blogs, and other forms of network communication to create communities of collaborative writing and publication (as in poetical wikis). Digital computers allow the creation of art that spans different media: text, images, sounds, and interactivity via programming. Contemporary poetries have, therefore, taken advantage of this toward the creation of works that synthesize both arts and media. Whether a work is poetry or visual art or music or programming is sometimes not clear, but we expect an intense engagement with language in poetical works.[1] Contents [hide]



1History



2Hypertext poetry



3Interactive poetry



4Notable people



5Bibliography



6See also



7References



8External links

History[edit] The stochastic texts which were indirectly produced by the German mathematician Theo Lutz in 1959, by programming a Z22 of Konrad Zuse were the first computer-generated poems.[2]

Hypertext poetry[edit] Hypertext poetry is a form of digital poetry that uses links using hypertext mark-up. It is a very visual form, and is related to hypertext fiction and visual arts. The links mean that a hypertext poem has no set order, the poem moving or being generated in response to the links that the reader/ chooses. It can either involve set words, phrases, lines, etc. that are presented in variable order but sit on the page much as traditional poetry does, or it can contain parts of the poem that move and / or mutate. It is usually found online, though CD-ROM and diskette versions exist. The earliest examples date to no later than the mid 1980s.

Interactive poetry[edit] Interactive poetry is a form of digital poetry by which the reader may or must contribute to the content, form, or performance of the work, thereby influencing the meaning and experience of the poem. Interaction allows the reader to participate and influence the work and their experience of it. Interactive poetry is limited to a digital medium as it cannot perform the same function in other media such as print, which limits accessibility. Interactive poetry can also provide a different experience with each reading or from reader to reader and so analysis of this type of poetry can be challenging as the experience is not static. Examples of interactive poetry include "JABBER: The Jabberwocky Engine"[3] and "Interactive Poem"[4] by Genco Gulan

Notable people[edit] 

Annie Abrahams



Paulo Aquarone



Mez Breeze



cris cheek



Caterina Davinio



Belen Gache



Kenneth Goldsmith



Loss Pequeño Glazier



Genco Gulan



Patrick Herron



Chris Joseph



Eduardo Kac



Robert Kendall



Richard Kostelanetz



Deena Larsen



Theo Lutz, wrote an algorithm for the first computer-generated poems in 1959



Judy Malloy



Yucef Merhi



Jason Nelson



Philip M. Parker



Yatin Patel



Teo Spiller



Stephanie Strickland



Gianni Toti



Komninos Zervos

Bibliography[edit] 

AAVV, La coscienza luccicante. Dalla videoarte all’arte interattiva, Gangemi, Roma 1998



Jean-Pierre BALPE, "L'Ordinateur, sa muse", in "Pratiques" nº 39, Metz 1984



Jean-Pierre BALPE, "La position de l'auteur dans la génération automatique de textes à orientations littéraires", in "Lynx" nº 17, Université de Paris-X Nanterre, Nanterre, 1987



Friedrich W. BLOCK, Christiane HEIBACH, Karin WENZ (eds.), p0es1s. The Aesthetics of Digital Poetry, Ostfildern-Ruit, Hatje Cantz, 2004 (German, English)



Caterina DAVINIO, “Parole virtuali. La poesia video-visiva tra arte elettronica e avanguardia”, in "Doc(K)s. Un notre web” (libro e CD), serie 3, 21, 22, 23, 24, Ajaccio (F) 1999



Caterina DAVINIO, "Scritture/Realtà virtuali" in "Doc(K)s" (web), 2000



Caterina DAVINIO, Tecno-Poesia e realtà virtuali (Techno-Poetry and Virtual Reality), essay with preface by Eugenio Miccini (Italian/English), Mantova, Sometti, 2002.



Tina ESCAJA, "Escritura tecnetoesquelética e hipertexto en poetas contemporáneas en la red.” in Espéculo (Universidad Complutense de Madrid). 24 (Julio-Octubre), 2003[1]



Chris T. FUNKHO, Prehistoric Digital Poetry, An Archeology of Forms, 1959–1995, Tuscaloosa, The University of Alabama Press, 2007



Loss Pequeño GLAZIER, Digital Poetics: The Making of E-Poetries, Tuscaloosa, The University of Alabama Press, 2002



Eduardo KAC, New Media Poetry: Poetic Innovation and New Technologies, "Visible Language" Vol. 30, No. 2, Rhode Island School of Design, 1996.



Eduardo KAC, Hodibis Potax, Édition Action Poétique, Ivry-sur-Seine () and Kibla, Maribor (Slovenia), 2007.



Eduardo KAC, Media Poetry: an International Anthology (Second Edition), Bristol: Intellect, 2007.



Eduardo KAC, Telepresence, Biotelematics, Transgenic art, Association for Culture and Education, Maribor 2000



Alexis KIRKE (1995). "The Emuse: Symbiosis and the Principles of Hyperpoetry". Brink (Electronic Poetry Centre, University of Buffalo).



George P. LANDOW. Hypertext 2.0. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.



Lello MASUCCI, Poesia/Ultimo taglio, Electa publisher, 2009.



Philadelpho MENEZES, Poetics and Visuality, translation Harry Polkinhorn, San Diego State University Press, 1995.



Philadelpho MENEZES, Poesia Concreta e Visual, São Paulo, Ática, 1998.



Philadelpho MENEZES(org.), Poesia Sonora: poéticas experimentais da voz no século XX, São Paulo: EDUC (Editora da PUC), 1992.



Philadelpho MENEZES, "Poesia Visual: reciclagem e inovação", em revista Imagens, número 6, Campinas, Editora da Unicamp, 1996, pp. 39/48.



Philadelpho MENEZES, "Poetics and new technologies of communication: a semiotic approach" in Face - Revista de Semiótica e Comunicação, D.1, 1998, site: www.pucsp.br/~cos-puc/face



Kenneth MEYER, “Dramatic narrative in Virtual Reality”, in Frank BIOCCA e Mark R. LEVY (eds.), Communication int eh Age of Virtual Reality, Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995, pp. 219/259.



Janet MURRAY, Hamlet on the Holodeck – The future of narrative in Cyberspace, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1997.



Tom O'Connor, Poetic Acts & New Media, Lanham MD: University Press of America, 2006.



Walter J. ONG, Orality and literacy – The technologizing of the word, Londres, Routledge, 1989.



Cynthia D. SHIRKEY. “E-poetry: Digital Frontiers for an Evolving Art Form.” C&RL News 64.4 (April 2003).



Eric VOS. "New Media poetry - Theory and Strategies" in : Eduardo KAC (ed.), New Media Poetry: Poetic Innovation and New Technologies, "Visible Language" Vol. 30, No. 2, Rhode Island School of Design, 1996.

See also[edit] 

Cybertext



Electronic literature



Electronic Literature Organization



Electronic Poetry Center



Code poetry

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ "Computer-Generated Poetry Liberates Readers, Attracts Coders". Slice of MIT. Retrieved 2014-05-16.

2; Jump up^ The Present [Future] of Electronic Literature in Transdisciplinary Digital Art: Sound, Vision and the New Screen, Communications in Computer and Information Science (CCIS), Volume 7, R. Adams, S. Gibson and S. Müller Arisona, Springer.

3; Jump up^ http://www.poemsthatgo.com/gallery/winter2004/jabber/index.htm 4; Jump up^ ""interactive poem 0.2 - etkilesimli siir 0.2 ", Genco Gulan, 2002". Istanbulmuseum.org. Retrieved 2013-03-16.

External links[edit] 

Archive of Italian eLiterature.



Dichtung Digital - journal für digitale ästhetik



The Digital Aphorisms of Rip Kungler



Cyberarts Web, with discussions, definitions and links



E-Poetry Festivals Portal Page



Electronic Poetry Center, SUNY Buffalo

Epitaph From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Epitaph (disambiguation). Not to be confused with epigraph.

Epitaph on the base of the Haymarket Riot Memorial, Waldheim CemeteryChicago.

An epitaph (from Greek ἐπιτάφιος epitaphios "a funeral oration" from ἐπί epi "at, over" and τάφος taphos "tomb")[1][2] is a short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves before their death, while others are chosen by those responsible for the burial. An epitaph may be in poem verse; poets have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death, as William Shakespeare did.[3] Most epitaphs are brief records of the family, and perhaps the career, of the deceased, often with an expression of love or respect - "beloved father of ..." - but others are more ambitious. From

the Renaissance to the 19th century in Western culture, epitaphs for notable people became increasingly lengthy and pompous descriptions of their family origins, career, virtues and immediate family, often in Latin. However, the Laudatio Turiae, the longest known Ancient Roman epitaph, exceeds almost all of these at 180 lines; it celebrates the virtues of a wife, probably of a consul.[citation needed] Some are quotes from holy texts, or aphorisms. One approach of many epitaphs is to 'speak' to the reader and warn them about their own mortality. A wry trick of others is to request the reader to get off their resting place, inasmuch as the reader would have to be standing on the ground above the coffin to read the inscription. Some record achievements (e.g., past politicians note the years of their of office). Nearly all (excepting those where this is impossible by definition, such as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier) note name, year or date of birth, and date of death. Many list family and the relationship of the deceased to them (for example, "Father / Mother / Son / Daughter of").[citation needed] Contents [hide]

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1Notable epitaphs

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2Epitaphs in music

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3Epitaph in space

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4Bibliography

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5See also



6References

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7External links

Notable epitaphs[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015)

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Epitaphs

Heroes and Kings your distance keep; In peace let one poor poet sleep, Who never flattered folks like you; Let Horace blush and Virgil too. — Alexander Pope[4] Wir müssen wissen. Wir werden wissen. In English: We must know. We will know. — David Hilbert (Mathematician) He never killed a man that did not need killing. — Clay Allison (Gunfighter) Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water — John Keats And the beat goes on.

— Sonny Bono Sleep after toyle, port after stormie seas, Ease after warre, death after life, does greatly please. — Joseph Conrad (taken from Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene) That's all folks. — Mel Blanc I've finally stopped getting dumber. (Hungarian: Végre nem butulok tovább.) — Paul Erdős[citation needed] Go tell the Spartans, stranger ing by that here, obedient to their law, we lie. — Simonides's epigram at Thermopylae I told you I was ill. (Irish: Duirt me leat go raibh me breoite.) — Spike Milligan[5] Here sleeps at peace a Hampshire Grenadier Who caught his early death by drinking cold small beer. Soldiers, be wise at his untimely fall, And when you're hot, drink strong or none at all. — Thomas Thetcher tombstone epitaph in Winchester Cathedral To save your world you asked this man to die: Would this man, could he see you now, ask why? — Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier, written by W. H. Auden[6] There is borne an empty hearse covered over for such as appear not. Heroes have the whole earth for their tomb. — Unknown Soldier's epitaph, Athens; ages taken from Pericles' Funeral Oration[7][8] Against you I will fling myself, unvanquished and unyielding, O Death! — Virginia Woolf[9] Good frend for Iesvs sake forebeare, To digg the dvst encloased heare. Bleste be

man

And cvrst be he

spares thes stones, moves my bones.

In modern spelling: Good friend for Jesus sake forbear, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. — William Shakespeare[3]

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Epitaph for heart ofFrédéric Chopin

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Grave of W. B. Yeats; Drumecliff, Co. Sligo

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Lengthy epitaph for Johann Wauer a (German pastor), died 1728, concluding with a short Biblical quotation

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The epitaph on voice actor Mel Blanc's tombstone

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Plaque marking Heather O'Rourke's interment

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Ezzatollah Sahabi, Glory of Iran and his patriotic daughter Haleh

Epitaphs in music[edit] In a more figurative sense, the term may be used for music composed in memory of the deceased. Igor Stravinsky composed in 1958 Epitaphium for flute, clarinet and harp. In 1967 Krzysztof Meyer called his Symphony No. 2 for choir and orchestra Epitaphium Stanisław Wiechowicz in memoriam. Jeffrey Lewis composed Epitaphium — Children of the Sun for narrator, chamber choir, piano, flute, clarinet and percussion. Bronius Kutavičius composed in 1998 Epitaphium temporum pereunti. Valentin Silvestrov composed in 1999Epitaph L.B. (Епітафія Л.Б.) for viola (or cello) and piano. In 2007 Graham Waterhouse composed Epitaphium for string trio as a tribute to the memory of his father William Waterhouse. The South African poet Gert Vlok Nel wrote an (originally) untitled song, which appeared on his first music album 'Beaufort-Wes se Beautiful Woorde' as 'Epitaph', because his producer Eckard Potgieter told him that the song sounded like an epitaph. David Bowie's last album, Blackstar, released in 2016, is generally seen as his musical epitaph, with singles 'Blackstar' and 'Lazarus' often singled out.

Epitaph in space[edit] In the late 1990s, a unique epitaph was flown to the moon along with the cremains of geologist and

planetary scientist Eugene Shoemaker. [10] At the suggestion of colleagueCarolyn Porco, Shoemaker's ashes were launched aboard the Lunar Prospector spacecraft on January 6, 1998.[11] The ashes were accompanied by a laser-engraved epitaph on a small piece of foil.[10] The spacecraft, along with the ashes and epitaph, crashed on command into the south polar region of the moon on July 31, 1999.

Bibliography[edit] 

Vidor, Gian Marco (2014). Satisfying the mind and inflaming the heart: emotions and funerary epigraphy in nineteenth-century Italy. Mortality (Routledge), online edition.http://www.tandfonline.co m/eprint/fByCJS8IEiui62NK5wr q/full#.U_HCzFOBq3o

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Bertrand, Régis (2005). Que de vertus. Les épitaphes édifiantes des débuts du XIXe siècle. In R. Bertrand, A. Carol, & J.-N. Pelen (Eds.), Les narrations de la mort (pp. 241–255). Aix-enProvence: Publications de l’Universite´ de Provence.

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Guthke, K. S. (2003). Epitaph culture in the west. Variations on a theme in cultural history. Lewiston, NY: Mellen.

See also[edit] 

Chronogram

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Epigraph

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Epitaphios logos (ancient Greek funeral oration)

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Hero stone

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Epitaph (TV series)

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Seikilos epitaph

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ ἐπιτάφιος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project

2; Jump up^ "Online Etymology Dictionary: Epitaph". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2012-03-18.

3; ^ Jump up to: Photograph of a b

William Shakespear's grave, 3 June 2007

4; Jump up^ Charles Dickens (1893). Dickens' Dictionary Of The Thames. p. 269.

5; Jump up^ "Milligan gets last laugh on grave". BBC News Online. 2004-05-24. Retrieved 2015-06-08.

6; Jump up^ "Famous Epitaph on Unknown Soldier tomb stone". Famousquotes.me.uk. Retrieved 2012-03-18.

7; Jump up^ Thucydides (1843). "History of the Peloponnesian War 2.34.3". In Molesworth, William. The English works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury VIII. Thomas Hobbes (translator). London: John Bohn. p. 188. Available online at the Perseus Project.

8; Jump up^ Thucydides (1910). "2.43.3". The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley. London, New York: J. M. Dent; E. P. Dutton. Available online at the Perseus Project.

9; Jump up^ Woolf, Virginia (1931), The Waves, Berlin: Harcourt

10; ^ Jump up to: Porco, a b

Carolyn. "The Eugene M. Shoemaker Tribute". Diamond Sky Productions. Retrieved 8 June 2013.

11; Jump up^ Porco, Carolyn C. (February 2000). "Destination Moon". Astronomy. Retrieved 8 June 2013.

External links[edit]

Find mor

Epita

at Wikipedia's s

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Imperial War Museum. "What is the Kohima Epitaph?". archive.iwm.org.uk. Retrieved 4 April 2013.

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Kohima Epitaph

Erasure (artform) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Erasure poetry)

Erasure is a form of found poetry or found art created by erasing words from an existing text in prose or verse and framing the result on the page as a poem.[1] The results can be allowed to stand in situ or they can be arranged into lines and/or stanzas. Erasure is a way to give an existing piece of writing a new set of meanings, questions, or suggestions. It lessens the trace of authorship but requires purposeful decision making. What does one want done to the original text? Does a gesture celebrate, denigrate, subvert, or efface the source completely? One can erase intuitively by focusing on musical and thematic elements or systematically by following a specific process regardless of the outcome. Here is a nonce example using text from the November 2003 version of the English Wikipedia Main Page: complete and free we started and are visit experiment you can right now

Several contemporary writer/artists have adopted this form to achieve a range of cognitive or symbolic effects. Contents [hide]

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1Examples

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2Use in representations of the Holocaust

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3Representing government secrecy

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4See also

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5Notes

Examples[edit] Doris Cross appears to have been among the earliest to utilize this technique, beginning in 1965 with her "Dictionary Columns" book art. d.a. levy also worked in this mode at about the same time.

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Radi Os - Ronald Johnson's Radi Os is a long poem deconstructed from the text of Milton's Paradise Lost.[2]

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A Humument - Tom Phillips' A Humument is a major work of book art and found poetry deconstructed from a Victorian novel.

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Mans Wows - Jesse Glass' Mans Wows (1981), is a series of poems and performance pieces mined from John George Hohman's book of charms and healings Pow Wows, or The Long Lost Friend.

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Nets - Jen Bervin's Nets is an erasure of Shakespeare's sonnets.[3]

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Hope Tree - Frank Montesonti's Hope Tree is a book of erasure poems based on R. Sanford Martin's How to Prune Fruit Trees.

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The O Mission Repo - Travis Macdonald's The O Mission Repo treats each chapter of The 9/11 Commission Report with a different method of poetic erasure.

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Erasing Infinite - Jenni B. Baker creates erasure poetry from David Foster Wallace's Infinite Jest, one page at a time.

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The ms of my kin - Janet Holmes's The ms of my kin (2009) erases the poems of Emily Dickinson written in 1861-62, the first few years of the Civil War, to discuss the more contemporary Iraq War.

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Seven Testimonies (redacted) - Nick Flynn's "Seven Testimonies (redacted)" in The Captain Asks a Show of Hands, is an erasure of the testimonies from prisoners at Abu Ghraib.

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Of Lamb - Matthea Harvey's Of Lamb is a book-length erasure of a biography of Charles Lamb.

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A Little White Shadow - Mary Ruefle's A Little White Shadow is a book-length erasure (done by painting over select words of a 19th century book).

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Voyager - Srikanth Reddy's Voyager is another book-length erasure, of Kurt Waldheim's autobiography.

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Tree of Codes - Jonathan Safran Foer did a book-length erasure of The Street of Crocodiles by Bruno Schulz which he entitled Tree of Codes.

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The Found Poetry Review - A print journal publishing found poetry that goes beyond the simple addition of line breaks to found language and creates a piece whose form and meaning differs from the original.

Use in representations of the Holocaust[edit] Jonathan Safran Foer did a book-length erasure of The Street of Crocodiles by Bruno Schulz which he entitled Tree of Codes. Schulz was killed by an officer of the Gestapo during the Nazi occupation of his hometown Drohobycz, after distributing the bulk of his life's work to gentile friends immediately prior to the occupation. All of these manuscripts have been lost. Safran-Foer writes:"All that we have of his fiction are two slim collections, The Street of Crocodiles and Sanatorium Under The Sign of the Hourglass. On the basis of these, Schulz is considered one of the most important artists of the 20th century. Their long shadow--the work lost to history--is, in many ways, the story of the century." The Tree of Codes is SafranFoer's attempt to represent the unrepresentable loss which occurred in the Holocaust by deleting text, rather than by writing another book about the Holocaust as a historical subject or context for a work of fiction.[4] Safran-Foer's approach to the Holocaust as an "unrepresentable subject" recalls the use of negative space in the poetry of Dan Pagis.[5][6]

Representing government secrecy[edit] Jenny Holzer's Redaction Paintings may be considered a work of erasure. The work consists of enlarged, colorized silkscreen "paintings" of declassified and often heavily censored American military and intelligence documents that have recently been made available to the public through the Freedom of Information Act. Beautiful in their own right, the works are also haunting reminders of what really goes on behind the scenes in the American military/political power system. Documents address counter-terrorism, prisoner abuse, and even the threat of Osama Bin Laden. Some of the documents are almost completely inked out, like Colin Powell's memo on Defense Intelligence Agency reorganization.[7] Anthropologist Michael Powell writes: "While the literal act of redaction attempts to extract information and eradicate meaning, the black marker actually transforms the way we read these documents, sparking curiosity and often stirring skeptical, critical, and even cynical readings. As redacted government documents make their way from government bureaus into the hands of citizens, a peculiar transformation seems to take place, one that seems to create a paranoia within reason."[8]

See also[edit] 

A Humument

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Tree of Codes

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Absent Things As If They Are Present

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ http://longform.org/stories/absent-things-as-if-theyare-present

2; Jump up^ Johnson, Ronald (1977). Radi Os. Flood Editions. ISBN 978-0974690247.

3; Jump up^ Bervis, Jen (2003). Nets. Ugly Duckling Press. ISBN 978-0972768436.

4; Jump up^ Safran-Foer, Jonathan (2010). Tree of Codes. Visual Editions. ISBN 9780956569219.

5; Jump up^ Pagis, Dan. "WRITTEN IN PENCIL IN THE SEALED RAILWAY-CAR". Retrieved 12 December 2013.

6; Jump up^ Pagis, Dan (October 22, 1996). The Selected Poetry of Dan Pagis. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520205390.

7; Jump up^ Smith, Roberta (June 9, 2006). "Art in Review, Jenny Holzer". New York Times. Retrieved 12 December 2013.

8; Jump up^ Powell, Michael (June 2010). "Blacked Out:Our cultural romance with redacted documents". The Believer.

Found poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Found poetry is a type of poetry created by taking words, phrases, and sometimes whole ages from other sources and reframing them as poetry (a literary equivalent of acollage[1]) by making changes in spacing and lines, or by adding or deleting text, thus imparting new meaning. The resulting poem([1]) can be defined as either treated: changed in a profound and systematic manner; or untreated: virtually unchanged from the order, syntax and meaning of the original. Contents [hide]

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1Concepts

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2Comparisons and predecessors

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3Examples

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4See also

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5References

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6External links

Concepts[edit] The concept of found poetry is closely connected to the revision of the concept of authorship in the 20th century, (as John Hollander put it, "anyone may 'find' a text; the poet is he who names it, 'Text'"[2]) and its first known use was in 1966.[3] Types of common forms and practices of found poetry include free form excerpting and remixing, erasure, centoand cut-up.[4]

Comparisons and predecessors[edit] Marquive Stenzel describes the Dadaism movement with its readymade philosophy as a predecessor for the practice that later became found poetry. Dadaists like Duchampplaced everyday practical objects in an environment that was aesthetic and in so doing called into question that object as art, the observer, the aesthetic environment and the definition of what is art.[5] Stylistically, found poetry is similar to the visual art of "appropriation" in which two- and threedimensional art is created from recycled items, giving ordinary/commercial things new meaning when put within a new context in unexpected combinations or juxtapositions.

Examples[edit] An example of found poetry appeared in William Whewell's "An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics":[6] loser Hence no force, however great, can stretch a cord, however fine, into a horizontal line which is accurately straight.

In 2003, Slate writer Hart Seely found poetry in the speeches and news briefings of Donald Rumsfeld. In a transcript of a Department of Defense news briefing from February 12, 2002, Rumsfeld ruminated on "The Unknown":[7] As we know, There are known knowns. There are things we know we know. We also know There are known unknowns. That is to say We know there are some things We do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns, The ones we don't know We don't know. Hart Seely published Rumsfeld's poetry in the book, Pieces of Intelligence: The Existential Poetry of Donald H. Rumsfeld (2003). American composer Phil Kline set Rumsfeld's lyrics to music in "Rumsfeld's Songs", a song cycle released on Zippo Songs (2004). Pianist Bryant Kong also used Rumsfeld's lyrics on his release "Poetry of Donald Rumsfeld".[8] In 2009, on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, the talkshow host twice asked actor William Shatner to deliver the written words of former Alaskan Governor and Vice-Presidential nominee Sarah Palin in the style of beat poetry. Shatner performed Palin's farewell speech on July 27, [9] and several of her tweets on July 29.[10] Shatner was ed by a bongo player and double-bassist. Another well known example of a public figure's speech being converted into found poetry was the baseball play calls of Phil Rizzuto. Rizzuto was the announcer for the New York Yankees baseball team for some 40 years, and some of his at times rambling or disted commentary was collected and reformatted by Hart Seely and Tom Peyer into a collection of Rizzuto's found poetry. An example is Rizzuto's thoughts on the death of Yankees catcher Thurmon Munson in an airplane crash: "The Man in the Moon" The Yankees have had a traumatic four days. Actually five days. That terrible crash with Thurman Munson. To go through all that agony, And then today, You and I along with the rest of the team Flew to Canton for the services, And the family... Very upset. You know, it might, It might sound a little corny. But we have the most beautiful full moon tonight. And the crowd, Enjoying whatever is going on right now. They say it might sound corny, But to me it's like some kind of a, Like an omen. Both the moon and Thurman Munson, Both ascending up into heaven. I just can't get it out of my mind. I just saw the full moon,

And it just reminded me of Thurman Munson, And that's it. The website Verbatim Poetry [11] has been publishing found poems weekly since March 2009. It emphasizes the poetry found in ordinary places, and employs traditional poetic forms such as the Shakespearean sonnet as well as free verse. The Internet's first formal literary journal devoted to found poetry, The Found Poetry Review,[12] debuted in 2011. Since its inception, the quarterly journal has featured traditionalcentos and poems taken from textbooks, Marcel Duchamp paintings, Charles Manson's trial testimony, AOL search data, Emily Post's etiquette books, Wikipedia articles, Strunk and White's The Elements of Style, Wonder Woman comics and more. Comedian Dave Gorman frequently creates comical found poems using the idiotic things that people have said on online forums.

See also[edit] 

Dictionary Stories



Found object

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ 'Poetic Form- Poets.org' Academy of American Poets 2; Jump up^ Hollander, John. Vision and Resonance, Two Senses of Poetic Form. Oxford University Press, 1975. 215.

3; Jump up^ First known use of the form 4; Jump up^ 'Types of Found Poetry' Found Poetry Review 5; Jump up^ Stanzel, Franz K. "Texts Recycled: 'Found' Poems Found in Canada." Gaining Ground: European Critics on Canadian Literaturee. Eds. Robert Kroetsch and Reingard M. Nischik. Edmonton: NeWest Press, 1985. 91-106.

6; Jump up^ Whewell, William. An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics, page 44. Cambridge (England), 1819.

7; Jump up^ The Poetry of D.H. Rumsfeld, Hart Seely, Slate Magazine, 2 April 2003 8; Jump up^ Tsioulcas, Anastasia (2004-07-31). "Music". Billboard (Nielsen Business Media, Inc.) 116 (31): 14. ISSN 0006-2510.

9; Jump up^ The Tonight Show With Conan O'Brien 10; Jump up^ The Tonight Show With Conan O'Brien 11; Jump up^ http://www.verbatimpoetry.com/p/about-verbatim.html?m=1 12; Jump up^ http://www.foundpoetryreview.com

External links[edit] Look up excerpt in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up found in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.



Found Poetry Review examples

Imagism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Imagism was a movement in early 20th-century Anglo-American poetry that favored precision of imagery and clear, sharp language. Imagism has been described as the most influential movement in English poetry since the activity of the Pre-Raphaelites.[1] As a poetic style it gave Modernism its start in the early 20th century,[2] and is considered to be the first organized Modernist literary movement in the English language. [3] Imagism is sometimes viewed as 'a succession of creative moments' rather than any continuous or sustained period of development.[4] René Taupin remarked that 'It is more accurate to consider Imagism not as a doctrine, nor even as a poetic school, but as the association of a few poets who were for a certain time in agreement on a small number of important principles'.[5] The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry, in contrast to their contemporaries, the Georgian poets, who were generally content to work within that tradition. In contrast, Imagism called for a return to what were seen as more Classical values, such as directness of presentation and economy of language, as well as a willingness to experiment with nontraditional verse forms. Imagists use free verse. Imagist publications appearing between 1914 and 1917 featured works by many of the most prominent modernist figures, both in poetry and in other fields. The Imagist group was centered in London, with from Great Britain, Ireland and the United States. Somewhat unusually for the time, a number of women writers were major Imagist figures. A characteristic feature of Imagism is its attempt to isolate a single image to reveal its essence. This feature mirrors contemporary developments in avant-garde art, especiallyCubism. Although Imagism isolates objects through the use of what Ezra Pound called "luminous details", Pound's Ideogrammic Method of juxtaposing concrete instances to express an abstraction is similar to Cubism's manner of synthesizing multiple perspectives into a single image.[6] Contents [hide]

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1Pre-Imagism

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2Early publications and statements of intent

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3Des Imagistes

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4Some Imagist Poets

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5Imagists after Imagism

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6Legacy

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7Notes

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8References

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9Further reading

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10External links

Pre-Imagism[edit] Well-known poets of the Edwardian era of the 1890s, such as Alfred Austin, Stephen Phillips, and William Watson, had been working very much in the shadow of Tennyson, producing weak imitations of the poetry of the Victorian era. They continued to work in this vein into the early years of the 20th century.[7] As the new century opened, Austin was still the serving British Poet Laureate, a post which he held up to 1913. In the century's first decade, poetry still had a large audience; volumes of verse published in that time included Thomas Hardy's The Dynasts, Christina Rossetti's posthumous Poetical Works, Ernest Dowson's Poems, George Meredith's Last Poems, Robert Service's Ballads of a Cheechako and John Masefield's Ballads and Poems. Future Nobel Prize winner William Butler Yeats was devoting much of his energy to the Abbey Theatre and writing for the stage, producing relatively little lyric poetry during this period. In 1907, the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to Rudyard Kipling. The origins of Imagism are to be found in two poems, Autumn and A City Sunset by T. E. Hulme.[8] These were published in January 1909 by the Poets' Club in London in a booklet called For Christmas MDCCCCVIII. Hulme was a student of mathematics and philosophy; he had been involved in the setting up of the club in 1908 and was its first secretary. Around the end of 1908, he presented his paper A Lecture on Modern Poetry at one of the club's meetings.[9] Writing in A. R. Orage's magazine The New Age, the poet and critic F. S. Flint (a champion of free verse and modern French poetry) was highly critical of the club and its publications. From the ensuing debate, Hulme and Flint became close friends. In 1909, Hulme left the Poets' Club and started meeting with Flint and other poets in a new group which Hulme referred to as the "Secession Club"; they met at the Eiffel Tower restaurant in London's Soho [10] to discuss plans to reform contemporary poetry through free verse and the tanka and haiku and the removal of all unnecessary verbiage from poems. The interest in Japanese verse forms can be placed in a context of the late Victorian and Edwardian revival of interest in Chinoiserie andJaponism as witnessed in the 1890s vogue for William Anderson's Japanese prints donated to the British Museum, performances of Noh plays in London, and the success ofGilbert and Sullivan's operetta The Mikado (1885). Direct literary models were available from a number of sources, including F. V. Dickins's 1866 Hyak nin is'shiu, or, Stanzas by a Century of Poets, Being Japanese Lyrical Odes, the first English-language version of the Hyakunin isshu, a 13th-century anthology of 100 waka, the early 20th-century critical writings and poems of Sadakichi Hartmann, and contemporary French-language translations. The American poet Ezra Pound was introduced to the group in April 1909 and found that their ideas were close to his own. In particular, Pound's studies of Romantic literature had led him to an iration of the condensed, direct expression that he detected in the writings of Arnaut Daniel, Dante, and Guido Cavalcanti, amongst others. For example, in his 1911–12 series of essays I gather the limbs of Osiris, Pound writes of Daniel's line "pensar de lieis m'es repaus" ("it rests me to think of her") (from the canzone En breu brizara'l temps braus): "You cannot get statement simpler than that, or clearer, or less rhetorical".[11] These criteria of directness, clarity and lack of rhetoric were to be amongst the defining qualities of Imagist poetry. Through his friendship with Laurence Binyon, Pound had already developed an interest in Japanese art by examining Nishiki-e prints at the British Museum, and he quickly became absorbed in the study of related Japanese verse forms.[12][13] In an article in La , 1915, the French critic, Remy de Gourmont described the Imagists as descendants of the French Symbolistes[14] and in a 1928 letter to the French critic and translator René Taupin, Pound was keen to emphasise another ancestry for Imagism, pointing out that Hulme was indebted to a Symbolist tradition, linking back via William Butler Yeats, Arthur Symons and the Rhymers' Club generation of British poets to Mallarmé.[15] and the Symbolist source was amplified further in Taupin's study published in 1929,[16] in which he concluded however great the divergence of technique and language 'between the image of the Imagist and the 'symbol' of the Symbolists there is a difference only of precision'.[17] In 1915, Pound edited the poetry of another 1890s poet, Lionel Johnson for the publisher Elkin Mathews. In his introduction, he wrote

“

No one has written purer imagism than [Johnson] has, in the line Clear lie the fields, and fade into blue air, It has a beauty like the Chinese.[18]

”

Early publications and statements of intent[edit]

H.D. (Hilda Doolittle)

In 1911, Pound introduced two other poets to the Eiffel Tower group: his former fiancée Hilda Doolittle (who had started g her workH.D.) and her future husband Richard Aldington. These two were interested in exploring Greek poetic models, especially Sappho, an interest that Pound shared. The compression of expression that they achieved by following the Greek example complemented the protoImagist interest in Japanese poetry, and, in 1912, during a meeting with them in the British Museum tea room, Pound told H.D. and Aldington that they were Imagistes and even appended the signature H.D. Imagiste to some poems they were discussing.[19] When Harriet Monroe started her Poetry magazine in 1911, she had asked Pound to act as foreign editor. In October 1912, he submitted thereto three poems each by H.D. and Aldington under the Imagiste rubric, ( published in the November 1912 second issue thereof )[20] with a note which described Aldington as ' one of the 'Imagistes'. This note, along with the appendix note('The Complete Works of T. S. Hulme') in Pound's book (also published in Autumn 1912) entitled Ripostes[21] are considered to be first appearances of the word Imagiste(later anglicised to 'Imagists') in print.[22] Aldington's poems, Choricos, To a Greek Marble, and Au Vieux Jardin, were in the November issue of Poetry, and H.D.'s, Hermes of the Ways, Priapus, and Epigram, appeared in the January 1913 issue; Imagism as a movement was launched.[23] Poetry's April issue published what came to be seen as "Imagism's enabling text",[24] the haiku-like poem of Ezra Pound entitled "In a Station of the Metro": The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.[25] The March 1913 issue of Poetry contained A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste and the essay entitled Imagisme both written by Pound, with the latter being attributed to Flint. The latter contained this succinct statement of the group's position:

1; Direct treatment of the "thing", whether subjective or objective. 2; To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation. 3; As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of the metronome.[26] Pound's note opened with a definition of an image as "that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time". Pound goes on to state,"It is better to present one Image in a lifetime than to produce voluminous works".[27] His list of "don'ts" reinforced his three statements in "Imagism", while warning that they should not be considered as dogma but as the "result of long contemplation". Taken together, these two texts comprised the Imagist programme for a return to what they saw as the best poetic practice of the past. F.S. Flint commented "we have never claimed to have invented the moon. We do not pretend that our ideas are original." [28] The 1916 preface to Some Imagist Poets comments "Imagism does not merely mean the presentation of pictures. Imagism refers to the manner of presentation, not to the subject."[29]

Des Imagistes[edit] Determined to promote the work of the Imagists, and particularly of Aldington and H.D., Pound decided to publish an anthology under the title Des Imagistes. It was first published in Alfred Kreymborg's little magazine The Glebe and was later published in 1914 by Alfred and Charles Boni in New York and by Harold Monro at the Poetry Bookshop in London. It became one of the most important and influential English-language collections of modernist verse. [30] Included in the thirty-seven poems were ten poems by Aldington, seven by H.D., and six by Pound. The book also included work by F.S. Flint, Skipwith Cannell, Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams, James Joyce, Ford Madox Ford, Allen Upward and John Cournos.Max Michelson was also another included in the important 1963 anthology by William Pratt The Imagist Poem Modern Poetry in miniature.[31] Pound's editorial choices were based on what he saw as the degree of sympathy that these writers displayed with Imagist precepts, rather than active participation in a group as such. Williams, who was based in the United States, had not participated in any of the discussions of the Eiffel Tower group. However, he and Pound had long been corresponding on the question of the renewal of poetry along similar lines. Ford was included at least partly because of his strong influence on Pound, as the younger poet made the transition from his earlier, Pre-Raphaelite-influenced style towards a harder, more modern way of writing. The inclusion of a poem by Joyce, I Hear an Army, which was sent to Pound by W.B. Yeats,[32] took on a wider importance in the history of literary modernism, as the subsequent correspondence between the two led to the serial publication, at Pound's behest, of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The Egoist. Joyce's poem is not written in free verse, but in rhyming quatrains. However, it strongly reflects Pound's interest in poems written to be sung to music, such as those by the troubadours and Guido Cavalcanti. The book met with little popular or critical success, at least partly because it had no introduction or commentary to explain what the poets were attempting to do, and a number of copies were returned to the publisher.

Some Imagist Poets[edit] The following year, Pound and Flint fell out over their different interpretations of the history and goals of the group arising from an article on the history of Imagism written by Flint and published in The Egoist in May 1915.[33] Flint was at pains to emphasise the contribution of the Eiffel Tower poets, especially Edward Storer. Pound, who believed that the "Hellenic hardness" that he saw as the distinguishing quality of the poems of H.D. and Aldington was likely to be diluted by the "custard" of Storer, was to play no further direct role in the history of the Imagists. He went on to co-found the Vorticists with his friend, the painter and writer Wyndham Lewis.[34] Around this time, the American Imagist Amy Lowell moved to London, determined to promote her own work and that of the other Imagist poets. Lowell was a wealthy heiress from Boston whose brother Abbott Lawrence Lowell was President of Harvard University from 1909-1933.

She loved Keats and cigars. She was also an enthusiastic champion of literary experiment who was willing to use her money to publish the group. Lowell was determined to change the method of selection from Pound's autocratic editorial attitude to a more democratic manner. This new editorial policy was stated in the Preface to the first anthology to appear under her leadership: "In this new book we have followed a slightly different arrangement to that of our former Anthology. Instead of an arbitrary selection by an editor, each poet has been permitted to represent himself by the work he considers his best, the only stipulation being that it should not yet have appeared in book form."[36] The outcome was a series of Imagist anthologies under the title Some Imagist Poets. The first of these appeared in 1915, planned and assembled mainly by H.D. and Aldington. Two further issues, both edited by Lowell, were published in 1916 and 1917. These three volumes featured most of the original poets, (also including imagist poetry by the American poet John Gould Fletcher),[37] with the exception of Pound, who had tried to persuade her to drop the Imagist name from her publications and who sardonically dubbed this phase of Imagism "Amy-gism." [35]

Lowell persuaded D. H. Lawrence to contribute poems to the 1915 and 1916 volumes,[38] making him the only writer to publish as both a Georgian poet and an Imagist. Marianne Moore also became associated with the group during this period. However, with World War I as a backdrop, the times were not easy for avant-garde literary movements (Aldington, for example, spent much of the war at the front), and the 1917 anthology effectively marked the end of the Imagists as a movement.

Imagists after Imagism[edit] In 1929, Walter Lowenfels jokingly suggested that Aldington should produce a new Imagist anthology.[39] Aldington, by now a successful novelist, took up the suggestion and enlisted the help of Ford and H.D. The result was the Imagist Anthology 1930, edited by Aldington and including all the contributors to the four earlier anthologies with the exception of Lowell, who had died, Cannell, who had disappeared, and Pound, who declined. The appearance of this anthology initiated a critical discussion of the place of the Imagists in the history of 20th-century poetry. Of the poets who were published in the various Imagist anthologies, Joyce, Lawrence and Aldington are now primarily ed and read as novelists. Marianne Moore, who was at most a fringe member of the group, carved out a unique poetic style of her own that retained an Imagist concern with compression of language. William Carlos Williamsdeveloped his poetic along distinctly American lines with his variable foot and a diction he claimed was taken "from the mouths of Polish mothers".[40] Both Pound and H.D. turned to writing long poems, but retained much of the hard edge to their language as an Imagist legacy. Most of the other of the group are largely forgotten outside the context of the history of Imagism.

Legacy[edit] Despite the movement's short life, Imagism would deeply influence the course of modernist poetry in English.[41] Richard Aldington, in his 1941 memoir, writes: "I think the poems of Ezra Pound, D.H., Lawrence, and Ford Madox Ford will continue to be read. And to a considerable extent T. S. Eliot and his followers have carried on their operations from positions won by the Imagists." On the other hand, Wallace Stevens found shortcomings in the Imagist approach: "Not all objects are equal. The vice of imagism was that it did not recognize this."[42] With its demand for hardness, clarity and precision and its insistence on fidelity to appearances coupled with its rejection of irrelevant subjective emotions Imagism had later effects that are demonstratable in T. S. Eliot's 'Preludes' and 'Morning at the Window' and in D. H. Lawrence's animal and flower pieces. The rejection of conventional verse forms in the nineteen-twenties owed much to the Imagists repudiation of the Georgian Poetry style.[43] The influence of Imagism can be seen clearly in the work of the Objectivist poets,[44] who came to prominence in the 1930s under the auspices of Pound and Williams. The Objectivists worked mainly in free verse. Clearly linking Objectivism's principles with Imagism's, Louis Zukofsky insisted, in his introduction to the 1931 Objectivist issue of Poetry, on writing "which is

the detail, not mirage, of seeing, of thinking with the things as they exist, and of directing them along a line of melody." Zukofsky was a major influence on theLanguage poets,[45] who carried the Imagist focus on formal concerns to a high level of development. Basil Bunting, another Objectivist poet, was a key figure in the early development of the British Poetry Revival, a loose movement that also absorbed the influence of the San Francisco Renaissance poets.[46] Imagism influenced a number of poetry circles and movements.With the Imagists Free verse became a discipline and acquired status as a legitimate poetic form. [47] In the 1950s, especially,with the Beat generation, the Black Mountain poets, and others associated with the San Francisco Renaissance. In his seminal 1950 essay Projective Verse, Charles Olson, the theorist of the Black Mountain group, wrote "ONE PERCEPTION MUST IMMEDIATELY AND DIRECTLY LEAD TO A FURTHER PERCEPTION";[48] his credo derived from and supplemented the Imagists.[49] Among the Beats, Gary Snyder and Allen Ginsberg in particular were influenced by the Imagist emphasis on Chinese and Japanese poetry. William Carlos Williams was another who had a strong effect on the Beat poets, encouraging poets like Lew Welch and writing an introduction for the book publication of Ginsberg's Howl (1955).

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Preface: Hughes, Glenn, Imagism and the Imagist, Stanford University Press, New York 1931

2; Jump up^ Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.

3; Jump up^ T.S. Eliot: "The point de repère, usually and conveniently taken as the startingpoint of modern poetry, is the group denominated 'imagists' in London about 1910." Lecture, Washington University, St. Louis, June 6, 1953

4; Jump up^ Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.

5; Jump up^ Taupin, René, L'Influence du symbolism francais sur la poesie Americaine (de 1910 a 1920), Champion, Paris 1929 trans William Pratt and Anne Rich AMS, New York, 1985

6; Jump up^ Davidson, Michael (1997). Ghostlier demarcations: modern poetry and the material word. University of California Press, pp. 11–13. ISBN 0-520-20739-4

7; Jump up^ Grant, Joy (1967). Harold Monro and the Poetry Bookshop, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, p. 28.

8; Jump up^ Brooker, p. 48. 9; Jump up^ McGuinness, xii. 10; Jump up^ Blakeney Williams, Louise (2002). Modernism and the Ideology of History: Literature, Politics, and the Past. Cambridge University Press, p. 16. ISBN 0-521-81499-5

11; Jump up^ Reprinted in: Pound, Ezra (1975). William Cookson, ed. Selected Prose, 1909– 1965. New Directions Publishing. p. 43. ISBN 0-8112-0574-6.

12; Jump up^ Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard. Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African and Pacific Art and the London Avant Garde. Oxford University Press, 2011, pp.103–164. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9

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Also see Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard. "The Transcultural Roots of Modernism: Imagist Poetry, Japanese Visual Culture, and the Western Museum System",Modernism/modernity Volume 18, Number 1, January 2011, pp. 2742. ISSN 1071-6068.

13; Jump up^ Video of a Lecture discussing the importance of Japanese culture to the Imagists,London University School of Advanced Study, March 2012.

14; Jump up^ Preface to Some Imagist Poets , Constable, 1916 15; Jump up^ Woon-Ping Chin Holaday. "From Ezra Pound to Maxine Hong Kingston: Expressions of Chinese Thought in American Literature". MELUS, Vol. 5, No. 2, Interfaces, Summer, 1978, pp. 15–24.

16; Jump up^ Taupin, René, L'Influence du symbolism francais sur la poesie Americaine(de 1910 a 1920), Champion, Paris 1929

17; Jump up^ Taupin, René, L'Influence du symbolism francais sur la poesie Americaine(de 1910 a 1920), Champion, Paris 1929 trans William Pratt and Anne Rich AMS , New York 1985

18; Jump up^ Ming Xie, Ming Hsieh (1998). Ezra Pound and the Appropriation of Chinese Poetry: Cathay, Translation, and Imagism. Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 0-8153-2623-8.

19; Jump up^ Ayers, David (2004). Chapter 1, "H.D., Ezra Pound and Imagism", in Modernism: a Short Introduction. Blackwell Publishers. Retrieved on 29 August 2010. ISBN 978-1-4051-0854-6

20; Jump up^ Monroe, Harriet, 'A Poet's Life' Macmillan, New York 1938 21; Jump up^ Swift & Co , London ,1912 22; Jump up^ Monroe, Harriet, A Poet's Life ', Macmillan, New York, 1938 23; Jump up^ http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/browse/1/4#!/20569689/0 24; Jump up^ Barbarese, J.T. "Ezra Pound's Imagist Aesthetics: Lustra to Mauberly" in The Columbia History of American Poetry (1993). Columbia University Press, New York.ISBN 1-56731-276-4

25; Jump up^ "On 'In a Station of the Metro'". Extract from "Genders, Races, and Religious Cultures in Modern American Poetry, 1908–1934". Cambridge University Press, 2001. Retrieved on 29 August 2010.

26; Jump up^ Elder, Bruce (1998). The Films of Stan Brakhage in the American Tradition of Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein and Charles Olson. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, pp. 72, 94.ISBN 0-88920-275-3

27; Jump up^ Pound, "A Retrospect" (1918). Reprinted in Kolocotroni et al., p. 374. 28; Jump up^ F.S. Flint letter to J.C. Squire 29 Jan 1917 29; Jump up^ Some Imagist Poets, Constable, 1916 30; Jump up^ Edgerly Firchow, Peter, Evelyn Scherabon Firchow, and Bernfried Nugel (2002).Reluctant Modernists: Aldous Huxley and Some Contemporaries. Transaction Books, p. 32.

31; Jump up^ Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.

32; Jump up^ Ellmann, Richard (1959). James Joyce. (New York): Oxford University Press, p. 350.

33; Jump up^ Pondrom, Cyrena; H.D., "Selected Letters from H. D. to F. S. Flint: A Commentary on the Imagist Period". Contemporary Literature, Vol. 10, No. 4, Special Number on H. D.: A Reconsideration, Autumn, 1969. pp. 557-586.

34; Jump up^ Cowley et al. "Years Work English Studies", 1993. pp. 452-521. 35; Jump up^ "History of the Presidency". 36; Jump up^ Preface to Some Imagist Poets (1915). Reprinted in Kolocotroni et al. p. 268. 37; Jump up^ Hughes, Glenn, Imagism & The Imagists: A Study in Modern Poetry, Stanford University Press, New York, 1931

38; Jump up^ Lawrence, D. H. "The Letters of D. H. Lawrence". Cambridge University Press, (Republished) 1979. p. 394.

39; Jump up^ Aldington, Richard; Gates Norman. "Richard Aldington: An Autobiography in Letters". (Katowice): Oficyna Akademii sztuk pięknych w Katowicach, 1984. p. 103.

40; Jump up^ Bercovitch, Sacvan; Cyrus R. K. Patell (1994). The Cambridge History of American Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-521-49733-7.

41; Jump up^ Strand B. G. Imagist-The Genre – An appraisal, 2013, ASIN: B00AYE482S 42; Jump up^ Enck, John J. (1964). Wallace Stevens: Images and Judgments. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. p. 11.

43; Jump up^ Introductory Note by Kenneth Allott (ed) The Penguin Book of Contemporary Verse , Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, England 1950

44; Jump up^ Sloan, De Villo (1987). "The Decline of American Postmodernism". SubStance(University of Wisconsin Press) 16 (3): 29. doi:10.2307/3685195. JSTOR 3685195.

45; Jump up^ Stanley , Sandra. "Louis Zukofsky and the Transformation of a Modern American Poetics". South Atlantic Review 60.1 (1995): 186-189.

46; Jump up^ "The Possibility of Poetry: from Migrant magazine to artists' books". The British Library, January 2007. Retrieved on 20 October 2007.

47; Jump up^ Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.

48; Jump up^ Olson, Charles (1966). Selected Writings. New Directions Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 0-8112-0335-2.

49; Jump up^ Riddel, Joseph N. (Autumn 1979). "Decentering the Image: The 'Project' of 'American' Poetics?". Boundary 2 (Duke University Press) 8 (1): 159– 188. doi:10.2307/303146.JSTOR 303146.

References[edit] 

Aldington, Richard. Life For Life's Sake (The Viking Press, 1941). See Chapter IX.



Blau Duplessis, Rachel. H.D. The Career of that Struggle (The Harvester Press, 1986). ISBN 0-7108-0548-9.

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Brooker, Jewel Spears (1996). Mastery and Escape: T. S. Eliot and the Dialectic of Modernism (University of Massachusetts Press). ISBN 1-55849-040-X.



Guest, Barbara. Herself Defined: The Poet H.D. and Her World (Collins, 1985). ISBN 0-38513129-1.



Jones, Peter (ed.). Imagist Poetry (Penguin, 1972).



Kenner, Hugh. The Pound Era (Faber and Faber, 1975 edition). ISBN 0-571-10668-4.



Kolocotroni, Vassiliki; Jane Goldman; Olga Taxidou (1998). Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45074-0.



McGuinness, Patrick (editor), T. E. Hulme: Selected Writings (Fyfield Books, Carcanet Press, 1998). ISBN 1-85754-362-9 (pages xii-xiii).



Sullivan, J. P. (ed). Ezra Pound (Penguin critical anthologies series, 1970). ISBN 0-14080033-6.

Further reading[edit] 

Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2.

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Symons, Julian. Makers of the New: The Revolution in Literature, 1912–1939 (Andre Deutsch, 1987). ISBN 0-233-98007-5.

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Pound, Ezra. ABC of Reading (New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1934). ISBN 0-81120151-1.

External links[edit] Listen to this article (info/dl)

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Some Imagist Anthologies at The Modernist Journals Project: Des Imagistes (The Glebe: Feb. 1914), Des Imagistes (New York, 1914), Des Imagistes (London, 1914), Some Imagist Poets (1915), Some Imagist Poets, 1916, Some Imagist Poets, 1917

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The 1915 issue of Some Imagist Poets

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Bibliography of Japan in English-Language Verse

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Video of a Lecture about Imagist poetry and East Asi

Irish poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2013)

Jonathan Swift

Irish poetry includes poetry in two languages, Irish and English. The complex interplay between these two traditions, and between both of them and other poetries in English, has produced a body of work that is both rich in variety and difficult to categorise. The earliest surviving poems in Irish date back to the 6th century, while the first known poems in English from Ireland date to the 14th century. Although there has always been some cross-fertilization between the two language traditions, an English-language poetry that had absorbed themes and models from Irish did not finally emerge until the 19th century. This culminated in the work of the poets of the Irish Literary Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century. Towards the last quarter of the 20th century, modern Irish poetry tended to a wide range of diversity, from the poets of the Northern school to writers influenced by the modernist tradition and those facing the new questions posed by an increasingly urban and cosmopolitan society. Contents [hide]

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1Early Irish poetry

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2Medieval/Early modern

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3Gaelic poetry in the 17th century

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4The 18th century

o 4.1Gaelic songs: the end of an order o 4.2Cúirt An Mheán Oíche o 4.3Swift and Goldsmith o 4.4Weaver Poets and vernacular writing 

5The 19th century

o 5.1Folk songs and poems o 5.2The Celtic revival 

6The 20th century

o 6.1Yeats and modernism o 6.2Poetry in Irish o 6.3The Northern School o 6.4Experiment o 6.5Outsiders

o 6.6Women poets 

7Irish poetry today

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8Notes

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9Sources

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10Further reading

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11External links

Early Irish poetry[edit] Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe. The earliest examples date from the 6th century, and are generally short lyrics on themes from religion or the world of nature. They were frequently written by their scribe authors in the margins of the illuminated manuscripts that they were copying. The best known example is Pangur Bán. It was practical for poems to be short because the Irish recognized that it was necessary to use any means necessary to make the poems lasting in their oral culture. To accomplish such a feat as well as they have, they used complicated rhyme schemes that would render a poem nonsensical if any of the key words were changed from the original version. In an oral culture, Irish poetry had many uses. A poem could be used to immortalize both the poet and the subject of the poem; oftentimes kings would commission poets to create a piece about them. Such poems would be ed on to descendants so they would the great deeds of past generations. Kings would also commission poets to write poems of ment, speaking of the king's greatness and worthiness, to attract young men to be warriors on behalf of their kingdom. Oral poetry, because it was in the vernacular, was often used for entertainment. Poems that were entertaining could also be informative, teaching people lessons or offering them wisdom of experience for dealing with situations they would encounter in their everyday lives. Finally, poems, especially those featured in the sagas, were thought to be an instrument of the supernatural: certain poems could enchant people or objects. Another source of early Irish poetry is the poems in the tales and sagas, such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Unlike many other European epic cycles, the Irish sagas were written inprose, with verse interpolations at moments of heightened tension or emotion. Although usually surviving in recensions dating from the later medieval period, these sagas and especially the poetic sections, are linguistically archaic, and afford the reader a glimpse of pre-Christian Ireland. See also: Chief Ollam of Ireland

Medieval/Early modern[edit] Main article: Irish bardic poetry Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in the technical requirements of a verse technique that was syllabic and used assonance, half rhyme and alliteration known as Dán Díreach. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them. It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicin, could raise boils on the face of its target. However, much of their work would not strike the modern reader as being poetry at all, consisting as it does of extended genealogies and almost journalistic s of the deeds of their lords and ancestors. The Metrical Dindshenchas, or Lore of Places, is probably the major surviving monument of Irish bardic verse. It is a great onomastic anthology of naming legends of significant places in the Irish landscape and comprises about 176 poems in total. The earliest of these date from the 11th century, and were probably originally compiled on a provincial basis. As a national compilation, the Metrical Dindshenchas has come down to us in two different recensions. Knowledge of the real or putative history of local places formed an

important part of the education of the elite in ancient Ireland, so the Dindshenchas was probably a kind of textbook in origin. Verse tales of Fionn and the Fianna, sometimes known as Ossianic poetry, were extremely common in Ireland and Scotland throughout this period. They represent a move from earlier prose tales with verse interludes to stories told completely in verse. There is also a notable shift in tone, with the Fionn poems being much closer to the Romance tradition as opposed to the epic nature of the sagas. The Fionn poems form one of the key Celtic sources for the Arthurian legends. British Library Manuscript, Harley 913, is a group of poems written in Ireland in the early 14th century. They are usually called the Kildare Poems because of their association with that county. Both poems and manuscript have strong Franciscan associations and are full of ideas from the wider Western European Christian tradition. They also represent the early stages of the second tradition of Irish poetry, that of poetry in the English language, as they were written in Middle English. During the Elizabethan reconquest, two of the most significant English poets of the time saw service in the Irish colonies. Sir Walter Raleigh had little impact on the course of Irish literature, but the time spent in Munster by Edmund Spenser was to have serious consequences both for his own writings and for the future course of cultural development in Ireland. Spenser's relationship with Ireland was somewhat ambiguous. On the one hand, an idealised Munster landscape forms the backdrop for much of the action for his masterpiece, The Faerie Queene. On the other, he condemned Ireland and everything Irish as barbaric in his prose polemic A View of the Present State of Ireland. In A View, he describes the Irish bards as being,

“

soe far from instructinge younge men in Morrall discipline, that they themselves doe more deserve to be sharplie decyplined; for they seldome use to chuse unto themselves the doinges of good men, for the ornamentes of theire poems, but whomesoever they finde to bee most lycentious of lief, most bolde and lawles in his doinges, most daungerous and desperate in all partes of disobedience and rebellious disposicon, him they sett up and glorifie in their rymes, him they prayse to the people, and to younge men make an example to followe.

”

Given that the bards depended on aristocratic to survive, and that this power and patronage was shifting towards the new English rulers, this thorough condemnation of their moral values may well have contributed to their demise as a caste.

Gaelic poetry in the 17th century[edit] For historical context, see History of Ireland (1536–1691). The Battle of Kinsale in 1601 saw the defeat of Hugh O'Neill, despite his alliance with the Spanish, and the ultimate victory in the Elizabethan conquest of Ireland came with his surrender to crown authority in 1603. In consequence, the system of education and patronage that underpinned the professional bardic schools came under pressure, and the hereditary poets eventually engaged in a spat - the Contention of the bards - that marked the end of their ancient influence. During the early 17th century a new Gaelic poetry took root, one that sought inspiration in the margins of a dispossessed Irish-speaking society. The language of this poetry is today called Early Modern Irish. Although some 17th-century poets continued to enjoy a degree of patronage, many, if not most, of them were part-time writers who also worked on the land, as teachers, and anywhere that they could earn their keep. Their poetry also changed, with a move away from the syllabic verse of the schools to accentual metres, reflecting the oral poetry of the bardic period. A good deal of the poetry of this period deals with political and historical themes that reflect the poets' sense of a world lost. The poets adapted to the new English dominated order in several ways. Some of them continued to find patronage among the Gaelic Irish and Old English aristocracy. Some of the English landowners settled in Ireland after the Plantations of Ireland also patronised Irish poets, for instance George Carew and Roger Boyle. Other of hereditary bardic families sent their sons to the new Irish Colleges that had been set up in Catholic Europe for the education of Irish Catholics, who were not permitted to found schools or

Universities at home. Much of the Irish poetry of the 17th century was therefore composed by Catholic clerics and Irish society fell increasingly under Counter-Reformationinfluences. By mid century, the subordination of the native Catholic upper classes in Ireland boiled over in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Many Irish language poets wrote highly politicised poetry in of the Irish Catholics organised in Confederate Ireland. For instance, the cleric poet Pádraigín Haicéad wrote, Éirigh mo Dhúiche le Dia ("Arise my Country with God") in of the rebellion, which advised that Caithfidh fir Éireann uile o haicme go haonduine... gliec na timcheall no tuitim ("All Irishmen from one person to all people must unite or fall") Another of Haicéad's poems Muscail do mhisneach a Banbha ("Gather your courage oh Ireland") in 1647 encouraged the Irish Catholic war effort in the Irish Confederate Wars. It expressed the opinion that Catholics should not tolerate Protestantism in Ireland, Creideamh Chríost le creideamh Lúiteir... ladgadh gris i sneachta sud (The religion of Christ with the religion of Luther is like ashes in the snow") Following the defeat of the Irish Catholics in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland 1649–53, and the destruction of the old Irish landed classes, many poets wrote mourning the fallen order or lamenting the destruction and repression of the Cromwellian conquest. The anonymous poem an Siogai Romanach went, Ag so an cogadh do chriochnaigh Éire s do chuir na milte ag iarri dearca... Do rith plaig is gorta in aonacht ("This was the war that finished Ireland and put thousands begging, plague and famine ran together") Another poem by Éamonn an Dúna is a strange mixture of Irish, French and English, Le execution bhíos súil an cheidir costas buinte na chuine ag an ndeanach (The first thing a man expects is execution, the last that costs be awarded against him [in court]") Transport transplant, mo mheabhair ar Bhéarla ("Transport transplant, is what I of English") A tory, hack him, hang him, a rebel, a rogue, a thief a priest, a papist After this period, the poets lost most of their patrons and protectors. In the subsequent Williamite War in Ireland Catholic Jacobites tried to recover their position by ing James II. Dáibhi Ó Bruadair wrote many poems in praise of the Jacobite war effort and in particular of his hero, Patrick Sarsfield. The poets viewed the war as revenge against the Protestant settlers who had come to dominate Ireland, as the following poem extract makes clear,

"You Popish rogue", ni leomhaid a labhairt sinn acht "Cromwellian dog" is focal faire againn no " cia sud thall" go teann gan eagla "Mise Tadhg" geadh teinn an t-agallamh ("You Popish rogue" is not spoken, but "Cromwellian dog" is our watchword, "Who goes there" does not provoke fear, "I am Tadhg" [an Irishman] is the answer given") From Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, Céad buidhe re Dia ("A hundred victories with God"). The Jacobite's defeat in the War, and in particular James II's ignominious flight after the Battle of the Boyne, gave rise to the following derisive verse, Séamus an chaca a chaill Éire, lena leathbhróg ghallda is a leathbhróg Ghaelach ("James the shit who lost Ireland, with his one shoe English and one shoe Irish") The main poets of this period include Dáibhí Ó Bruadair, (1625?–1698), Piaras Feiritéar (1600 ?–1653) and Aogán Ó Rathaille (1675 –1729). Ó Rathaille belongs as much to the 18th as the 17th century and his work, including the introduction of the aisling genr e, marks something of a

transition to a post Battle of the Boyne Ireland.

The 18th century[e dit] The 18th century perhaps marks the point at which the two language traditions reach equal weight of importance. In Swift, the English tradition has its first writer of genius. Poetry in Irish now reflects the ing of the old Gaelic order and the patronage on which the poets depended for their livelihoods. This, then, is a period of transition writ large.

Gaelic songs: the end of an order[edit] As the old native aristocracy suffered military and political defeat and, in many cases, exile, the world order that had ed the bardic poets disappeared. In these circumstances,

it is hardly surprising that much Irish language poetry and song of this period laments these changes and the poet's plight. However, being practical professionals, the poets were not above writing poems in praise of the new English lords in the hope of finding a continuity of court patronage. This was not generally a successful tactic, and Gaelic poets tended to be folk poets until the Gaelic revival that began towards the end of the 19th century. However, many of the poems and songs written during this period of apparent decline live on and are still recited and sung today. The end of old ways, a feature of the bardic laments of the 18th century, is also to be found in the early 19th century poem Caoine Cill Chais (The Lament for Kilcash). In

this verse the anonymous poet laments that the castle of Cill Chais stands empty, its woods are cut down and its old splendours departed. (Flood and Flood 1999:8593):

“

Cúirt An Mheán Oíche[edit] Cúirt An Mheán Oíche (The Midnight Court) by Brian Merriman (174 7–1805) is something of an oddity in 18th-century Irish poetry in Irish. Merriman was a teacher of mathematics who lived and worked in the Munster counties of Clare and Li merick. Cúirt An Mheán Oíche, effectively his only poetic work, was written around 1780. The poem begins by using the conventions of the Aisling, or vision poem, in which the poet is out walking when he has a vision of a

woman from the other world. Typically, this woman is Ireland and the poem will lament her lot and/or call on her 'sons' to rebel against foreign tyranny. In Merriman's hands, the convention is made to take an unusual twist. The woman drags the poet to the court of the fairy queen Aoibheal. There follows a court case in which a young woman calls on Aoibheal to take action against the young men of Ireland for their refusal to marry. She is answered by an old man who first laments the infidelity of his own young wife and the dissolute lifestyles of young women in general. He then calls on the queen to end the institution of marriage completely and to replace it with a system of free love. The young woman returns to mock the old man's inability to satisfy his young wife's

needs and to call for an end to the celibacy among the clergy so as to widen the pool of prospective mates. Finally, Aoibheal rules that all men must mate by the age of 21, that older men who fail to satisfy women must be punished, that sex must be applauded, not condemned, and that priests will soon be free to marry. To his dismay, the poet discovers that he is to be the first to suffer the consequences of this new law, but then awakens to find it was just a nightmare. In its frank treatment of sexuality and of clerical celibacy, Cúirt An Mheán Oíche is a unique document in the history of Irish poetry in either language.

Swift and Goldsmith[e dit]

Oliver Goldsmith

In Jonathan Swift (1667– 1745), Irish literature in English found its first writer of real genius. Although best known for prose works like Gulliver's Travels and A Tale of a Tub, Swift was a poet of considerable talent. Technically close to his English contemporaries Pope and Dryd en, Swift's poetry evinces the same tone of savage satire, and horror of the human body and its functions that characterises much of his prose. Interestingly, Swift also published translations of

poems from the Irish. Oliver Goldsmith (173 0?–1774) started his literary career as a hack writer in London, writing on any subject that would pay enough to keep his creditors at bay. He came to belong to the circle of Samuel Johnson, Edmu nd Burke and Sir Joshua Reynolds. His reputation depends mainly on a novel, The Vicar of Wakefield, a play, She Stoops to Conquer, and two long poems, The Traveller and T he Deserted Village. The last of these may be the first and best poem by an Irish poet in the English pastora l tradition. It has been variously interpreted as a lament for the death of Irish village life under British rule and a protest at the effects of agricultural reform on the English rural landscape.

Weaver Poets and vernacular writing[edit] Local cultural differences in areas such as north and east Ulster produced minor, and often only loosely associated, vernacular movements which do not readily fit into the categories of Irish or English literature. For example, the Ulster Weaver Poets wrote in an Ulster Scots dialect. Working class or popular in nature, remaining examples are mostly limited to publication in selfpublished privately subscribed limited print runs, newspapers, journals of the time.[1] The promotion of standard English in education gradually reduced the visibility and influence of such movements. In addition, the polarising

effects of the politics of the use of English and Irish language traditions also limited academic and public interest until the studies of John Hewitt from the 1950s onwards. Further impetus was given by more generalised exploration of non-"Irish" and non-"English" cultural identities in the latter decades of the 20th Century.

The 19th century[e dit] During the course of the 19th century, political and economic factors resulted in the decline of the Irish language and the concurrent rise of English as the main language of Ireland. This fact is reflected in the poetry of the period. Paradoxically, as soon as English became the dominant language of Irish poetry, the poets began to mine the Irishlanguage

heritage as a source of themes and techniques. J. J. Callanan (1795–1829) was born in Cork and died at a young age in Lisbon. Unlike many other more visibly nationalist poets who would follow later, he knew Irish well, and several of his poems are loose versions of Irish originals. Although extremely close to Irish materials, he was also profoundly influenced by Byron and his peers; possibly his finest poem, the title work of The Recluse of Inchidony and Other Poems (1829), was written in Spenserian stanzas that were clearly inspired by Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. Probably the most renowned Irish poet to write in English in a recognisably Irish fashion in the first half of the 19th century was Thomas

Moore (1779– 1852), although he had no knowledge of, and little respect for, the Irish language. He attended Trinity College Dublin at the same time as the revolutionary Robert Emmet, who was executed in 1803. Moore's most enduring work, Irish Melodies, was popular with English audiences. The poems are, perhaps, somewhat overloaded with harps, bards and minstrels of Erin to suit modern tastes, but they did open up the possibility of a distinctive Irish Englishlanguage poetic tradition and served as an exemplar for Irish poets to come. In 1842, Charles Gavan Duffy (1816– 1903),Thomas Davis, (1814– 1845), and John Blake Dillon (1816– 1866) founded The Nation to agitate for reform of British rule.

The group of politicians and writers associated with The Nation came to be known as the Young Irelanders. The magazine published verse, including work by Duffy and Davis, whose A Nation Once Again is still popular among Irish Nationalists. However, the most significant poet associated with The Nation was undoubtedly Ja mes Clarence Mangan (1803– 1849). Mangan was a true poète maudit, who threw himself into the role of bard, and even included translations of bardic poems in his publications. Another poet who ed the Young Irelanders, although not directly connected with them, was Samuel Ferguson (1810 –1886). Ferguson once wrote: 'my ambition (is) to raise the native elements of

Irish history to a dignified level.' To this end, he wrote many verse retellings of the Old Irish sagas. He also wrote a moving elegy to Thomas Davis. Ferguson, who believed that Ireland's political fate ultimately lay within the Union, brought a new scholarly exactitude to the study and translation of Irish texts. William Allingham(182 4–1889) was another important Unionist figure in Irish poetry. Born and bred in Ballyshannon, Donegal, he spent most of his working life in England and was associated with the PreRaphaelite mov ement, and a close friend of Tennyson. His Day and Night Songs was illustrated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Jo hn Everett Millais. His most important work is the long poem, Laurenc e Bloomfield in

Ireland (1864), a realist narrative which wittily and movingly deals with the land agitation in Ireland during the period. He was also known for his work as a collector of folk ballads in both Ireland and England. Ferguson's research opened the way for many of the achievements of the Celtic Revival, especially those of Yeats and D ouglas Hyde, but this narrative of Irish poetry which leads to the Revival as culmination can also be deceptive and occlude important poetry, such as the work of James Henry (1798– 1876), medical doctor, Virgil scholar and poet. His large body of work was completely overlooked until Christopher Ricks included him in two anthologies, and eventually edited a selection of his poetry. Various in his means, cosmopolitan

in his range and possessed of an acute wit, Henry shows the negative force of nationalism in Irish criticism: his omission from standard s and anthologies for over 100 years can only be due to his blithe disregard of the matter of Ireland. 'Irish poetry', James's example suggests, does not always have to be about Ireland.

Folk songs and poems[edit] During the 19th century, poetry in Irish became essentially a folk art. One of the few wellknown figures from this period was Antoine Ó Raifteiri (Anthony Raftery) (1784 –1835), who is known as the last of the wandering bards. His Mise Raifteiri an file is still learned by heart in some Irish schools. In addition, this was one of the great periods for the composition of folk songs in

both languages, and the majority of the traditional singer's repertoire is typically made up of 19thcentury songs.

The Celtic revival[edit] Probably the most significant poetic movement of the second half of the 19th century was French Symbol ism. This movement inevitably influenced Irish writers, not least Oscar Wilde (1845– 1900). Although Wilde is best known for his plays, fiction, and The Ballad of Reading Gaol, he also wrote poetry in a symbolist vein and was the first Irish writer to experiment with prose poetry. However, the overtly cosmopolitan Wilde was not to have much influence on the future course of Irish writing. W. B. Yeats (1865– 1939) was much more influential in

the long run. Yeats, too, was influenced by his French contemporaries but consciously focused on an identifiably Irish content. As such, he was responsible for the establishment of the literary movement known as the Celtic Revival. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923. Apart from Yeats, much of the impetus for the Celtic Revival came from the work of scholarly translators who were aiding in the discovery of both the ancient sagas and Ossianic poetry and the more recent folk song tradition in Irish. One of the most significant of these was Douglas Hyde (1860– 1949), later the first President of Ireland, whose Love Songs of Connacht was widely ired.

The 20th century[e dit]

Yeats and modernism[ edit] In the 1910s, Yeats became acquainted with the work of James Joyce, and worked closely with Ezra Pound, who served as his personal secretary for a time. Through Pound, Yeats also became familiar with the work of a range of prominent mod ernist poets. He undoubtedly learned from these s, and from his 1916 book Responsi bilities and Other Poems onwards his work, while not entirely meriting the label modernist, became much more hardedged than it had been. A second group of early 20thcentury Irish poets worth noting are those associated with the Easter Rising of 1916. Three of the Republican

leadership, Patr ick Pearse (1879– 1916), Joseph Mary Plunkett (1879 –1916) and Thomas MacDonagh (1 878–1916), were noted poets. Although much of the verse written by them is predictably Cat holic andNatio nalist in outlook, they were competent writers and their work is of considerable historical interest. Pearse, in particular, shows the influence of his with the work ofWalt Whitman. Individual from these groups is the Boyne Valley "peasant poet" Francis Ledwidge, killed in 1917 in World War I. However, it was to be Yeats' earlier Celtic mode that was to be most influential. Amongst the most prominent followers of the early Yeats were Padraic Colum (1881– 1972), F. R. Higgins (1896– 1941), and Austin Clarke (1896– 1974). In the

1950s, Clarke, returning to poetry after a long absence, turned to a much more personal style and wrote many satires on Irish society and religious practices. Irish poetic Modernism took its lead not from Yeats but from Joyce. The 1930s saw the emergence of a generation of writers who engaged in experimental writing as a matter of course. The best known of these is Samuel Beckett (1906– 1989), who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1969. Beckett's poetry, while not inconsiderable, is not what he is best known for. The most significant of the second generation Modernist Irish poets who first published in the 1920s and 1930s includeBrian Coffey (1905– 1995), Denis Devlin (1908– 1959), Thomas MacGreevy (18 93–1967), Blan aid Salkeld (1880–

1959), and Mary Devenport O'Neill (1879– 1967). Coffey's two late long poems Advent ( 1975) and Death of Hektor (1982) are perhaps his most important works; the latter deals with the theme of nuclear apocalypse through motifs from Greek mythology. Of this group, Devlin is the least experimental; his friendship with Allen Tate while working at the Irish embassy in Washington is one index of the traditional tendencies of his verse. Long poems such as 'Lough Derg' (1946) and 'The Heavenly Foreigner' (written in the late 1940s and early '50s) explore ideas of Catholicism and Europe in a densely imagistic and occasionally obscure style. While Yeats and his followers wrote about an essentially aristocratic Gaelic Ireland, the reality was

that the actual Ireland of the 1930s and 1940s was a society of small farmers and shopkeepers. Inevitably, a generation of poets who rebelled against the example of Yeats, but who were not Modernist by inclination, emerged from this environment. P atrick Kavanagh (190 4–1967), who came from a small farm, wrote about the narrowness and frustrations of rural life. John Hewitt (1907– 1987), whom many consider to be the founding father of Northern Irish poetry, also came from a rural background but lived in Belfast and was amongst the first Irish poets to write of the sense of alienation that many at this time felt from both their original rural and new urban homes. Louis MacNeice (190 7–1963), another Northern Irish poet, was associated with

the left-wing politics of Michael Roberts's anthology New Signatures but was much less political a poet than W. H. Auden or Steph en Spender, for example. MacNeice's poetry was informed by his immediate interests and surroundings and is more social than political. In the South, the Republic of Ireland, a postmodernist generation of poets and writers emerged from the late 1950s onwards. Prominent among these writers were the poets Antony Cronin, Pearse Hutchinson, John Jordan, Thomas Kinsella and John Montague, most of whom were based in Dublin in the 1960s and 1970s. In Dublin a number of new literary magazines were founded in the 1960s; Poetry Ireland, Arena, The Lace

Curtain, and in the 1970s, Cyphers .

Poetry in Irish[edit] With the foundation of the Irish Free State it became official government policy to promote and protect the Irish language. Although not particularly successful, this policy did help bring about a revival in Irishlanguage literature. Specifically, the establishment in 1925[2] of An Gúm ("The Project"), a Government sponsored publisher, created an outlet both for original works in Irish and for translations into the language. Since then, a number of Irishlanguage poets have come to prominence. These include Máirtín Ó Direáin (1910– 1988), Seán Ó Ríordáin (1916 –1977), Máire Mhac an tSaoi (born 1922), Michael Hartnett (born

1941), Gabriel Rosenstock (bo rn 1949), and Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill (bo rn 1952). While all these poets are influenced by the Irish poetic tradition, they have also shown the ability to assimilate influences from poetries in other languages. The dramatist and actor Micheál Mac Liammóir (189 9–1978) included many poetic verses he wrote in the Irish-language in his works.

The Northern School[edit] The Northern Irish poets have already been mentioned in connection with John Hewitt. Of course, there were others of some importance too, including Robe rt Greacen (1920 –2008) who, along with Valentin Iremonger, edited an important anthology, Con temporary Irish Poetry in 1949. Greacen was born in Derry,

lived in Belfast in his youth and then in London during the 1950s, 60s and 70s. He won the Irish Times Prize for Poetry in 1995 for his Collected Poems, after he returned to live in Dublin when he was elected a member of Aosdana. Other poets of note from this time include Roy McFadden (192 1–1999), a friend for many years of Greacen. Another Northern poet of note is Padraic Fiacc (1924- ), who was born in Belfast, but lived in America during his youth. In the 1960s, and coincident with the rise of the Troubles in the province, a number of Ulster poets began to receive critical and public notice. Prominent amongst these were John Montague (bor n 1929), Michael Longley (born 1939), Derek Mahon (born 1941), Seamus

Heaney (19392013), and Paul Muldoon (born 1951). Heaney is probably the best-known of these poets. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1995, and has served as Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory and Emerson Poet in Residence at Harvard, and as Professor of Poetry at Oxford. Derek Mahon was born in Belfast and worked as a journalist, editor, and screenwriter while publishing his first books. His slim output should not obscure the high quality of his work, which is influenced by modernist writers such as Samuel Beckett. Muldoon is Howard G. B. Clark '21 Professor in the Humanities at Princeton University. In 1999 he was also elected Professor of Poetry at the University of

Oxford. Some critics find that these poets share some formal traits (including an interest in traditional poetic forms) as well as a willingness to engage with the difficult political situation in Northern Ireland. Others (such as the Dublin poet Thomas Kinsella) have found the whole idea of a Northern school to be more hype than reality, though this view is not widely held.

Experiment[ edit] In the late 1960s, two young Irish poets, Michael Smith (born 1942) and Trevor Joyce (born 1947) founded the New Writers Press publishin g house and a journal called The Lace Curtain. Initially this was to publish their own work and that of some likeminded friends (including Paul Durcan, Michael

Hartnett and Gerry Smyth), and later to promote the work of neglected Irish modernists like Brian Coffey and Den is Devlin. Both Joyce and Smith have published considerable bodies of poetry in their own right. Among the other poets published by the New Writers Press were Geoffrey Squires (born 1942), whose early work was influenced by Charles Olson, and Augustus Young (born 1943), who ired Pound and who has translated older Irish poetry, as well as work from Latin America and poems by Bertolt Brecht. Younger poets who write what might be called experimental poetry include Mauric e Scully (born 1952), and Randolph Healy (born 1956). Many of these poets along with many younger experimentalist

s have performed their work at the annual SoundE ye Festival in Cork, which has been recognised as an important event not just for Irish poetry, but for innovative work internationally. [3]

Outsiders[e dit] In addition to these two loose groupings, a number of prominent Irish poets of the second half of the 20th century could be described as outsiders, although these poets could also be considered leaders of a mainstream tradition in the Republic which was critically eclipsed by the Ulster-centric focus of American and British-based Irish Studies academics and the prejudices of others who are gender study specialists. These include Thoma s Kinsella (born 1928), whose early work was influenced by

Auden. Kinsella's later work exhibits the influence of Pound in its looser metrical structure and use of imagery but is deeply personal in manner and matter. He is Professor of English at Temple University, Philadelphia. Kinsella also edited the poetry of Austin Clarke, who, in his later work at least, could also be included with the outsiders in Irish poetry. John Jordan (1930– 1988) was an Irish poet born in Dublin on 8 April 1930. He was educated at Synge Street CBS, University College, Dublin (U.C.D.) and Pembroke College, Oxford. In his teens he acted on the stage of the Gate Theatre, Dublin, before winning a Scholarship in English and French to Oxford University from U.C.D. In the mid-1950s

he returned to U.C.D. as a lecturer in English and taught there until the end of the 1960s. He was a celebrated literary critic from the late 1950s until his death in June, 1988 in Cardiff, Wales, where he had participated in the Merriman Summer School. He was also a shortstory writer, a poet and a broadcaster. In 1962 he refounded and edited the literary magazine Poetr y Ireland. In this journal, he introduced a number of poets who were to become quite famous later, including Paul Durcan, Micha el Hartnett and Se amus Heaney. This series of Poetry Ireland lasted until 1968–69. In 1981 he became the first editor of the new magazine published by the Poetry Ireland society, called Poetry Ireland Review. His Collected Poems (Dedalu s Press)

and Collected Stories (Poolbe g Press) were edited by his literary executor, Hugh McFadden, and published in Dublin in 1991. His Selected Prose, Crystal Clear, also edited and introduced by McFadden, was published by Lilliput Press in Dublin in 2006. Jordan's Select ed Poems, edited with an Introduction by Hugh McFadden, was published in February 2008 by Dedalus Press. Basil Payne (1923) was born in Dublin on June 23, 1923. Like John Jordan, he was educated at Synge Street CBS and University College, Dublin. In the 1960´s he held many poetry readings in Dublin, and in 1964 he won a Guinness International poetry prize, followed by another Guinness International prize in 1966. From 1972 to 1978 he lectured in literature at

several universities in the USA, and in 1975 he received the Governor's Special Citation for unique contribution to the Arts in New Jersey. His published work amounts to three slim volumes, and numerous inclusions in anthologies of Irish poetry. According to the website run by his son, a more voluminous work, Dark and Light Fantastic, remains unpublished. Michael Hartnett (1941– 1999) was unusual amongst Irish poets in that he was equally fluent in both Irish and English. As well as original work in both languages, including haiku in English, he published translations in English of bardic poetry and of the Tao Te Ching. In his 1975 book A Farewell to English he declared his intention to write only in

Irish in the future, describing English as 'the perfect language to sell pigs in'. A number of volumes in Irish followed: Adha rca Broic (1978), A n Phurgóid (1983 ) and Do Nuala: Foighne Chrainn (1984) . In 1984 he returned to Dublin to live in the suburb of Inchicore. The following year marked his return to English with the publication of Inchicore Haiku, a book that deals with the turbulent events in his personal life over the previous few years. This was followed by a number of books in English including A Necklace of Wrens (1987),P oems to Younger Women (1989) and The Killing of Dreams (1992). He died in Dublin in 1999, aged 58. Eoghan Ó Tuairisc (Eugen e Watters)

(1919–1982) was another bilingual poet. His The Weekend of Dermot and Grace (1964) is one of the most interesting Irish long poems of the second half of the 20th century and one of the few examples of the application of the lessons of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land in any work by an Irish poet. Patrick Galvin (born 1927) worked mainly with the ballad tradition and his poetry displays his left-wing politics. He has also written several volumes of memoirs, one of which, Song for a Raggy Boy, has been made into a film. Cathal Ó Searcaigh (born 1956) writes exclusively in Irish. Many of his poems are candidly homo erotic in their subject matter. He has also written plays, such as Oíche Ghealaí ("Moo nlit Night"), whose homose xual content created controversy

when it opened in Letterkenny i n 2001. Rita Ann Higgins is another poet who fits this title of "Outsider" Higgins is an unconventional poet who refuses to be confined to any particular framework. Having left school as a teenager Higgins became interested in poetry after being confined to hospital with T.B. Her poetry confronts social injustices and is a powerful voice within modern Irish poetry. Other poets mentioned further on in the sections on Women Poets and Irish Poetry Today (in the 21st century) deserve a prominence equal to the poets mentioned here.

Women poets[edit] The second half of the century also saw the emergence of a number of women poets of note. Two of

the most successful of these are Eavan Boland (born 1944) and Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin (b orn 1942). Boland has written widely on specifically feminist themes and on the difficulties faced by women poets in a maledominated literary world. She is professor of English at Stanford University. Ní Chuilleanáin's poetry resists easy summaries and shows her interest variously in explorations of the sacred, women's experience, and Reformation history. She has also translated poetry from a number of languages. Ní Chuilleanáin is a Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin where she is an associate professor of English Literature. Other women poets of note are; Vona Groarke; Kerry Hardie; Medbh McGuckian; Pa ula Meehan; and Nuala Ní

Dhomhnaill, whose first language is Irish, but whose work has been translated into English.

Irish poetry today[edit] Irish poetry in the 21st century is undergoing development as radical as the 1960s. Increased globalisation has led to a younger generation of poets seeking influences and precursors as varied as postwar Polish poets and Contemporary Americans. An explosion of talent and publishing has been one of the consequences of free secondary school education introduced in the 1960s, allowing many southern poets (e.g. Thomas McCarthy, Joh n Ennis, Dennis O’Driscoll, Nu ala Ní Dhomhnaill) to come to wider notice. Among the significant Irish poets to have

emerged in recent years are: Pat Boran, Mairéad Byrne, Ciarán Carson, Patrick Chapman, Harr y Clifton, Tony Curtis, Pádraig J. Daly, Colin Dardis, Gerald Dawe, Patrick Deeley, Celia de Freine, Greg Delanty, Séan Dunne, Paul Durcan, Eamon Grennan, Vona Groarke, Kerry Hardie, Randol ph Healy, Seamus Heaney, John Hughes, Pat Ingoldsby, Trev or Joyce, Brendan Kennelly, Seán Mac Falls, Derek Mahon, Thoma s McCarthy, Hug h McFadden, Pau la Meehan, Sinéa d Morrissey,Paul Muldoon, Gerr y Murphy, Berna rd O'Donoghue, C onor O'Callaghan, C aitriona O'Reilly, Justin Quinn, Maurice Riordan, Mauri ce Scully, Michael Smith, Geoffre y Squires,Willia m

Wall, Catherine Walsh. While academic attention has remained, perhaps disproportionat ely, focused on poetry from Northern Ireland, several of the younger generation of Irish poets (William Wall, Justin Quinn, Caitriona O'Reilly) have proved perceptive and independent critics of the contemporary scene, as have several older poets who are also literary critics, such asHugh McFadden, De nnis O'Driscoll and Michael Smith. One of the major movements in Irish poetry in the last ten years is in performance poetry, led by young poets who not only publish books of poetry but are known for their live poetry, and work in other mediums such as video. Some of the poets in this generation are: Dave Lordan, Colm Keegan, Karl

Parkinson, Sarah Clancy, Elaine Feeney, Billy Ramsell.

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ C harles Jones, The Edinb urgh Histor y of the Scots Langu age p5 94ff (Edinb urgh: Edinbu rgh Univer sity Press, 1997)

2; Jump up^ D áil Éirean nVolum e 42 28 June, 1932, Ceiste anna— Questi ons. Oral Answe rs. An Gúm, Cuirea dh “An Gúm” nó an Scéim Foillsi úcháin atá ar siubha

l faoi Roinn an Oidea chais, cuirea dh sin ar bun go hoifige amhail fá ughda rás na Roinn e Airgid ar an 6adh lá de Mhárt a, 1925., An Gúm, or the "Publi cation Schem e", was in progre ss under the Depart ment of Educat ion, founde d official ly under the authori ty of the Depart ment of Financ e on the 6th day of March, 1925.

3; Jump up^ "

Quote s from Bernst ein, Perloff and Golds mith", Sound Eye

Sources[e dit] 

The Irish domain of poetryinter national.or gA selection of many of the better contempor ary practitione rs



Early poetry in Irish and English, ucc.i.e.



Swift, RPO.



Cuirt an Mheán Oíche, showhouse .com.



Goldsmith poems, RPO.



More Goldsmith poems, theotherpa ges.org.



Mangan, irishculture andcustom s.com



Moore, RPO.



Ferguson, poetryarchive.co m.



Wilde, ucc.i.e.



Plunkett, josephmar yplunkett.c om



SoundEye, soundeye.o rg.



A checklist of New Writers' Press publication s compiled by Trevor Joyce



The Arts Council, artscouncil .i.e.



Poetry Ireland, poetryirela nd.i.e.



General biographic al informatio n, irishwriters online.com .

Further reading[e dit] 

Nicholas Canny, Ma king Ireland British, 1580-1650 New ed. (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2003)



John Flood & Phil Flood, Kil cash:11901801 (Dub lin, Geography Publication s 1999)



Padraig Lenihan, C onfederate Catholics at War (Cork: Cork University Press, 2000)



Eamonn o Cairdha, Ir eland and the Jacobite Cause, 16851766: A fatal attachment (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004)



Keith Tuma, Ant hology of TwentiethCentury British and Irish Poetry (Ne w York: Oxford University Press, 2001)



John Hewitt (ed), Rhym

ing Weavers: And Other Country Poets of Antrim and Down (Bel fast: Blackstaff Press,2004 )



William Wall, "Riding Against the Lizard - Towards a Poetics of Anger" (Three Monkeys Online)

External links[edit] 

Wake Forest University Press, premier publisher of Irish poetry in North America



Poetry Forum for Northern Ireland,



SHOP contempor ary poetry publishers



Then Go Beyond the Reach of Road: An Evening with Poet Peter Fallon Poe

try reading at Boston University, video, March 30, 2009

Korean poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Korean poetry is poetry performed or written in the Korean language or by Korean people. Traditional Korean poetry is often sung in performance. Until the 20th century, much of Korean poetry was written in Hanja and later Hangul. Contents [hide]



1History

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2Hyangga

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3Goryeo songs

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4Sijo

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5Gasa

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6Modern poetry

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7See also

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8References

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9External links

History[edit] The performance of oral songs in the religious life of the ancient Korean people is vivildy recorded in Chinese dynastic histories. At state assemblies the chief ritualist would tell the story of the divine origin of the founder, as evinced by foundation myths, and his extraordinary deeds in war and peace. Recited narrative was interspersed with primal songs (norae) that not only welcomed, entertained, and sent off gods and spirits. Thus orality and performance were significant features of vernacular poetry in ancient Korea.[1] A famous surviving example dates to 17 BC, Yuri's Song of Yellow Birds (Hwangjoga, 황조가/黃鳥歌). Some later Korean poetry followed the style of Tang lyric poetry such as the shi poetry form. Notable Korean poetry began to flourish during the Goryeoperiod (starting in 935). Collections were rarely printed.

Choe Chiwon (857–10th century)

Sijo, Korea's favorite poetic genre, is often traced to seonbi scholars of the 11th century, but its roots, too, are in those earlier forms. The earliest surviving poem of the sijo genre is from the 4th century. Its greatest flowering occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries under the Joseon Dynasty.

Hyangga[edit] Hyangga poetry refers to vernacular Korean poetry which transcribed Korean sounds using Hanja (similar to the idu system, the hyangga style of transcription is called hyangch'al) and is characteristic of the literature of Unified Silla. It is one of the first uniquely Korean forms of poetry. The Goryeo period Samguk Yusa contains 14 poems that have been preserved to the present day. These are thought to have been taken by Ilyon (compiler of Samguk Yusa) from an anthology called the Samdaemok(삼대목/三 代目) which was completed during the Shilla period, in 888 (according to Samguk Sagi), but is no longer extant today. This lost anthology is thought to have contained approximately 1,000 hyangga. Eleven poems from the later Goryeo Dynasty Gyunyeojeon (균여전/均如傳), characterized by the same style, have also been preserved.

Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks. The extent of the Shilla hwarang's role in the development and flourishing of the hyangga genre is a subject of much scholarly interest.

Goryeo songs[edit] The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of Hanja. Hyangga largely disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo songs" (Goryeo gayo) became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using hangul. The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as byeolgok. There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche (단 련체) and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a short form, whereas the latter is a more extended form. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.

Sijo[edit] During the Joseon dynasty, three-line poetry called sijo, became more popular and reached its apex in the late 18th century. Sijo is a modern term for what was then called dan-ga (literally, "short song"). The sijo having a strong foundation in nature in a short profound structure. Bucolic, metaphysical and astronomical themes are often explored. The lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46. There is a pause in the middle of each line, so in English they are sometimes printed in six lines instead of three. Most poets follow these guidelines very closely although there are longer examples. The most famous example is possibly this piece by Yun Seondo: You ask how many friends I have? Water and stone, bamboo and pine. The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful comrade. Besides these five companions, what other pleasure should I ask? Yun Seondo (1587–1671) also wrote a famous collection of forty sijo of the changing seasons through the eyes of a fisherman. Either narrative or thematic, this lyric verse introduces a situation or problem in line 1, development (called a turn) in line 2, and a strong conclusion beginning with a surprise (a twist) in line 3, which resolves tensions or questions raised by the other lines and provides a memorable ending. Sijo is, first and foremost, a song. This lyric pattern gained popularity in royal courts amongst the yangban as a vehicle for religious or philosophical expression, but a parallel tradition arose among the commoners. Sijo were sung or chanted with musical accompaniment, and this tradition survives. The word originally referred only to the music, but it has come to be identified with the lyrics.

Gasa[edit] Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral onitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman. The form had first emerged during the Goryeo period, and was popular during the Joseon Dynasty. They were commonly sung, and were popular among yangban women. Jeong Cheol, a poet of the 16th century, is regarded as having perfected the form, which consisted of parallel lines, each broken into two.

Modern poetry[edit] See also South Korean literature, and List of Korean language poets (mainly 20th Century) There were attempts at introducing imagist and modern poetry methods particularly in translations of early American moderns such as Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot in the early 20th century. In the early Republic period (starting in 1953 after the Korean War), patriotic works were very successful. Lyrical poetry dominated from the 1970s onwards. Poetry is quite popular in 21st century Korea, both in of number of works published and lay writing. A corpus of modern Korean poetry is being compiled. The work provides linguistic information on 10,300 original Korean poems.[2]

See also[edit] Poetry portal



List of Korea-related topics



Korean culture



Korean literature



List of Korean language poets

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Lee, Peter H. (2002). The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Korean Poetry. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11112-6.

2; Jump up^ Kim Byong-sun (2002). "The Present Conditions and Tasks in Constructing the Database of Korean Literary Materials Centering on the Korean Poetry Corpus" (PDF). The Review of Korean Studies 8 (4): 105–140.

External links[edit] 

An outline history of Korean poetry



"Traditional Korean Has Rich History"



Korean poems in English translations

Libel (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Libel is a verse genre primarily of the Renaissance, descended from the tradition of invective in classical Greek and Roman poetry. Libel is usually expressly political, and balder and coarser than satire. Libels were generally not published but circulated among friends and political partisans in manuscript. Contents [hide]



1Classical roots



2Renaissance English examples



3See also



4External links

Classical roots[edit] In ancient Greece, invective verse generally existed in the form of epigrams written, almost always anonymously, against public figures. In Latin, the genre grew in prestige and boldness, as major authors including Juvenal and Catullus wrote extended invectives without the cushion of anonymity. One of Catullus's fiercer examples, expunged from most post-classical collections of his work until the 20th century, is Catullus 16, written against two critics: Pedicabo ego vos et irrumabo, Aureli pathice et cinaede Furi qui me ex versiculis meis putastis, quod sunt molliculi, parum podicum. . . I'll sodomize and face-fuck you, Pussy Aurelius, and Furius the sodomite Who conclude, based on my verse, Which is voluptuous, that I have gone soft. . . Cicero's In Pisonem, a hyperbolic attack on Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, is one of the best-known political examples.

Renaissance English examples[edit] In 17th-century manuscript culture, in which verses were copied out and distributed among (usually aristocratic) social groups, libel achieved a new standing. At the same time, the growing power of Parliament allowed the genre a new currency, since prominent of Parliament could be attacked with greater freedom than could royalty. Libels frequently substituted humor and scatological inventiveness for poetic quality, as in the case of this well-known and muchcirculated example, "The Censure of the Parliament Fart," which was in response to an audible emission by MP Henry Ludlow in 1607: Downe came grave auntient Sir John Crooke And redd his message in his booke. Fearie well, Quoth Sir William Morris, Soe: But Henry Ludlowes Tayle cry’d Noe. Up starts one fuller of devotion Then Eloquence; and said a very ill motion Not soe neither quoth Sir Henry Jenkin The Motion was good; but for the stincking Well quoth Sir Henry Poole it was a bold tricke To Fart in the nose of the bodie pollitique However, libels were also written by much better poets with considerably more technical achievement. John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester was one of the more accomplished practitioners; Rochester is still held in high esteem by literary critics.

See also[edit] 

Monarchomachs

External links[edit] 

Catullus at perseus.org



Web edition of Early Stuart Libels

Limerick (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A limerick is a form of poetry,[1] especially one in five-line, predominantly anapestic[2] meter with a strict rhyme scheme (AABBA), which is sometimes obscene with humorous intent. The first, second and fifth lines are usually longer than the third and fourth. The form appeared in England in the early years of the 18th century.[3] It was popularized by Edward Lear in the 19th century,[4] although he did not use the term. The following limerick is of unknown origin: The limerick packs laughs anatomical Into space that is quite economical. But the good ones I've seen So seldom are clean And the clean ones so seldom are comical.[5] Gershon Legman, who compiled the largest and most scholarly anthology, held that the true limerick as a folk form is always obscene, and cites similar opinions by Arnold Bennett and George Bernard Shaw, [6] describing the clean limerick as a "periodic fad and object of magazine contests, rarely rising above mediocrity". From a folkloric point of view, the form is essentially transgressive; violation of taboo is part of its function. Contents [hide]

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1Form

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2Origin of the name



3Edward Lear

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4Variations

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5See also



6Notes



7References

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8External links

Form[edit]

An illustration of the fable ofHercules and the Wagoner by Walter Crane in the limerick collection "Baby's Own Aesop" (1887)

The standard form of a limerick is a stanza of five lines, with the first, second and fifth rhyming with one another and having three feet of three syllables each; and the shorter third and fourth lines also rhyming with each other, but having only two feet of three syllables. The defining "foot" of a limerick's meter is usually the anapaest, (ta-ta-TUM), but catalexis (missing a weak syllable at the beginning of a line) and extra-syllable rhyme (which adds an extra unstressed syllable) can make limericks appear amphibrachic (ta-TUM-ta). The first line traditionally introduces a person and a place, with the place appearing at the end of the first line and establishing the rhyme scheme for the second and fifth lines. In early limericks, the last line was often essentially a repeat of the first line, although this is no longer customary. Within the genre, ordinary speech stress is often distorted in the first line, and may be regarded as a feature of the form: "There was a young man from the coast;" "There once was a girl from Detroit…" Legman takes this as a convention whereby prosody is violated simultaneously with propriety.[7] Exploitation of geographical names, especially exotic ones, is also common, and has been seen as invoking memories of geography lessons in order to subvert the decorum taught in the schoolroom; Legman finds that the exchange of limericks is almost exclusive to comparatively well-educated males, women figuring in limericks almost exclusively as "villains or victims". The most prized limericks incorporate a kind of twist, which may be revealed in the final line or lie in the way the rhymes are often intentionally tortured, or both. Many limericks show some form of internal rhyme, alliteration or assonance, or some element of word play. Verses in limerick form are sometimes combined with a refrain to form a limerick song, a traditional humorous drinking song often with obscene verses. The limerick’s an art form complex Whose contents run chiefly to sex; It’s famous for virgins And masculine urgin’s And vulgar erotic effects. David Abercrombie, a phonetician, takes a different view of the limerick, and one which seems to accord better with the form.[8] It is this: Lines one, two, and five have three feet, that is to say three stressed syllables, while lines three and four have two stressed syllables. The number and placement of the unstressed syllables is rather flexible. There is at least one unstressed syllable between the stresses but there may be more – as long as there are not so many as to make it impossible to keep the equal spacing of the stresses. (See “the young man of Japan”, below.) As an example, in first line of the limerick given above, there are three unstressed syllables between the first and second stresses, two between the second and third, but only one unstressed syllable before the first stress. There may or may not be an unstressed

syllable (or, rarely, two) after the final stress of the line. In the example above there are unstressed syllables at the end of lines three and four but not at the end of the remaining lines. Moreover, it is intrinsic to the limerick that there be a silent stress at the end of lines one, three, and five. A silent stress occurs when the reader undergoes the physiological changes associated with a stress but without any sound. To understand this, imagine that a drum is struck each time there is a stress. Then, in English verse, the drum beats would be equally spaced, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables that separate them. However, in reading a limerick, after the third beat of the first line, the next beat falls at the end of the line, not on the first stress of the second line. Thus, it is perhaps better to think of the limerick as having four stresses (the final one silent) in lines one, two, and five – and two stresses, of course, in lines three and four.

Origin of the name[edit] The origin of the name limerick for this type of poem is debated. As of several years ago, its usage was first documented in England in 1898 (New English Dictionary) and in the United States in 1902, but in recent years[when?] several earlier uses have been documented. The name is generally taken to be a reference to the City or County of Limerick in Ireland[9][10] sometimes particularly to the Maigue Poets, and may derive from an earlier form of nonsense verse parlour game that traditionally included a refrain that included "Will [or won't] you come (up) to Limerick?"[11] The earliest known use of the term limerick for this type of poem is an 1880 reference, in a Saint John, New Brunswick newspaper, to an apparently well-known tune,[12] There was a young rustic named Mallory, who drew but a very small salary. When he went to the show, his purse made him go to a seat in the uppermost gallery. Tune: Won't you come to Limerick.[13]

Edward Lear[edit]

A Book of Nonsense (ca. 1875 James Miller edition) by Edward Lear

The limerick form was popularized by Edward Lear in his first Book of Nonsense (1846) and a later work, More Nonsense, Pictures, Rhymes, Botany, etc. (1872). Lear wrote 212 limericks, mostly considered nonsense literature. It was customary at the time for limericks to accompany an absurd illustration of the same subject, and for the final line of the limerick to be a variant of the first line ending in the same word, but with slight differences that create a nonsensical, circular effect. The humor is not in the "punch line" ending but rather in the tension between meaning and its lack.[14] The following is an example of one of Edward Lear's limericks. There was a Young Person of Smyrna Whose grandmother threatened to burn her. But she seized on the cat, and said 'Granny, burn that! You incongruous old woman of Smyrna!'

Lear's limericks were often typeset in three or four lines, according to the space available under the accompanying picture.

Variations[edit] The idiosyncratic link between spelling and pronunciation in the English language is explored in this Scottish example (where the name Menzies is pronounced /ˈmɪŋɪs/ MING-iss). A lively young damsel named Menzies Inquired: "Do you know what this thenzies?" Her aunt, with a gasp, Replied: "It's a wasp, And you're holding the end where the stenzies."[15] The limerick form is so well known that it can be parodied in fairly subtle ways. These parodies are sometimes called anti-limericks. The following example, of unknown origin, subverts the structure of the true limerick by changing the number of syllables in the lines. There was a young man of Japan Whose limericks never would scan. When asked why this was, He replied "It's because I always try to fit as many syllables into the last line as ever I possibly can." Other anti-limericks follow the meter of a limerick but deliberately break the rhyme scheme, like the following example, attributed to W.S. Gilbert, in a parody of a limerick by Lear: There was an old man of St. Bees, Who was stung in the arm by a wasp, When asked, "Does it hurt?" He replied, "No, it doesn't, I'm so glad that it wasn't a hornet."[16][17] Comedian John Clarke has also parodied Lear's style: There was an old man with a beard, A funny old man with a beard He had a big beard A great big old beard That amusing old man with a beard.[18] Web Cartoonist Zach Weiner, author of SMBC-Comics, wrote a reversed limerick that makes sense read top-to-bottom, and vice versa. This limerick goes in reverse Unless I'm remiss The neat thing is this: If you start from the bottom-most verse This limerick's not any worse[19] The British wordplay and recreational mathematics expert Leigh Mercer (1893–1977) devised the following mathematical limerick:

This is read as follows: A dozen, a gross, and a score Plus three times the square root of four Divided by seven Plus five times eleven Is nine squared and not a bit more.[20]

See also[edit] 

Nonsense literature



Chastushka (Russian form with similar traits)



Clerihew



Double dactyl



Lecherous Limericks, a book of limericks by Isaac Asimov



Light verse



Quintain (any poetic form containing 5 lines such as tanka, cinquain, and limerick)



The Negotiation Limerick File, a song by Beastie Boys rapped in the form of a limerick



There once was a man from Nantucket, a popular limerick subject

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Limerick Lyrics. Retrieved 6 October 2014. 2; Jump up^ Cuddon, J.A. (1999). The Penguin dictionary of literary and literary theory (4. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books. p. 458. ISBN 978-0140513639.

3; Jump up^ An interesting and highly esoteric verse in limerick form is found in the diary of the Rev. John Thomlinson (1692–1761): 1717. Sept. 17th. One Dr. Bainbridge went from Cambridge to Oxon [Oxford] to be astronomy professor, and reading a lecture happened to say de Polis et Axis, instead of Axibus. Upon which one said, Dr. Bainbridge was sent from Cambridge,—to read lectures de Polis et Axis; but lett them that brought him hither, return him thither, and teach him his rules of syntaxis. From Six North Country Diaries, Publications of the Surtees Society, Vol. CXVIII for the year MCMX, p. 78. Andrews & Co., Durham, etc. 1910.

4; Jump up^ Brandreth, page 108 5; Jump up^ Feinberg, Leonard. The Secret of Humor. Rodopi, 1978. ISBN 9789062033706. p102 6; Jump up^ Legman 1988, pp. x-xi. 7; Jump up^ Legman 1988, p. xliv. 8; Jump up^ Abercrombie, David, Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics 1965 Oxford University Press: Chapter 3 A Phonetician's View of Verse Structure.

9; Jump up^ Loomis 1963, pp. 153–157. 10; Jump up^ "Siar sna 70idí 1973 Lios Tuathail - John B Keane, Limericks, Skinheads".YouTube. Retrieved 6 October 2014.

11; Jump up^ The phrase "come to Limerick" is known in American Slang since the Civil War, as documented in the Historical Dictionary of American Slang and subsequent posts on the American Dialect Society List. One meaning for the phrase, proposed by Stephen Goranson on ADS-list, would be a reference to the Treaty of Limerick, and meansurrender, settle, get to the point, get with the program.

12; Jump up^ reported by Stephen Goranson on the ADS-list and in comments at the Oxford Etymologist blog

13; Jump up^ Saint John Daily News, Saint John, New Brunswick Edward Willis, Proprietor Tuesday Nov 30, 1880 Vol. XLII, no. 281 page 4, column 5 [headline:] Wise and Otherwise

14; Jump up^ Tigges, Wim. "The Limerick: The Sonnet of Nonsense?". Explorations in the Field of Nonsense. ed. Wim Tigges. 1987. page 117

15; Jump up^ "Why is Menzies pronounced Mingis?". BBC News. 2006-01-10. Retrieved2010-0105.

16; Jump up^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Retrieved 6 October 2014. 17; Jump up^ Wells 1903, pp. xix-xxxiii. 18; Jump up^ "Craig Brown: The Lost Diaries". the Guardian. Retrieved 6 October 2014. 19; Jump up^ "Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal". Retrieved 6 October 2014. 20; Jump up^ "Math Mayhem". Lhup.edu. Retrieved 2011-06-29.

References[edit] 

Baring-Gould, William Stuart and Ceil Baring-Gould (1988). The Annotated Mother Goose, Random House.



Brandreth, Gyles (1986). Everyman's Word Games



Cohen, Gerald (compiler) (2010). "Stephen Goranson's research into _limerick_: a preliminary report". Comments on Etymology vol. 40, no. 1-2. (October–November 2010) pages 2–11.



Legman, Gershon (1964). The Horn Book, University Press.



Legman, Gershon (1988). The Limerick, Random House.



Loomis, C. Grant (1963). Western Folklore, Vol. 22, No. 3 (July, 1963).



Wells, Carolyn (1903). A Nonsense Anthology, Charles Scribner's Sons.

External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Limerick poetry.



Edward Lear's A Book of Nonsense from Project Gutenberg



OEDILF – A limerick dictionary



#notalimerick, Jenni Nuttall



'Limericks (5-line verse)' file at Limerick City Library, Ireland



There Once Was a Serpent: A History of Theology in Limericks, Richard Kieckhefer

Lyric poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Henry Oliver Walker's 1896 Lyric Poetry in theLibrary of Congress's Thomas Jefferson Building

Literature

Major forms

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v t e

Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person.[1]The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, which was defined by its musical accompaniment, usually on a stringed instrument known as a lyre.[2] The term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed byAristotle between three broad categories of poetry: lyrical, dramatic and epic. Contents [hide]



1Meters



2History of lyric poetry

o 2.1Antiquity ;

2.1.1Greece

;

2.1.2Rome

;

2.1.3China

o 2.2Medieval verse o 2.316th century o 2.417th century o 2.518th century o 2.619th century o 2.720th century 

3References



4Further reading

Meters[edit] Much lyric poetry depends on regular meter based either on number of syllables or on stress. The most common meters are as follows:



Iambic – two syllables, with the short or unstressed syllable followed by the long or stressed syllable.



Trochaic – two syllables, with the long or stressed syllable followed by the short or unstressed syllable. In English, this metre is found almost entirely in lyric poetry.[3]



Pyrrhic – Two unstressed syllables



Anapestic – three syllables, with the first two short or unstressed and the last long or stressed.



Dactylic – three syllables, with the first one long or stressed and the other two short or unstressed.



Spondaic – two syllables, with two successive long or stressed syllables.

Some forms have a combination of meters, often using a different meter for the refrain.

History of lyric poetry[edit] Antiquity[edit]

Alcaeus and Sappho depicted on anAttic red-figure kalathos c. 470 BC[4]

Greece[edit] Main article: Greek lyric For the ancient Greeks, lyric poetry had a precise technical meaning: verse that was accompanied by a lyre, cithara, or barbitos. Because such works were typically sung, it was also known as melic poetry. The lyric or melic poet was distinguished from the writer of plays (although Athenian drama included choral odes, in lyric form), the writer of trochaic and iambic verses (which were recited), the writer ofelegies (accompanied by the flute, rather than the lyre) and the writer of epic.[5] The scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria created a canon ofnine lyric poets deemed especially worthy of critical study. These archaic and classical musician-poets included Sappho, Alcaeus,Anacreon and Pindar. Archaic lyric was characterized by strophic composition and live musical performance. Some poets, like Pindarextended the metrical forms to a triad, including strophe, antistrophe (metrically identical to the strophe) and epode (whose form does notmatch that of the strophe).[6] Rome[edit] Among the major extant Roman poets of the classical period, only Catullus (N° 11, 17, 30, 34, 51, 61) and Horace (Odes) wrote lyric poetry, which however was no longer meant to be sung but instead read or recited. What remained were the forms, the lyric meters of the Greeks adapted to Latin. Catullus was

influenced by both archaic and HellenisticGreek verse and belonged to a group of Roman poets called the Neoteroi ("New Poets") who spurned epic poetry following the lead of Callimachus. Instead, they composed brief, highly polished poems in various thematic and metrical genres. The Roman love elegies of Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid (Amores, Heroides), with their personal phrasing and feeling, may be the thematic ancestor of much medieval, Renaissance, Romantic, and modern lyric poetry, but these works were composed in elegiac couplets and so were not lyric poetry in the ancient sense.[7] China[edit] Main article: Classical Chinese poetry During China's Warring States period, the Songs of Chu collected by Qu Yuan and Song Yu defined a new form of poetry that came from the exotic Yangtze Valley, far from theWei and Yellow River homeland of the traditional four-character verses collected in the Book of Songs. The varying forms of the new Chu ciprovided more rhythm and greater latitude of expression.[9]

Medieval verse[edit] Originating in 10th-century Persian, a ghazal is a poetic form consisting of couplets that share a rhyme and a refrain. Formally, it consists of a short lyric composed in a single meter with a single rhyme throughout. The central subject is love. Notable authors include Hafiz, Amir Khusro, Auhadi of Maragheh, Alisher Navoi, Obeid e zakani, Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, Farid al-Din Attar, Omar Khayyam, and Rudaki. The ghazal was introduced to European poetry in the early 19th century by the Germans Schlegel, Von Hammer-Purgstall, and Goethe, who called Hafiz his "twin".[10] Lyric in European literature of the medieval or Renaissance period means a poem written so that it could be set to music—whether or not it actually was. A poem's particular structure, function, or theme might all vary.[11] The lyric poetry of Europe in this period was created by the pioneers of courtly poetry and courtly love largely without reference to the classical past.[12] The troubadors, travelling composers and performers of songs, began to flourish towards the end of the 11th century and were often imitated in successive centuries. Trouvères were poet-composers who were roughly contemporary with and influenced by the troubadours but who composed their works in the northern dialects of . The first known trouvère was Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160s–80s). The dominant form of German lyric poetry in the period was the minnesang, "a love lyric based essentially on a fictitious relationship between a knight and his high-born lady".[13] Initially imitating the lyrics of the French troubadours and trouvères, minnesang soon established a distinctive tradition.[13] There was also a large body of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric.[14] Hebrew singer-poets of the Middle Ages included Yehuda Halevi,Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Abraham ibn Ezra. In Italy, Petrarch developed the sonnet form pioneered by Giacomo da Lentini and Dante's Vita Nuova. In 1327, according to the poet, the sight of a woman called Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon awoke in him a lasting ion, celebrated in the Rime sparse ("Scattered rhymes"). Later, Renaissance poets who copied Petrarch's style named this collection of 366 poems Il Canzoniere ("The Song Book"). Laura is in many ways both the culmination of medieval courtly love poetry and the beginning of Renaissance love lyric. A bhajan or kirtan is a Hindu devotional song. Bhajans are often simple songs in lyrical language expressing emotions of love for the Divine. Notable authors include Kabir,Surdas, and Tulsidas. Chinese Sanqu poetry was a Chinese poetic genre popular from the 12th-century Jin Dynasty through to the early Ming. Early 14th-century playwrights like Ma Zhiyuan and Guan Hanqing were well-established writers of Sanqu. Against the usual tradition of using Classical Chinese, this poetry was composed in the vernacular.[15]

16th century[edit] In 16th-century Britain, Thomas Campion wrote lute songs and Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare popularized the sonnet. In , La Pléiade—including Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay, and Jean-Antoine de Baïf—aimed to break with earlier traditions of French poetry—particularly Marot and the grands rhétoriqueurs—and

began imitating classical Greek and Roman forms such as the odes. Favorite poets of the school were Pindar, Anacreon, Alcaeus, Horace, andOvid. They also produced Petrarchan sonnet cycles. Spanish devotional poetry adapted the lyric for religious purposes. Notable examples were Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Garcilaso de la Vega, and Lope de Vega. Although better known for his epic Os Lusíadas, Luís de Camões is also considered the greatest Portuguese lyric poet of the period. In Japan, the naga-uta ("long song") was a lyric poem popular in this era. It alternated five and sevensyllable lines and ended with an extra seven-syllable line.

17th century[edit] Lyrical poetry was the dominant form of 17th-century English poetry from John Donne to Andrew Marvell.[16] The poems of this period were short. Rarely narrative, they tended towards intense expression. [16] Other notable poets of the era include Ben Jonson, Robert Herrick, George Herbert, Aphra Behn, Thomas Carew, John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, John Milton, Richard Crashaw, and Henry Vaughan. A German lyric poet of the period is Martin Opitz; in Japan, this was the era of the noted haikuwriter Matsuo Bashō.

18th century[edit] In the 18th century, lyric poetry declined in England and . The atmosphere of literary discussion in the English coffeehouses and French salons was not congenial to lyric poetry.[17] Exceptions include the lyrics of Robert Burns, William Cowper, Thomas Gray, and Oliver Goldsmith. German lyric poets of the period include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Novalis, Friedrich Schiller, and Johann Heinrich Voß. Kobayashi Issa was a Japanese lyric poet during this period. In Diderot's Encyclopédie, Louis chevalier de Jaucourt described lyric poetry of the time as "a type of poetry totally devoted to sentiment; that's its substance, its essential object." [18]

19th century[edit]

Benjamin Haydon's 1842 portrait of William Wordsworth

In Europe, the lyric emerged as the principal poetic form of the 19th century and came to be seen as synonymous with poetry.[19] Romantic lyric poetry consisted of first-person s of the thoughts and feelings of a specific moment; the feelings were extreme but personal.[20] The traditional sonnet was revived in Britain, with William Wordsworth writing more sonnets than any other British poet.[19] Other important Romantic lyric writers of the period include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron. Later in the century, theVictorian lyric was more linguistically self-conscious and defensive than the Romantic forms had been. [21] Such Victorian lyric poets include Alfred Lord Tennyson and Christina Rossetti. Lyric poetry was popular with the German reading public between 1830 and 1890, as shown in the number of poetry anthologies published in the period.[22] According to Georg Lukács, the verse of Joseph von Eichendorff exemplified the German Romantic revival of the folk-song tradition initiated by Goethe, Herder, and Arnim and Bretano's Des Knaben Wunderhorn.[23]

also saw a revival of the lyric voice during the 19th century.[24] The lyric became the dominant mode of French poetry during this period.[25] For Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire was the last example of lyric poetry "successful on a mass scale" in Europe.[26] In Russia, Aleksandr Pushkin exemplified a rise of lyric poetry during the 18th and early 19th centuries. [27] The Swedish "Phosphorists" were influenced by the Romantic movement and their chief poet Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom produced many lyric poems.[28] Italian lyric poets of the period include Ugo Foscolo,Giacomo Leopardi, Giovanni Pascoli, and Gabriele D'Annunzio. Spanish lyric poets include Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Rosalía de Castro, and José de Espronceda. Japanese lyric poets include Taneda Santoka, Masaoka Shiki, and Ishikawa Takuboku.

20th century[edit] Further information: 20th century lyric poetry

Recited Portuguese lyric poetry

In the early years of the 20th century rhymed lyric poetry, usually expressing the feelings of the poet, was the dominant poetic form in the United States,[29] Europe, and the British colonies. The English Georgian poets such as A. E. Housman, Walter de la Mare, and Edmund Blunden used the lyric form. The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore was praised by William Butler Yeats for his lyric poetry; Yeats compared him to the troubadour poets when the two met in 1912.[30] The relevance and acceptability of the lyric in the modern age was, though, called into question by modernist poets such as Ezra Pound,T. S. Eliot, H.D., and William Carlos Williams, who rejected the English lyric form of the 19th century, feeling that it relied too heavily on melodious language, rather than complexity of thought.[31] After World War II, the American New Criticism returned to the lyric, advocating a poetry that made conventional use of rhyme, meter and stanzas, and was modestly personal in the lyric tradition.[32] Lyric poetry dealing with relationships, sex and domestic life constituted the new mainstream of American poetry in the late 20th century following theconfessional poets of the 1950s and ’60s such as Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton.[33]

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Scott, Clive, Vers libre : the emergence of free verse in , 1886–1914 Clarendon Press, Oxford ISBN 9780198151593

2; Jump up^ Miller, Andrew. Greek Lyric: An Anthology in Translation, pp. xii ff. Hackett Publishing (Indianapolis), 1996. ISBN 978-0872202917.

3; Jump up^ Stephen Adams, Poetic Designs: an introduction to meters, verse forms, and figures of speech, Broadview Press, 1997, p55. ISBN 1-55111-129-2

4; Jump up^ Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2416) 5; Jump up^ Bowra, Cecil. Greek Lyric Poetry: From Alcman to Simonides, p. 3. Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1961.

6; Jump up^ Halporn, James & al. The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry, p. 16. Hackett Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0-87220-243-7.

7; Jump up^ Bing, Peter & al. Games of Venus: An Anthology of Greek and Roman Erotic Verse from Sappho to Ovid. Routledge (New York), 1991.

8; ^ Jump up to: 袁行霈 [Yuán Xíngpèi] & al. 《中国文学史》 [Zhōngguó Wénxué Shǐ, A History of a b

Chinese Literature], Vol. 1, p. 632. 高等教育出版社 [Gāoděng Jiàoyù Chūbǎn Shè] (Beijing), 1992. ISBN 9787040164794. Accessed 14 July 2013. (Chinese)

9; Jump up^ 「《史记·屈原贾生列传》…形成悲愤深沉之风格特征。」

[8]

10; Jump up^ Thym, Jurgen & al. Of Poetry and Song: Approaches to the Nineteenth-Century Lied, p. 221. University of Rochester Press (Rochester), 2010.

11; Jump up^ Shaw, Mary. The Cambridge Introduction to French Poetry, pp. 39–40. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2003. ISBN 0-521-00485-3.

12; Jump up^ Kay, Sarah & al. A Short History of French Literature, pp. 15–16. Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2006. ISBN 0-19-815931-5.

13; ^ Jump up to: Johnson, Sidney & al. Medieval German Literature: A Companion, p. 224–25. a b

Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-415-92896-6.

14; Jump up^ Tavani, Giuseppe. Trovadores e Jograis: Introdução à poesia medieval galego-portuguesa. Caminho (Lisbon), 2002. (Portuguese)

15; Jump up^ 「抒情性文学…的创作开创了元代理学家诗文创作的先河。」

[8]

16; ^ Jump up to: Corns, Thomas. The Cambridge Companion to English Poetry, Donne to Marvell, a b

p. xi. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1993. ISBN 0-521-42309-0.

17; Jump up^ Sir Albert Wilson in J. O. Lindsay's The New Cambridge Modern History, p. 73. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1957. ISBN 0-521-04545-2.

18; Jump up^ "Lyric Poetry". University of Michigan Library. Retrieved 1 April 2015. 19; ^ Jump up to: Christopher John Murray, Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850, Taylor & a b

Francis, 2004, p700. ISBN 1-57958-422-5

20; Jump up^ Stephen Bygrave, Romantic Writings, Routledge, 1996, pix. ISBN 0-415-13577-X 21; Jump up^ E. Warwick Slinn in Joseph Bristow, The Cambridge Companion to Victorian Poetry, Cambridge University Press, p56. ISBN 0-521-64680-4

22; Jump up^ Eda Sagarra and Peter Skrine, A Companion to German Literature: From 1500 to the Present, Blackwell Publishing, 1997, p149. ISBN 0-631-21595-6

23; Jump up^ Lukács, György. German Realists in the Nineteenth Century, p. 56. MIT Press (Cambridge), 1993. ISBN 0-262-62143-6.

24; Jump up^ Prendergast, Christopher. Nineteenth-Century French Poetry: Introductions to Close Reading, p. 3. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 1990. ISBN 0-521-34774-2.

25; Jump up^ Prendergast (1990), p. 15. 26; Jump up^ Pensky, Max. Melancholy Dialectics: Walter Benjamin and the Play of Mourning, p. 155. University of Massachusetts Press (Boston), 1993. ISBN 1-55849-296-8.

27; Jump up^ Jakobson, Roman. Selected Writings, p. 282. Walter de Gruyter, 1981. ISBN 90-279-76864.

28; Jump up^ Richardson, William & al. Literature of the World: An Introductory Study, p. 348. Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4179-9433-9.

29; Jump up^ MacGowan, Christopher. Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 9. Blackwell Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-631-22025-9.

30; Jump up^ Foster, Robert. W.B. Yeats: A Life, p. 496. Oxford University Press (Oxford). ISBN 0-19288085-3.

31; Jump up^ Beach, Christopher. The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 49. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), 2003. ISBN 0-521-89149-3.

32; Jump up^ Fredman, Stephen. A Concise Companion To Twentieth-Century American Poetry, p. 63. Blackwell Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4051-2002-9.

33; Jump up^ Beach (2003), p. 155.

Further reading[edit] Wikisource has the text of the1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Lyrical poetry.



Wilhelm, James J., (editor), Lyrics of the Middle Ages : an anthology, New York : Garland Pub., 1990. ISBN 0-8240-7049-6 [hide]

v t e

Lists of poets By language

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Telugu Turkic Ukrainian Urdu Uzbek Welsh Yiddish

By nationality or culture

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Performance Romantic Speculative Surrealist War Women

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Martian poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For poetry dealing with Martians or other extraterrestrials see Aliens in Poetry Martian poetry was a minor movement in British poetry in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in which everyday things and human behaviour are described in a strange way, as if by a visiting Martian who does not understand them. Poets most closely associated with it are Craig Raine and Christopher Reid. The term Martianism has also been applied more widely to include fiction as well as to poetry. The word martianism is, coincidentally, an anagram of one of its principal exponents, Martin Amis, who promoted the work of both Raine and Reid in the Times Literary Supplement and the New Statesman.[1] Contents [hide]



1Origins



2References

o 2.1Poetry o 2.2Anthologies o 2.3Comment 

3Footnotes

Origins[edit] The term derives from Raine's poem "A Martian Sends a Postcard Home" in which the narrator, a Martian, uncomprehendingly observes human behaviour and tries to describe it to fellow Martians. For examples, the narrator calls books "Caxtons" and describes them as... mechanical birds with many wings perch on the hand cause the eyes to melt or the body to shriek without pain This drive to make the familiar strange was carried into fiction by Martin Amis. His 1981 novel Other People: A Mystery Story where the story unfolds from the point of view of a protagonist who is apparently suffering from an extreme form of amnesia which causes her to lose her memory of even basic aspects of human experience. Martian poetry became a popular topic in the teaching of poetry composition to school children. Related to Surrealism, it arose in the context of the experimental poetry of the late 1960s; but also owes a debt to a variety of English traditions including metaphysical poetry,Anglo-Saxon riddles, and nonsense poetry (e.g.: Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear). Dr Samuel Johnson's descriptions of the metaphysical poets' approach where 'the most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together' could aptly describe much Martian poetry; in this context what was distinctive about Martian Poetry was its focus on visual experience.

References[edit] Poetry[edit] 

Raine, Craig, The Onion, Memory, Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19211877-3.



Reid, Christopher, Arcadia, Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-2118897.



Raine, Craig, A Martian Sends a Postcard Home, Oxford University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-19-211896-X.



Reid, Christopher, Pea Soup, Oxford University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-19211952-4.

Anthologies[edit] 

Morrison, Blake & Motion, Andrew, The Penguin Book of Contemporary British Poetry, Penguin, 1982. ISBN 0-14-042283-8.

Comment[edit] 

Diedrick, James, Understanding Martin Amis University of South Carolina Press, 2004. ISBN 1-57003-516-4.



O'Brien, Sean, The Deregulated Muse, Bloodaxe, 1998. ISBN 1-85224-281-7.



Robinson, Alan, Instabilities in Contemporary British Poetry, Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0-333-46769-8.

Footnotes [hide] v t e

Schools of poetry Akhmatova's Orphans Angry Penguins Auden Group The Beats Black Arts Movement Black Mountain poets British Poetry Revival Cairo poets Castalian Band Cavalier poets Chhayavaad Churchyard poets Confessionalists Créolité Cyclic Poets Dada Deep image Della Cruscans Dolce Stil Novo Dymock poets Ecopoetry The poets of Elan Flarf Fugitives Garip Gay Saber Generation of '27 Generation of the '30s Generation of '98 Georgian poets Goliard

The Group Harlem Renaissance Harvard Aesthetes Hungry generation Imagism Informationist poetry Jindyworobak Lake Poets Language poets Martian poetry Metaphysical poets Misty Poets Modernist poetry The Movement Négritude Neotericism New American Poetry New Apocalyptics New Formalism New York School Objectivists Others Parnassian poets La Pléiade Rhymers' Club San Francisco Renaissance Scottish Renaissance Sicilian School Sons of Ben Southern Agrarians Spasmodic poets Sung poetry Surrealism Symbolism Uranian poetry

Medieval poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) Because most of what we have was written down by clerics, much of extant medieval poetry is religious. The chief exception is the work of the troubadours and theminnesänger, whose primary innovation was the ideal of courtly love. Among the most famous of secular poetry is Carmina Burana, a manuscript collection of 254 poems. Twenty-four poems of Carmina Burana were later set to music by German composer Carl Orff in 1936. Contents [hide]



1Examples of medieval poetry

o 1.1Medieval Latin literature



;

1.1.1Topics

;

1.1.2Medieval Latin poets

2Medieval vernacular literature

o 2.1Romance languages ;

2.1.1Old French

;

2.1.2The Matter of

;

2.1.3The Matter of Britain

;

2.1.4The Matter of Rome

;

2.1.5Provençal

;

2.1.6Catalan

;

2.1.7Italian

;

2.1.8Spanish

;

2.1.9Galician-Portuguese

;

2.1.10Authors

o 2.2Germanic languages ;

2.2.1Alliterative verse

;

2.2.2Medieval English poetry

;

2.2.3Medieval German poetry

o 2.3Medieval Greek poetry o 2.4Medieval Celtic poetry ;

2.4.1Welsh

;

2.4.2Irish



3Further reading

Examples of medieval poetry[edit] Old English religious poetry includes the poem Christ by Cynewulf and the poem The Dream of the Rood, preserved in both manuscript form and on the Ruthwell Cross. We do have some secular poetry; in fact a great deal of medieval literature was written in verse, including the Old English epic Beowulf. Scholars are fairly sure, based on a few fragments and on references in historic texts, that much lost secular poetry was set to music, and was spread by traveling minstrels, or bards, across Europe. Thus, the few poems written eventually became ballads or lays, and never made it to being recited without song or other music.

Medieval Latin literature[edit] In medieval Latin, while verse in the old quantitative meters continued to be written, a new more popular form called the sequence arose, which was based on accentual metres in which metrical feet were based on stressed syllables rather than vowel length. These metres were associated with Christian hymnody. However, much secular poetry was also written in Latin. Some poems and songs, like the Gambler's Mass (officio lusorum) from the Carmina Burana, were parodies of Christian hymns, while others were student melodies: folksongs, love songs and drinking ballads. The famous commercium song Gaudeamus igitur is one example. There are also a few narrative poems of the period, such as the unfinished epic Ruodlieb, which tells us the story of a knight's adventures. Topics[edit]



Carmina Burana



Cambridge Songs



goliard



Hiberno-Latin



Gregorian chant



Dies Irae



Pange Lingua

Medieval Latin poets[edit]



St Ambrose



St Thomas Aquinas



The Archpoet



St Bernard of Cluny



St Bonaventure



St Columba



Dante Alighieri



St Hildegard of Bingen



Hrabanus Maurus



Paul the Deacon



Petrarch



Peter Abelard



Peter of Blois



Thomas of Celano



Walafrid Strabo



Walter of Châtillon



Chaucer

Medieval vernacular literature[edit] One of the features of the renaissance which marked the end of the medieval period is the rise in the use of the vernacular or the language of the common people for literature. The compositions in these local languages were often about the legends and history of the areas in which they were written which gave the people some form of national identity.Epic poems, sagas, chansons de geste and acritic songs (songs of heroic deeds) were often about the great men, real or imagined, and their achievements like Arthur,Charlemagne and El Cid. The earliest recorded European vernacular literature is that written in the Irish language. Given that Ireland had escaped absorption into the Roman empire, this had time to develop into a highly sophisticated literature with well-documented formal rules and highly organised Bardic schools. The result was a large body of prose and verse recording the ancient myths and sagas of the Gaelic-speaking people of the island, as well as poems on religious, political and geographical themes and a body of nature poetry. The formality which Latin had gained through its long written history was often not present in the vernaculars which began producing poetry, and so new techniques and structures emerged, often derived from oral literature. This is particularly noticeable in the Germanic languages, which, unlike the Romance languages, are not direct descendants from Latin. Alliterative verse, where many of the stressed words in each line start with the same sound, was often used in the local poetry of that time. Other features of vernacular poetry of this time include kennings, internal rhyme, and slant rhyme. Indeed, Latin poetry traditionally used meter rather than rhyme and only began to adopt rhyme after being influenced by these new poems.

Romance languages[edit] Old French[edit]



trouvère



Anglo-Norman literature



Roman de la Rose

The Matter of [edit]



chanson de geste



paladin



Charlemagne



Charles Martel



Saracen



Chanson de Roland



Garin de Monglane



Doon de Mayence



Huon de Bordeaux



Renaud de Montauban

The Matter of Britain[edit]



King Arthur



Camelot



chivalry

The Matter of Rome[edit]



Roman d'Alixandre (Alexander Romance)



Roman de Troie



Roman de Thèbes



Eneas



Troilus and Criseyde

Provençal[edit]



troubadour



courtly love



Provençal literature

Catalan[edit]



Ausiàs March



Ramon Llull



Andreu Febrer

Italian[edit]



Dante Alighieri

 

The Divine Comedy

Petrarch

Spanish[edit]



Juan Ruiz



El Cid

Galician-Portuguese[edit]



João Zorro



Martim Codax



Paio Gomes Charinho

Authors[edit]



Wace



Chrétien de Troyes



Marie de



Guillaume de Machaut



Jean de Meung



Christine de Pizan

Germanic languages[edit] Alliterative verse[edit]



Beowulf



Elder Edda



Younger Edda



skald



scop

Medieval English poetry[edit]



Middle English



Geoffrey Chaucer

 

The Canterbury Tales

William Langland



Piers Plowman



Everyman



Sir Orfeo



Book of the Civilized Man



The Pearl Poet



Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Medieval German poetry[edit]



minnesang



Walther von der Vogelweide



The Nibelungenlied

Medieval Greek poetry[edit] 

Acritic songs



Digenis Acritas



Song of Armouris

Medieval Celtic poetry[edit] Welsh[edit]



Aneirin Y Gododdin



Taliesin



Llywarch Hen



Dafydd ap Gwilym

Irish[edit]



Metrical Dindshenchas



Lebor Gabála Érenn



Táin Bó Cúailnge



Contention of the bards



see also: Irish poetry

Further reading[edit] 

Wilhelm, James J., (editor), Lyrics of the Middle Ages : an anthology, New York : Garland Pub., 1990. ISBN 0-8240-7049-6

Minnesang From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Minnesinger)

Walther von der Vogelweide (Codex Manesse, ca. 1300)

Minnesang was the tradition of lyric and song writing in which flourished in the 12th century and continued into the 14th century. People who wrote and performed Minnesang are known as Minnesingers (German: Minnesänger). The name derives from the word minne, Middle High German for love which was their main subject, and an individual song was a minnelied. The Minnesänger were similar to the Provençal troubadours and northern French trouvères; they wrote love poetry in the courtly love tradition in Middle High German in the High Middle Ages. Contents [hide]

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1Social status

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2History

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3Melodies

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4Later developments

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5Notable Minnesänger

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6Example of a Minnelied

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7Editions

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8See also

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9References

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10External links

Social status[edit] In the absence of reliable biographical information, there has been debate about the social status of the Minnesänger. Some clearly belonged to the higher nobility – the 14th century Codex Manesse includes songs by dukes, counts, kings, and the Emperor Henry VI. Some Minnesänger, as indicated by the title Meister (master), were clearly educated commoners, such as Meister Konrad von Würzburg. It is thought that many were ministeriales, that is, of a class of lower nobility, vassals of the great lords. Broadly speaking, the Minnesänger were writing and performing for their own social class at court, and should be thought of as courtiers rather than professional hired musicians.Friedrich von Hausen, for example, was part of the entourage of Friedrich Barbarossa, and died on crusade. As a reward for his service, Walther von der Vogelweide was given afief by the Emperor Frederick II. Several of the best known Minnesingers are also noted for their epic poetry, among them Heinrich von Veldeke, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Hartmann von Aue.

History[edit] The earliest texts date from perhaps 1150, and the earliest named Minnesänger are Der von Kürenberg and Dietmar von Aist, clearly writing in a native German tradition in the third quarter of the 12th century. This is referred to as the Danubian tradition. From around 1170, German lyric poets came under the influence of the Provençal troubadours and the Northern French trouvères. This is most obvious in the adoption of thestrophic form of the canzone, at its most basic a seven-line strophe with the rhyme scheme ab|ab|cxc, and a musical AAB structure, but capable of many variations. A number of songs from this period match trouvère originals exactly in form, indicating that the German text could have been sung to an originally French tune, which is especially likely where there are significant commonalities of content. Such songs are termed contrafacta. For example, Friedrich von Hausen's "Ich denke underwilen" is regarded as a contrafactum of Guiot de Provins's "Ma joie premeraine". By around 1190, the German poets began to break free of Franco-Provençal influence. This period is regarded as the period of Classical Minnesang with Albrecht von Johansdorf, Heinrich von Morungen, Reinmar von Hagenau developing new themes and forms, reaching its culmination in Walther von der Vogelweide, regarded both in the Middle Ages and in the present day as the greatest of the Minnesänger. The later Minnesang, from around 1230, is marked by a partial turning away from the refined ethos of classical minnesang and by increasingly elaborate formal developments. The most notable of these later Minnesänger, Neidhart von Reuental introduces characters from lower social classes and often aims for humorous effects.

Melodies[edit] Only a small number of Minnelied melodies have survived to the present day, mainly in manuscripts dating from the 15th century or later, which may present the songs in a form other than the original one. Additionally, it is often rather difficult to interpret the musical notation used to write them down. Although the contour of the melody can usually be made out, the rhythm of the song is frequently hard to fathom. There are a number of recordings of Minnesang using the original melodies, as well as Rock groups such as Ougenweide performing songs with modern instruments.

Later developments[edit] In the 15th century, Minnesang developed into and gave way to the tradition of the Meistersänger. The two traditions are quite different, however; Minnesänger were mainly aristocrats, while Meistersänger usually were commoners. At least two operas have been written about the Minnesang tradition: Richard Wagner's Tannhä and Richard Strauss' Guntram.

Notable Minnesänger[edit] Danubian Lyric

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Dietmar von Aist

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Der von Kürenberg

 Meinloh von Sevelingen (de) Early Courtly Lyric 

Friedrich von Hausen

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Kaiser Heinrich VI

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Heinrich von Veldeke

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Spervogel (de) Classical Minnesang

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Albrecht von Johansdorf

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Bernger von Horheim

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Gottfried von Strassburg

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Hartmann von Aue (1160/1170–1210/1220)

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Heinrich von Morungen

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Reinmar von Hagenau (ca. 1210)

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Süßkind von Trimberg

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Walther von der Vogelweide

 Wolfram von Eschenbach Later Minnesang 13th century

Otto von Botenlauben Fountain

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Reinmar von Brennenberg

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der Regenboge

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Friedrich von Sonnenburg

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Gottfried von Neifen

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Heinrich von Meissen (Frauenlob) (1250/1260–1318)

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Hugo von Montfort

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Konrad von Würzburg (1220/1230–1287)

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Neidhart von Reuental (1st half of the 13th century)

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Otto von Botenlauben (1177 – before 1245)

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Reinmar von Zweter (1200 – after 1247)

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Der Tannhä

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Ulrich von Liechtenstein (ca. 1200–1275)

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Walther von Klingen (1240–1286) Later Minnesang 14th century

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Johannes Hadlaub (End of 13th century – 1340)

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Muskatblüt

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Oswald von Wolkenstein

Example of a Minnelied[edit] The following love poem, of unknown authorship, is found in a Latin codex of the 12th century from the Tegernsee monastery. Middle High German

Modern German

English

Dû bist mîn, ich bin dîn: des solt dû gewis sîn. dû bist beslozzen in mînem herzen. verlorn ist das slüzzelîn: dû muost immer drinne sîn!

Du bist mein, ich bin dein: dessen sollst du gewiss sein. Du bist verschlossen in meinem Herzen. Verloren ist das Schlüsselein: du musst immer darin sein!

You are mine, I am yours, Thereof you may be certain. You're locked away. within my heart Lost is the key And you must ever be therein

Editions[edit] The standard collections are

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12th and early 13th Century Minnesang (up to Reinmar von Hagenau):

 H. Moser, H. Tervooren, Des Minnesangs Frühling.

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Vol. I: Texts, 38th edn (Hirzel, 1988) ISBN 3-7776-0448-8

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Vol II: Editorial Principles, Melodies, Manuscripts, Notes, 36th edn (Hirzel, 1977) ISBN 3-7776-0331-7

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Vol III: Commentaries (Hirzel, 2000) ISBN 3-7776-0368-6

13th Century Minnesang after Walther von der Vogelweide:

 Carl v. Kraus, G. Kornrumpf, Deutsche Liederdichter des 13. Jahrhunderts (Niemeyer 1978) ISBN 3-484-10284-5.

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14th and 15th centuries:

 Thomas Cramer, Die kleineren Liederdichter des 14. und 15. Jhs., 4 Vols (Fink 19791985) There are separate editions of Walther's works, and of a number of the most prolific Minnesänger. There are many published selections with Modern German translation.

See also[edit] 

Liederhandschrift

References[edit]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or ex links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacksinlin citations. Please improve this article by introducing more pr citations. (March 2010)

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Olive Sayce, The medieval German lyric, 1150-1300: the development of its themes and forms in their European context (Oxford University Press, 1982) ISBN 0-19-815772-X

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Ronald J. Taylor, The Art of the Minnesinger. Songs of the thirteenth century transcribed and edited with textual and musical commentaries (University of Wales Press, 2 vols., 1968)

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Alwin Schultz, Das höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger (“Court life at the time of the Minnesinger,” 2 vols., 1889)

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Barbara Garvey Seagrave and Wesley Thomas, The Songs of the Minnesingers. Includes LP record that presents songs of many of the principal minnesingers, with instruments of the period accompanying the vocalists (University of Illinois Press, 1966)

External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the1911 Encyclopædia Britannica articleMinnesingers.

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Media related to Minnesang at Wikimedia Commons 1857 edition of Karl Lachmann

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"Minnesinger". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

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"Minnesinger". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.

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"Minnesingers". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.

Modernism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Modernist)

For other uses of the word, see Modernism (disambiguation). For the period in sociology beginning with industrialization, see Modernity. Related are modern, modernist, contemporary, and postmodern.

Hans Hofmann, The Gate, 1959–60, collection: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art, and a modernist theorist both in his native and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in New York and California he introduced Modernism and modernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in Greenwich Village andProvincetown, Massachusetts, he widened the scope of Modernism in the United States.[1]

Modernism is a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose from widescale and far-reaching transformations in Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief.[2][3] Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was the touchstone of the movement's approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the stream-of-consciousness novel, atonal (or pantonal) and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art, all had precursors in the 19th century. A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc.[4] Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism[5][6][7] and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[8][9][10] Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.[11] More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.[12] From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) to Samuel Beckett (1906–1989).[13] Contents [hide]

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1History

o 1.1Beginnings: the 19th century ;

1.1.1The beginnings of modernism in

o 1.2Explosion, early 20th century to 1930 o 1.3Modernism continues: 1930–1945 

2After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)

o 2.1Introduction o 2.2Theatre of the Absurd o 2.3Pollock and abstract influences o 2.4International figures from British art

o 2.5In the 1960s after abstract expressionism o 2.6Pop art o 2.7Minimalism ;

2.7.1Postminimalism

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2.7.2Collage, assemblage, installations

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2.7.3Neo-Dada

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2.7.4Performance and happenings

;

2.7.5Intermedia, multi-media

;

2.7.6Fluxus

o 2.8Late period o 2.9Differences between modernism and postmodernism o 2.10Criticism and hostility to modernism 

3See also

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4Notes

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5References

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6Further reading

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7External links

History[edit] Beginnings: the 19th century[edit]

Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, aRomantic work of art

According to one critic, modernism developed out of Romanticism's revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeoisvalues: "The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism".[5][6][7] While J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movement, as "a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere", he "anticipated theFrench Impressionists" and therefore modernism "in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes". [14]

A Realist portrait of Otto von Bismarck

The dominant trends of industrial Victorian England, were also opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, because of their "opposition to technical skill without inspiration".[15] They were influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin(1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain. [16] Art critic Clement Greenbergdescribes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: "There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists, the German Nazarenes. The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet (1832–83), with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough".[17] Rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55)[18] and later Friedrich Nietzsche(1844–1900), both of whom had significant influence on existentialism.[19] However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, [20] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19thcentury engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station (1854)[21] and King's Cross Station (1852).[22] These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and the Eiffel Tower (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of electric telegraph from 1837,[23] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years.[24] But despite continuing technological advances, from the 1870s onward, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. The philosopher Schopenhauer (1788–1860) (The World as Will and Idea, 1819) called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. [18] Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist Charles Darwin (1809–82), author of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), and political scientist Karl Marx (1818–83), author of Das Kapital (1867). Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality.[25] Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, and that the workers were anything but free.[26]

Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago

The beginnings of modernism in [edit] Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian William Everdell, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ontological) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind's (1831–1916) Dedekind cut, and Ludwig Boltzmann's (1844–1906) statistical thermodynamics. [27] Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurat's Divisionism, the "dots" used to paint A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte." On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) "the first real Modernist",[28] though he also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in , with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)."[29] The poet Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), and Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in . The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement. The second French school was Symbolism, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (1821–67), and including the later poets, Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91) Une Saison en Enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873), Paul Verlaine (1844–96), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–98), and Paul Valéry (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language." [30] Cabaret, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in in 1881 with the opening of the Black Catin Montmartre, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.[31]

Henri Matisse, Le bonheur de vivre, 1905-6, Barnes Foundation,Merion, PA. An early Fauvistmasterpiece

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), is considered to have re-invented the art of painting. Many of Picasso's friends and colleagues, even fellow painters Henri Matisse andGeorges Braque, were upset when they saw this painting.

Influential in the early days of modernism were the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud's first major work was Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (1895). Central to Freud's thinking is the idea "of the primacy of the unconscious mind in mental life", so that all subjective reality was based on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. Freud's description of subjective states involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions derived from social values.[32] Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was another major precursor of modernism,[33] with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the "will to power" (Wille zur Macht), was of central importance: "Nietzsche often identified life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an instinct for growth and durability".[34][35] Henri Bergson (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective, human experience of time.[36]His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on twentieth-century novelists", especially those Modernists who used the stream of consciousness technique, such as Dorothy Richardson, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf (1882–1941).[37] Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything".[38] His philosophy also placed a high value on intuition, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect. [38] Important literary precursors of modernism were: Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–81) Crime and Punishment (1866), The Brothers Karamazov(1880);[39] Walt Whitman (1819–92) (Leaves of Grass) (1855– 91); August Strindberg (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including, the trilogy To Damascus 1898– 1901, A Dream Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907). Henry James has also been suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early asPortrait of a Lady (1881).[40] Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works in the first decade of the 20th century, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit

contract with the general public that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These "Modernist" landmarks include the atonal ending of Arnold Schoenberg's Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of fauvism and the inventions of cubism from the studios of Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910.

Explosion, early 20th century to 1930[edit]

Pablo Picasso, Portrait ofDaniel-Henry Kahnweiler, 1910, The Art Institute of Chicago

An important aspect of modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms.[8][9]

Piet Mondrian, View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, Domburg, 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, Museum of Modern Art, New York City The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is the official name of Spain's national museum of 20thcentury art, located in Madrid(informally shortened to the Museo Reina Sofía, Queen Sofia Museum). The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by Ian Ritchie Architects with the close up of the modern art tower

T. S. Eliot made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including: "[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously." [41] However, relationship of Modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Childs indicates:

"There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair."[10] An example of how Modernist art can be both revolutionary and yet be related to past tradition, is the music of the composer Arnold Schoenberg. On the one hand Schoenberg rejected traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided music making for at least a century and a half. He believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows. Yet while this was indeed wholly new, its origins can be traced back in the work of earlier composers, such as Franz Liszt,[42] Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Max Reger.[43] Furthermore, it must be noted that Schoenberg also wrote tonal music throughout his career. In the world of art, in the first decade of the 20th century, young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings,[44][45] though the impressionist Monet had already been innovative in his use of perspective.[46] In 1907, as Picasso was painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Oskar Kokoschka was writingMörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F-sharp minor (1908), his first composition without a tonal centre. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d'Automne.[47] In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form and instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.[48] Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at theSalon des Indépendants in Paris (held 21 April – 13 June). Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Henri Le Fauconnier, Robert Delaunay,Fernand Léger and Roger de La Fresnaye were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond. Also in 1911, Kandinsky painted Bild mit Kreis (Picture With a Circle) which he later called the first abstract painting.[49] In 1912, Jean Metzinger and Albert Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto, Du "Cubisme", published in time for the Salon de la Section d'Or, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting La Femme au Cheval (Woman with a horse) and Danseuse au café (Dancer in a café). Albert Gleizes painted and exhibited his Les Baigneuses (The Bathers) and his monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing). This work, along with La Ville de Paris (City of Paris) by Robert Delaunay, is the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-War Cubist period.[50] In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke (the Bridge) in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term "Expressionism" did not firmly establish itself until 1913.[51] Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,[52] most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors of the movement were not German. Furthermore, there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in with the rise of Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.

Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele

Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it "overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with Futurism,Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism and Dada."[53] Richard Murphy also comments: "the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging expressionists" such as the novelist Franz Kafka, poet Gottfried Benn, and novelist Alfred Döblin were simultaneously the most vociferous anti-expressionists.[54] What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early 20th-century mainly in in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that "one of the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation".[55] More explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. [56]

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe'sSeagram Building in New York City

There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre of which Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, andArnolt Bronnen. They looked back to Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German

actor and dramatist Frank Wedekind as precursors of their dramaturgical experiments. Oskar Kokoschka's Murderer, the Hope of Women was the first fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in Vienna.[57] The extreme simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays. The first full-length Expressionist play was The Son by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916.[58] Futurism is yet another modernist movement and in 1909, the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro published F. T. Marinetti's first manifesto. Soon afterwards a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed theFuturist Manifesto. Modeled on Marx and Engels' famous "Communist Manifesto" (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to "little magazines" which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism.

Jean Metzinger, 1913, En Canot (Im Boot), oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm (57.5 in × 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni, S.V.U. Mánes, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by Georg Muche at the Galerie Der Sturm, confiscated by the Nazis circa 1936–37, displayed at theDegenerate Art show in Munich, and missing ever since.[59]

Abstract artists, taking as their examples the impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) and Edvard Munch (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and shape, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art. [60]Western art had been, from the Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of perspective and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encom the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.[61] Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism. [62] Modernist architects and designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier, believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.[63] Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles

and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms.[64] The skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built 1890-91, in St. Louis, Missouri, US, is among the first skyscrapers in the world.[65] Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high-rise architecture.[66] Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.

André Masson, Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, early example ofSurrealism

In 1913—which was the year of philosopher Edmund Husserl's Ideas, physicist Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and in Saint Petersburg the "first futurist opera", Mikhail Matyushin's Victory Over the Sun—another Russian composer, Igor Stravinsky, composed The Rite of Spring, a ballet that depicts human sacrifice, and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time though modernism was still "progressive", increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in with the publication of the first volume of Marcel Proust's important novel sequence À la recherche du temps perdu (1913–1927) (In Search of Lost Time). This often presented as an early example of a writer using the stream-of-consciousness technique, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust "is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness" and that he "was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel".[67] Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovationas, and it has been suggested that Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931), was the first to make full use it in his short story "Leutnant Gustl" ("None but the Brave") (1900).[68] Dorothy Richardson was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her novel sequence Pilgrimage(1915–67).[69] The other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include James Joyce in Ulysses (1922), and Italo Svevo in La coscienza di Zeno (1923).[70] However, with the coming of Great War of 1914-18, and the Russian Revolution of 1917, the world was drastically changed and doubt cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: prior to 1914 it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century now had radically changed the nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of trench warfare. The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, that was described in works such as Erich Maria Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became to more generally accepted in the 1920s.

In literature and visual art some Modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant-Garde and Kitsch.[71] Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture "kitsch", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism. Some Modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In Russia after the 1917 Revolution there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avantgarde cultural activity, which included Russian futurism. However others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population.[71] Surrealism, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of Modernism".[72] The wordsurrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include Paul Éluard, Robert Desnos,[73] Max Ernst, Hans Arp, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, Joan Miró, and Marcel Duchamp.[74] By 1930, Modernism won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time Modernism itself had changed.

Modernism continues: 1930–1945[edit] Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer Arnold Schoenberg worked on Moses und Aaron one of the first operas to make use of thetwelfth note technique,[75] Pablo Picasso painted in 1937 Guernica, his cubist condemnation of fascism, while in 1939 James Joyce pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with Finnegans Wake. Also by 1930 Modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, The New Yorker magazine began publishing work, which was influenced by Modernism, by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker,[76] Robert Benchley, E. B. White, S. J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others.[77] Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the first examples of surrealist humor in America.[78] Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1919, is the famous London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston. One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children.

London Underground logo designed by Edward Johnston

Another strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism, which for many Modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions, and the neoclassicism of the 1920s, as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems—the rise of Fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Antonio Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist form of Marxism. There were, however, also Modernists explicitly of 'the right', including Salvador Dalí, Wyndham Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and others.[79] Significant Modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by Marcel Proust, Virginia Woolf, Robert Musil, and Dorothy Richardson. The American Modernist dramatist Eugene O'Neill's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s and 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant Modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were Bertolt Brecht and Federico García Lorca. D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, Samuel Beckett's published his first major work, the novel Murphy (1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce's Finnegans Wake appeared. This is written in a largelyidiosyncratic language, consisting of a mixture of standard English lexical items and neologistic multilingual puns and portmanteau words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.[80] In poetry T. S. Eliot, E. E. Cummings, and Wallace Stevens were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams, H.D., and Louis Zukofsky, there were important British Modernist poets, including David Jones, Hugh MacDiarmid, Basil Bunting, and W. H. Auden. European Modernist poets include Federico García Lorca,Anna Akhmatova, Constantine Cavafy, and Paul Valéry.

James Joyce. statue on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbon

The Modernist movement continued during this period in Soviet Russia and in 1930 composer Dimitri Shostakovich's (1906–75) opera The Nose was premiered, in which he uses a montage of different styles, including folk music, popular song and atonality. Amongst his influences was Alban Berg's (1985–1935) opera Wozzeck (1925), which "had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad".[81] However, from 1932 Socialist realism began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union,[82] and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.[83] Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, Modernist opera, Lulu, which premiered in 1937. Berg's violin concerto was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich other composers faced difficulties in this period. In Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his Modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.[84] His major works from this period are aViolin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935), and the Chamber Symphony No. 2 in E♭ minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).[84] During this time Hungarian Modernist Béla Bartók(1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936) and Divertimento for String Orchestra BB 118 (1939), String Quartet No. 5 (1934), and No. 6 (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of fascism in Hungary.[84] Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) continued writing in his neoclassical style during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like Symphony of Psalms (1930), Symphony in C (1940) and Symphony in Three Movements (1945). He also emigrated to the US because of World War II. Olivier Messiaen (1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at Stalag VIII-A by the Germans, where he composed his famous Quatuor pour la fin du temps ("Quartet for the End of Time"). The Quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.[85] In painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, modernism is defined by Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and Modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard as well as the abstractions of artists like Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky which characterized the European art scene. In , Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of American Scene paintingand the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben

Shahn,Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. Modernism is defined in Latin America by paintersJoaquín Torres García from Uruguay and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, while the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez andSantiago Martinez Delgado, and Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages. Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, Man at the Crossroads, in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patronNelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition—which were often bloody and violent. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature. Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade. During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.[86] On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, theBasque town of Gernika was the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Nazi 's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.

Pablo Picasso's Guernica, 1937, protest against Fascism

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized bySocial Realism and American Scene Painting, in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in Greenwich Village. Hopper began painting it immediately after theattack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work. American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of

rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[87] However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in and across Eastern Europe increased. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age. Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created biomorphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.

After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts)[edit] See also: Late modernism

Introduction[edit] Though The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism ending by c. 1939,[88] with regard to British and American literature, "When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred".[89] Clement Greenberg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts,[90] but with regard to music, Paul Griffiths notes that, while Modernism "seemed to be a spent force" by the late 1920s, after World War II, "a new generation of composers—Boulez, Barraqué, Babbitt, Nono, Stockhausen, Xenakis" revived modernism".[91] In fact many literary Modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they were no longer producing major works. The term "late modernism" is also sometimes applied to Modernist works published after 1930.[92] Among Modernists (or late Modernists) still publishing after 1945 were Wallace Stevens, Gottfried Benn, T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, William Faulkner, Dorothy Richardson, John Cowper Powys, and Ezra Pound. Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important Modernist poem Briggflatts in 1965. In addition Hermann Broch's The Death of Virgil was published in 1945 and Thomas Mann's Doctor Faustus in 1947. Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a "later Modernist".[93] Beckett is a writer with roots in the expressionist tradition of Modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including Molloy (1951), En attendant Godot (1953), Happy Days(1961), Rockaby (1981). The "minimalist" and "post-Modernist" have also been applied to his later works.[94] The poets Charles Olson (1910–1970) and J. H. Prynne (born 1936) are among the writers in the second half of the 20th century who have been described as late Modernists.[95] More recently the term "late modernism" has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially the Holocaust and the dropping of the atom bomb.[96]

The postwar period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world) the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and Modernist artists, writers, and poets had fled Europe for New York and America. The surrealists and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who didn't flee perished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in and survived. The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a Modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, surrealism, Joan Miró, cubism, Fauvism, and early modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors.

Theatre of the Absurd[edit] The term "Theatre of the Absurd" is applied to plays written by primarily European playwrights, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence. [97] While there are significant precursors, including Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of Samuel Beckett. Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1960 essay "Theatre of the Absurd". He related these plays based on a broad theme of the Absurd, similar to the way Albert Camususes the term in his 1942 essay, The Myth of Sisyphus.[98] The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man’s reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to Vaudeville, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the "well-made play". Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett (1906– 1989), Eugène Ionesco (1909–94), Jean Genet (1910–86), Harold Pinter (1930–2008), Tom Stoppard (born 1937), Friedrich Dürrenmatt (1921–90), Alejandro Jodorowsky (born 1929), Fernando Arrabal (born 1932), Václav Havel (1936–2011) and Edward Albee (born 1928).

Jackson Pollock, Blue Poles, 1952, National Gallery of Australia

Pollock and abstract influences[edit] During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all contemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art gets made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw canvas on the floor

where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and nonimagery— essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art.

Barnett Newman, Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?, 1966. Typical of Newman's later work, with the use of pure and vibrant color

The other abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract art by art historians such as Linda Nochlin, [99] Griselda Pollock[100] and Catherine de Zegher[101] critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official s of its history.

International figures from British art[edit] Henry Moore (1898–1986) emerged after World War II as Britain's leading sculptor. He was best known for his semi-abstract monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.

Henry Moore, Reclining Figure(1957). In front of the Kunsthaus Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.

In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the UNESCO building in Paris in 1958.[102] With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein with several major retrospectives took place around the world, notably a very prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the Forte di Belvedere overlooking Florence. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. On the campus of theUniversity of Chicago in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led byEnrico Fermi achieved the first controlled, selfsustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's Nuclear Energy was unveiled.[103] Also in Chicago Moore also commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named Man Enters the Cosmos (1980), which was commissioned to recognise the space exploration program.[104] The "London School" of figurative painters, including Francis Bacon (1909–1992), Lucian Freud (1922–2011), Frank Auerbach (born 1931), Leon Kossoff (born 1926), and Michael Andrews (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition. [105] Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.[106] His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 triptych Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.[107] His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly comionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward looking and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed. [108] According to William Grimes of the New York Times, Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl With a White Dog (1951-52),[109] Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade. Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist’s ruthless inspection.[110] Lucian Freud was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly impastoed portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.[111] His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model. [112]

In the 1960s after abstract expressionism[edit] Main articles: Post-painterly Abstraction, Color Field, Lyrical Abstraction, Arte Povera, Process art and Western painting In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like hard-edge painting and other forms of geometric abstraction began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Clement Greenberg became the voice of post-painterly Abstraction when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color Field painting, hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction[113] emerged as radical new directions. By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera[114] also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encomed both painting and sculpture, via

lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.[114] Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons,Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse,Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz and Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.[115]

Pop art[edit]

Eduardo Paolozzi. I was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947) is considered the initial standard bearer of "pop art" and first to display the word "pop".

Main articles: Pop art and Western painting In 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through theNew York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on thehermeneutic and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi(who created the groundbreaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) are considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show the works of Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction.

Minimalism[edit] Main articles: Minimalism, Minimal music, Literary minimalism, Postminimalism and 20thcentury Western painting Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect. As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western Art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, John McCracken, Agnes Martin, Dan Flavin, Robert Morris, Ronald Bladen, Anne Truitt, and Frank Stella.[116] It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract expressionism and a bridge to Postminimal art practices. By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich,[117] the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to Postmodernism, or as a Postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced Modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like Robert Morris changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement. Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,[118] examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.[118] He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of Modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today".[118] The have expanded to encom a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of La Monte Young, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, and John Adams. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as systems music. The term "minimalist" often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has also been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. Postminimalism[edit]

Smithson's Spiral Jetty from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt.

In the late 1960s Robert Pincus-Witten[114] coined the term postminimalism to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, and Sol LeWitt, and Barry Le Va, and others. Other minimalists including Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl

Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce late Modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers. In the 1960s the work of the avant-garde minimalist composers La Monte Young, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley also achieved prominence in the New York art world. Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles and the label "Postmodern" has been attached to them. Collage, assemblage, installations[edit] Main articles: Collage, Assemblage (art) and Installation art

Robert Rauschenberg, Untitled Combine, 1963

Related to abstract expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of Robert Rauschenberg exemplifies this trend. His "combines" of the 1950s were forerunners of pop art and installation art, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg,George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was Joseph Cornell, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of found objects. Neo-Dada[edit] Main article: Neo-Dada In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp submitted for exhibition a urinal as a sculpture. [119] He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "readymades". Fountain was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, the exhibition of which shocked the art world in 1917.

This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4'33", which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's Erased de Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. In choosing "an ordinary article of life" and creating "a new thought for that object" Duchamp invited onlookers to view Fountain as a sculpture.[120] Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, Reunion (1968), written tly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.[121] Steven Best and Douglas Kellner identify Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between Modernism and Postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high Modernism.[122] Another trend in art associated with neo-Dada is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet, husband of artist Alison Knowles and an irer of Marcel Duchamp. Performance and happenings[edit] Main articles: Performance art, Happenings and Fluxus

Yves Klein in , andCarolee Schneemann(pictured), Yayoi Kusama,Charlotte Moorman, andYoko Ono in New York Citywere pioneers of performance based works of art, that often entailed nudity.[123]

During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. Yves Klein in , and in New York City, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono and in Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell and Nam June Paik were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their pieceParadise Now. The Judson Dance Theater, located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer,Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others; collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas.

These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism. Images of Schneeman's performances of pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often seen photographed while performing her piece Interior Scroll. However, the images of her performing this piece are illustrating precisely what performance art is not. In performance art, the performance itself is the medium. Other media cannot illustrate performance art. Performance art is performed, not captured. By its nature performance is momentary and evanescent, which is part of the point of the medium as art. Representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium, and which therefore cannot truly illustrate the medium of performance as art. During the same period, various avant-garde artists created Happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included Allan Kaprow—who first used the term in 1958,[124] Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman.[125] Intermedia, multi-media[edit] Main article: Intermedia Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of Fluxus, concrete poetry, found objects, performance art, and computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a concrete poet married to artist Alison Knowles and an irer of Marcel Duchamp. Ihab Hassan includes, "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of postmodern art.[126] One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of videotape and CRT monitors, termed video art. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action. Fluxus[edit] Main article: Fluxus Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins. Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an antiartsensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artistcentered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues. Andreas Huyssen criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for Postmodernism as "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime".[127] Instead he sees Fluxus as a major Neo-Dadaist phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against "the istered culture of the

1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the Cold War."[127]

Late period[edit] Main article: Late modernism

Brice Marden, Vine, 1992–93, oil on linen, 240 by 260 cm (8 by 8 1⁄2 ft), Museum of Modern Art, New York

The continuation of abstract expressionism, color field painting, lyrical abstraction, geometric abstraction, minimalism, abstract illusionism,process art, pop art, postminimalism, and other late 20th-century Modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continue through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.[128][129][130] At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg,Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg,Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists including Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Mahirwan Mamtani, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture.

Differences between modernism and postmodernism[edit] By the early 1980s the Postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various conceptual andintermedia formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work, as a "term introduced in the 1970s".[131] while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism "ceding its predominance to postmodernism" as early as 1939.[88] However dates are highly debatable, especially as according to Andreas Huyssen: "one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism". [132] This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late Modernism continues. [133] Modernism is an encoming label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.[134][135] [136]

Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise Modernism "after the fact" is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions.[137]

In a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also postmodern. Those elements of Modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only Modernist.[138]

Criticism and hostility to modernism[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material challenged and removed. (January 2013)

Franz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of "Entartete Kunst" in Munich, Nazi , 1937.

Modernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and Primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in Modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation. After the rise of Joseph Stalin, the Soviet government rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged elitism, although it had previously endorsed Futurism and Constructivism. The Nazi government of deemed modernism narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" (see Antisemitism) and "Negro".[139] The Nazis exhibited Modernist paintings alongside works by thementally ill in an exhibition entitled Degenerate Art. Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many Modernists of the postwar generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the "canary in the coal mine", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.[140] In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s. In Britain, a youth subculture emerged calling itself "Modernist" (usually shortened to Mod), following such representative music groups as the Who and the Kinks. The likes of Bob Dylan, Serge Gainsbourg and the Rolling Stonescombined popular musical traditions with Modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, James Thurber, T. S. Eliot, Guillaume Apollinaire,Allen Ginsberg, and others. The Beatles developed along similar lines, creating various Modernist musical effects on several albums, while musicians such as Frank Zappa, Syd Barrett and Captain Beefheart proved even more experimental. Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and

later on in music videos. Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future. This merging of consumer and high versions of Modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of "Modernism". First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite Modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Some writers[who?] declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now "post avant-garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism. "Anti-modern" or "counter-modern" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and emergent effects. Many Modernists came to this viewpoint, for example Paul Hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such as Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Anderson, in The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People Are Changing the World (2000), Fredrick Turner inA Culture of Hope and Lester Brown in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the basic idea of modernism itself – that individual creative expression should conform to the realities of technology. Instead, they argue, individual creativity should make everyday life more emotionally acceptable. Some traditionalist artists like Alexander Stoddart reject modernism generally as the product of "an epoch of false money allied with false culture".[141] In some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to Modern Art as distinct from post-Renaissance art (c. 1400 to c. 1900). Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and Postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within Modern Art.

See also[edit] 

Late modernism



American modernism



Modernismo



Remodernism



Avant-garde

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Russian avant-garde



Anti-art



Modern architecture



Contemporary architecture



Modern art



Contemporary art



Postmodern art



Sculpture



Experimental film



Modernism (music)



20th-century classical music



History of classical music traditions § 20th century music



Contemporary classical music



Experimental music



Contemporary literature



Contemporary French literature



Modernist literature



Experimental literature



Modernist poetry



Modernist poetry in English



History of theatre



List of modernist writers



List of modernist women writers



Theatre of the Absurd



Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Hans Hofmann biography. Retrieved 30 January 2009 2; Jump up^ Pericles Lewis, Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel (Cambridge University Press, 2000). pp 38–39.

3; Jump up^ "[James] Joyce's Ulysses is a comedy not divine, ending, like Dante's, in the vision of a God whose will is our peace, but human all-too-human...." Peter Faulkner, Modernism(Taylor & Francis, 1990). p 60.

4; Jump up^ Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, and Diane Kirkpatrick.Gardner's Art Through the Ages (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 0-15-503770-6. p. 953.

5; ^ Jump up to: Barth (1979) quotation: a b

The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view. Its artistic strategy was the self-conscious overturning of the conventions of bourgeois realism [...] the antirationalist, antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism [...] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism, taught us that linearity, rationality, consciousness, cause and effect, naïve illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story

6; ^ Jump up to: Graff (1973) a b

7; ^ Jump up to: Graff (1975) a b

8; ^ Jump up to: Eco (1990) p. 95 quote: a b

Each of the types of repetition that we have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history of artistic creativity; plagiarism, quotation, parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition. Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness," with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.

9; ^ Jump up to: Steiner (1998) pp. 489–90 quote: a b

(pp. 489–90) The Modernist movement which dominated art, music, letters during the first half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of custodianship. Stravinsky's genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He took from Machaut, Gesualdo, Monteverdi. He mimed Tchaikovsky and Gounod, the Beethoven piano sonatas, the symphonies of Haydn, the operas of Pergolesi and Glinks. He incorporated Debussy and Webern into his own idiom. In each instance the listener was meant to recognize the source, to grasp the intent of a transformation which left salient aspects of the original intact. The history of Picasso is marked by retrospection. The explicit variations on classical pastoral themes, the citations from and pastiches of Rembrandt, Goya, Velázquez, Manet, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picasso's sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development of the arts from the Minoan to Cézanne. In 20th-century literature, the elements of reprise have been obsessive, and they have organized precisely those texts which at first seemed most revolutionary.The Waste Land, Ulysses, Pound's Cantos are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt to be in danger of dissolution. The long sequence of imitations, translations, masked quotations, and explicit historical paintings in Robert Lowell's History has carried the same technique into the 1970s. [...] In Modernism collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition. Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, Eliot, Joyce, Pound—the 'makers of the new'—have been neo-classics, often as observant of canonic precedent as their 17th-century forbears.

10; ^ Jump up to: Childs, Peter Modernism (Routledge, 2000). ISBN 0-415-19647-7. p. a b

17. Accessed on 8 February 2009.

11; Jump up^ Everdell, William, The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origin of TwentiethCentury Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997, ISBN 0226224805.

12; Jump up^ "In the twentieth century, the social processes that bring this maelstrom into being, and keep it in a state of perpetual becoming, have come to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have come to be loosely grouped together under the name of 'modernism' " (Berman 1988, 16).

13; Jump up^ Lee Oser, The Ethics of Modernism: Moral ideas in Yeats, Eliot, Joyce, Woolf and Beckett (Cambridge University Press, 2007); F.J. Marker & C.D. Innes, Modernism in European Drama: Ibsen, Stringdberg, Pirandello, Beckett; Morag Shiach, "Situating Samuel Beckett", pp. 234-247– in The Cambridge Companion to the Modernist Novel(Cambridge University Press, 2007); Kathryne V. Lindberg, Reading Pound Reading: Modernism After Nietzsche (Oxford University Press, 1987); Pericles Lewis, The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, 2007). pp. 21.

14; Jump up^ "J.M.W. Turner". Encyclopedia Britannica. 15; Jump up^ The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed. Marion Wynne-Davies. New York: Prentice Hall, 1990, p. 815.

16; Jump up^ The Bloomsbury Guide, p. 816. 17; Jump up^ "Clement Greenberg, Modern and Postmodern, William Dobell Memorial Lecture, Sydney, Australia, Oct 31, 1979, Arts 54, No.6 (February 1980)"

18; ^ Jump up to: "Søren Kierkegaard (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". a b

19; Jump up^ Diané Collinson, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide. London: Routledge, 1987, p. 120.

20; Jump up^ Stuart Hylton (2007). The Grand Experiment: The Birth of the Railway Age 1820–1845. Ian Allan Publishing.

21; Jump up^ R.V.J. Butt (1995). The Directory of Railway Stations. Yeovil: Patrick Stephens. p. 180.

22; Jump up^ "LNER Encyclopedia: The Great Northern Railway: Kings Cross Station". 23; Jump up^ Geoffrey Hubbard. (1965), Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London p. 78

24; Jump up^ Ian R. Bartky (January 1989). "The adoption of standard time". Technology and Culture30 (1): 25–56.

25; Jump up^ The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2 (7th edition). New York: Norton, 2000, pp. 1051-2.

26; Jump up^ Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Oxford: WileyBlackwell, pp. 20-23.

27; Jump up^ The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origin of Twentieth-Century Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997, Chapters 3 & 4.

28; Jump up^ Frascina and Harrison 1982, p. 5. 29; Jump up^ Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism, seventh paragraph of the essay. Accessed on 15 June 2006

30; Jump up^ The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 966.

31; Jump up^ Phillip Dennis Cate and Mary Shaw, eds., The Spirit of Montmartre: Cabarets, Humor, and the Avant-Garde, 1875–1905. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1996.

32; Jump up^ Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, ed Marion Wynne-Davies. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1990, p. 538.

33; Jump up^ Robert Gooding-Williams, "Nietzsche's Pursuit of Modernism", New German Critique, No. 41, Special Issue on the Critiques of the Enlightenment. (Spring – Summer, 1987), pp. 95–108.

34; Jump up^ Bernd Magnus, "Friedrich Nietzsche". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 19 November 2013.

35; Jump up^ "Friedrich Nietzsche". Encyclopedia Britannica. 36; Jump up^ Diané Collinson, Fifty Major Philosophers: A Reference Guide, p. 131. 37; Jump up^ The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century, ed. Linda R. Williams. London: Bloomsbury, 1992, pp. 108–9.

38; ^ Jump up to: Collinson, 132. a b

39; Jump up^ David Denby, New Yorker, 11 June 2012 "Can Dostoevsky Still Kick You in the Gut?"

40; Jump up^ M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary . New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999), p. 299.

41; Jump up^ T. S. Eliot "Tradition and the individual talent" (1919), in Selected Essays. Paperback Edition. (Faber & Faber, 1999).

42; Jump up^ Searle, New Grove, 11:28–29. 43; Jump up^ *Anon. 2000. "Expressionism". Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000; Donald Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: The Wunderhorn Years: Chronicles and Commentaries. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press, 2005.

44; Jump up^ "Biography of Henri Matisse". 45; Jump up^ "MoMA". 46; Jump up^ "Claude Monet (1840–1926)". 47; Jump up^ "The Collection". 48; Jump up^ Jean Metzinger, Note sur la peinture, Pan (Paris), October–November 1910 49; Jump up^ Richard Sheppard, Modernism—Dada—Postmodernism. Northwestern Univ. Press, 2000, p. 167.

50; Jump up^ Robbins, Daniel, Albert Gleizes 1881–1953, A Retrospective Exhibition (exh. cat.). The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1964, pp. 12–25

51; Jump up^ Richard Sheppard, p. 274. 52; Jump up^ Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the English Vorticism: "The Fauvist movement has been compared to German Expressionism, both projecting brilliant colors and spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to the same late nineteenthcentury sources, especially Van Gogh". Sabine Rewald, "Fauvism". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 (October 2004); and "Vorticism can be thought of as English Expressionism". Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989, p. 26.

53; Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse: Studies in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989, p. 26.

54; Jump up^ Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-Garde: Modernism, Expressionism, and the Problem of Postmodernity. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1999, p. 43.

55; Jump up^ Richard Murphy, p. 43. 56; Jump up^ Murphy, especially pp. 43-48; and Walter H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1959, especially Chapter One.

57; Jump up^ Berghaus (2005, 55-57). 58; Jump up^ Rorrison (1998, 475) and Schürer (1997b, ix, xiv). 59; Jump up^ Degenerate Art Database (Beschlagnahme Inventar, Entartete Kunst) 60; Jump up^ Rudolph Arnheim, Visual Thinking 61; Jump up^ Mel Gooding, Abstract Art, Tate Publishing, London, 2000 62; Jump up^ Sontag, Susan (1977) On Photography, Penguin, London 63; Jump up^ "Le Corbusier". Encyclopedia Britannica. 64; Jump up^ "Growth, Efficiency, and Modernism" (PDF). U.S. General Services istration. 2006 [2003]. pp. 14–15. Retrieved March 2011.

65; Jump up^ "skyscraper." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 25 March 2011.

66; Jump up^ "Mies van der Rohe Dies at 83; Leader of Modern Architecture". The New York Times. 17 August 1969. Retrieved 21 July 2007. Mies van der Rohe, one of the great figures of 20th-century architecture.

67; Jump up^ Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California, 1954), p. 4.

68; Jump up^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online, Stream of Consciousness 69; Jump up^ In a review of these novels, in The Egoist, April 1918, May Sinclair first applied the term "stream of consciousness" in a literary context, in her discussion of Richardson's stylistic innovations.

70; Jump up^ Beno Weiss, Italica, Vol. 67, No. 3 (Autumn, 1990), p. 395 71; ^ Jump up to: Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961 a b

72; Jump up^ Guy Debord, 18 November 1958, as quoted in Supreme Height of the Defenders of Surrealism in Paris and the Revelation of their Real Value, Situationist International #2

73; Jump up^ Dalí, Salvador, Diary of a Genius quoted in The Columbia World of Quotations(1996) Archived 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

74; Jump up^ Dawn Ades, with Matthew Gale: "Surrealism", The Oxford Companion to Western Art. Ed. Hugh Brigstocke. Oxford University Press, 2001. Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, 2007. Accessed 15 March 2007, GroveArt.com

75; Jump up^ "Memorial University Libraries - Proxy ". 76; Jump up^ Caren Irr, "A Gendered Collision: Sentimentalism and Modernism in Dorothy Parker's Poetry and Fiction" (review). American Literature, Volume 73, Number 4, December 2001 pp. 880-881.

77; Jump up^ Catherine Keyser, "Robert Benchley and Dorothy Parker 'In Broadway Playhouses': Middlebrow Theatricality and Sophisticated Humour". Modernist Cultures, Volume 6, Page 121-154.

78; Jump up^ Donald Barthelme 1982 interview in Partisan Review, Volume 49, p. 185. 79; Jump up^ Pericles Lewis, "Modernist Writing and Reactionary Politics" (review).Modernism/modernity, Volume 8, Number 4, November 2001, pp. 696-698.

80; Jump up^ James Mercanton (1967). Les heures de James Joyce. Diffusion PUF. 81; Jump up^ Note by Gerard McBurney on The Nose 82; Jump up^ Sergei V. Ivanov, Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School, p. 28 – 29. ISBN 5-901724-21-6, ISBN 978-5-901724-21-7

83; Jump up^ Michael Steinberg, The Symphony: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 541–45.

84; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

"Home Page in Oxford Music Online".

85; Jump up^ Rebecca Rischin. For the End of Time: The Story of the Messiaen Quartet. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003, p. 5.

86; Jump up^ Lewis, Helena. Dada Turns Red. 1990. University of Edinburgh Press. A history of the uneasy relations between Surrealists and Communists from the 1920s through the 1950s.

87; Jump up^ Fineman, Mia, The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates., Slate, 8 June 2005

88; ^ Jump up to: J. H. Dettmar "Modernism" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British a b

Literature ed. by David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.

89; Jump up^ "modernism", The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Edited by Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.

90; Jump up^ Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism, William Dobell Memorial Lecture, Sydney, Australia, 31 October 1979, Arts 54, No.6 (February 1980). His final essay on Modernism. Retrieved 26 October 2011

91; Jump up^ Paul Griffiths "modernism" The Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. Alison Latham. Oxford University Press, 2002. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.

92; Jump up^ Cheryl Hindrichs, "Late Modernism, 1928–1945: Criticism and Theory" Literature Com, Volume 8, Issue 11, pages 840–855, November 2011; J. H. Dettmar "Modernism" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature ed. by David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006.

93; Jump up^ Morris Dickstein, "An Outsider to His Own Life", Books, The New York Times, 3 August 1997.

94; Jump up^ The Cambridge Companion to Irish Literature, ed. John Wilson Foster. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

95; Jump up^ Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony Mellors; see also Prynne's publisher, Bloodaxe Books.

96; Jump up^ Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony Mellors. 97; Jump up^ The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, Millennium Edition, Helicon 1999 98; Jump up^ University of Glasgow, Scool of Modern Languages and Cultures 99; Jump up^ Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium (edited by C. Armstrong and C. de Zegher) MIT Press, 2006.

100; Jump up^ Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007.

101; Jump up^ De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.

102; Jump up^ "Moore, Henry". UNESCO. Retrieved on 16 August 2008. 103; Jump up^ 3:36 p.m., 2 December 1967. In: McNally, Rand. "Illinois; Guide & Gazetteer". Illinois Sesquicentennial Commission. University of Virginia, 1969. 199; Jane Beckett and Fiona Russell. Henry Moore: Space, Sculpture, Politics. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2003. p. 221.

104; Jump up^ Enscripted on the plaque at the base of the sculpture. 105; Jump up^ Walker, 219-225 106; Jump up^ Martin Harrison, In Camera: Francis Bacon: Photography, Film and the Practice of Painting, London: Thames and Hudson, 2006, 7

107; Jump up^ KEN JOHNSON (3 December 2015). "Francis Bacon". 108; Jump up^ New York Times, "Obituary", 29 April 1992. 109; Jump up^ "'Girl with a White Dog', Lucian Freud - Tate". Tate. 110; Jump up^ "Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who Redefined Portraiture, Is Dead at 88". The New York Times. 21 July 2011.

111; Jump up^ William Grimes. "Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who Redefined Portraiture, Is Dead at 88". The New York Times. 21 July 2011; Rimanelli, David (January 2012), "Damien Hirst", Artforum: "With the recent death of Lucían Freud, some might argue that Hirst is now the greatest living British artist". Retrieved 28

October 2012. Also see Kennedy, Maev (21 December 2001), "Palace unveils Freud's gift to Queen", The Guardian, who calls Freud "the artist regarded as the greatest living British painter". Retrieved 28 October 2012. Darwent, Charles (28 November 1999), "The 1990s in Review: Visual Arts", The Independent, says "Freud becomes the greatest living British artist after his Whitechapel show [of 1993]". Retrieved 28 October 2012.

112; Jump up^ "Lucian Freud Stripped Bare". The New York Times. 14 December 2007. Retrieved22 July 2011.

113; Jump up^ Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November–December 1969, pp. 104–113.

114; ^ Jump up to:

Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7. a b c

115; Jump up^ Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. "The New Art: It's Way, Way Out", Newsweek, 29 July 1968: pp. 3, 55–63.

116; Jump up^ Christopher Want, "Minimalism" in Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, 2009.

117; Jump up^ "Minimalism". Encyclopedia Britannica. 118; ^ Jump up to:

a b c Hal Foster, The Return of the Real: The Avant-garde at the End of the Century, MIT Press, 1996, pp. 44–53. ISBN 0-262-56107-7

119; Jump up^ "'Fountain', Marcel Duchamp: Summary - - Tate". Tate. 120; Jump up^ "Blindman No. 2". 121; Jump up^ Craig Owens, Beyond Recognition: Representation, Power, and Culture, London and Berkeley: University of California Press (1992), pp. 74–75.

122; Jump up^ Steven Best, Douglas Kellner, The Postmodern Turn, Guilford Press, 1997, p. 174.ISBN 1-57230-221-6

123; Jump up^ "Carolee Schneemann, Biography: Selected Works, Recent and Forthcoming Events".

124; Jump up^ "Fluxus & Happening – Allan Kaprow – Chronology". Retrieved 4 May 2010.

125; Jump up^ Finkel, Jori (13 April 2008). "Happenings Are Happening Again". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

126; Jump up^ Ihab Hassan in Lawrence E. Cahoone, From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. p. 13. ISBN 0-631-23213-3

127; ^ Jump up to: Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of a b

Amnesia, Routledge, 1995. p. 192. ISBN 0-415-90934-1

128; Jump up^ Ratcliff, Carter. The New Informalists, Art News, v. 68, n. 8, December 1969, p. 72.

129; Jump up^ Barbara Rose. American Painting. Part Two: The Twentieth Century. Published by Skira – Rizzoli, New York, 1969

130; Jump up^ Walter Darby Bannard. "Notes on American Painting of the Sixties." Artforum, January 1970, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 40–45.

131; Jump up^ "postmodernism", The Penguin Companion to Classical Music, ed. Paul Griffiths. London: Penguin, 2004.

132; Jump up^ Bokkilden. "Postmodern Debates". Bokkilden. 133; Jump up^ Bokkilden. "Postmodern Debates". Bokkilden. 134; Jump up^ "Oxford Dictionaries - Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar".

135; Jump up^ "Postmodern - Definition of postmodern by Merriam-Webster". 136; Jump up^ Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; American Heritage Dictionary's definition of the postmodern

137; Jump up^ "The Po-Mo Page: Postmodern to Post-postmodern". 138; Jump up^ Wagner, British, Irish and American Literature, Trier 2002, pp. 210–12 139; Jump up^ Kühnel, Anita. "Entartete Kunst", from Grove Art Online, MoMA website.

140; Jump up^ Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.

141; Jump up^ Jack, Ian (6 June 2009). "Set In Stone". The Guardian (London).

References[edit] 

John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book (1984).



Eco, Umberto (1990) Interpreting Serials in The limits of interpretation, pp. 83– 100, excerpt



Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383–417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed. (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds. (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58–81.



Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.



Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed, Manchester University.



Steiner, George (1998) After Babel, ch.6 Topologies of culture, 3rd revised edition



Art Berman (1994) Preface to Modernism, University of Illinois Press.

Further reading[edit] 

Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3.



Aspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics,Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988



Baker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987



Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London: Penguin, 1988. ISBN 0-14-010962-5.



Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (Penguin "Penguin Literary Criticism" series, 1978, ISBN 0-14-013832-3).



Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988



Centre Georges Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996. Flammarion, 1996. ISBN 2-85850898-4.



Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York: St. Martins Press, 2000



Everdell, William R., The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997



Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992



Friedman, Julia. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-8101-2617-6 (Trade Cloth)



Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with The Open University. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.



Gates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.



Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27582-3).



Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973



Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983



Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).



Levenson, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, "Cambridge Companions to Literature" series, 1999, ISBN 0-521-49866-X).



Lewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).



Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).



Pevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10571-1).



The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (Thames & Hudson, "World of Art" series, 1985, ISBN 0-500-20072-6).



Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1).



Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8)



Potter, Rachael (January 2009). "Obscene Modernism and the Trade in Salacious Books". Modernism/modernity (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 16 (1). ISSN 10716068.



Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.



Schorske, Carl. Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture. Vintage, 1980. 978-0394744780.



Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985



Van Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l). Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp, 2006. ISBN 90-7697935-9; ISBN 978-90-76979-35-9.



Weston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001, ISBN 0-7148-4099-8).



de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).

External links[edit] Look up modernism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Modernism.



Ballard, J.G., on Modernism.



Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, Masters of Modernism.



Hoppé, E.O., photographer, Edwardian Modernists.



Malady of Writing. Modernism you can dance to An online radio show that presents a humorous version of Modernism



Modernism Lab @ Yale University



Modernism/Modernity, official publication of the Modernist Studies Association

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Modernism vs. Postmodernism

Modernist poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Modernist poetry refers to poetry written, mainly in Europe and North America, between 1890 and 1950 in the tradition of modernist literature, but the dates of the term depend upon a number of factors, including the nation of origin, the particular school in question, and the biases of the critic setting the dates. [1] The critic/poet C. H. Sisson observing in his essay Poetry and Sincerity 'Modernity has been going on for a long time. Not within living memory has there ever been a day when young writers were not coming up, in a threat of iconoclasm[2] Evidence of the truth of Sisson's comment is Arthur Hallam's 'On Some of the Characteristics of Modern poetry, published in 1830 in Moxon's English Magazine[3] Contents [hide]

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1Background



2Nature of Modernism

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3References



4Further reading



5See also

Background[edit] Notwithstanding it is usually said to have begun with the French Symbolist movement and it artificially ends with the Second World War,[citation needed] the beginning and ending of the modernist period are of course arbitrary. Poets like W. B. Yeats (1865–1939) and Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926) started in a postRomantic, Symbolist vein and modernised their poetic idiom after being affected by political and literary developments.[citation needed] Imagism proved radical and important, marking a new point of departure for poetry. [4] Some consider 'it began in the works of Hardy and Pound, Eliot and Yeats, Williams and Stevens. [5] English language poets, like T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Basil Bunting ( 'a bornmodernist'),[5] Wallace Stevens and E.E. Cummings also went on to produce work after World War II.

Nature of Modernism[edit] Modernism emerged with its insistent breaks with the immediate past, its different inventions, 'making it new' with elements from cultures remote in time and space.[4] The questions of impersonality and objectivity seem to be crucial to Modernist poetry[citation needed] . Modernism developed out of a tradition of lyrical expression, emphasising the personal imagination, culture, emotions and memories of the poet [citation needed] . For the modernists, it was essential to move away from the merely personal towards an intellectual statement that poetry could make about the world[citation needed] . Even when they reverted to the personal, like T. S. Eliot in the Four Quartets and Ezra Pound in The Cantos, they distilled the personal into a poetic texture that claimed universal human significance[citation needed] . Herbert Read said of it, "The modern poet has no essential alliance with regular schemes of any sorts. He reserves the right to adapt his rhythm to his mood, to modulate his metre as he progresses. Far from seeking freedom and irresponsibility (implied by the unfortunate term free verse) he seeks a stricter discipline of exact concord of thought and feeling." [6] After World War II, a new generation of poets sought to revoke the effort of their predecessors towards impersonality and objectivity[citation needed] . In the English language modernism ends with the turn towards confessional poetry in the work of Robert Lowell and Sylvia Plath,[citation needed] among others.

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ J. A. Cuddon, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary (London: Penguin Books, 1999), p.515.

2; Jump up^ Press Ltd , Manchester, 1990 ISBN 0856358770 3; Jump up^ Hallam, Arthur “On Some of the Characteristics of Modern Poetry, and on the Lyrical Poems of Alfred Tennyson”. 1830 Read online

4; ^ Jump up to: Schmidt , Michael, (ed) The Great Modern Poets, Quercus Poetry 2012 ISBN a b

9780857382467

5; ^ Jump up to: Schmidt, Michael , Lives of the Poets Weidenfeld & Nicholson 1998 a b

6; Jump up^ Read, Herbert, Collected Essays in Literary Criticism (1938)

Further reading[edit] 

Wesling, Donald,The Chances of Rhyme: Devices and Modernity - UC Press E-Books 1988



Perkins, David, A History of Modern Poetry: modernism and after Harvard Press, New Haven 1987 ISBN 978-0-674-39946-4



Scully, James (ed) Modern Poets on Modern Poetry, Fontana 1970 ISBN 978-0-00-632432-4



Steele, Timothy, Missing Measures: modern poetry and the revolt against metre, University of Arlansas, 1990 ISBN 978-1-55728-126-5

See also[edit] 

Modernism



Modernist literature



Modernist poetry in English



List of modernist poets



List of English-language first and second generation modernist writers



Dada



Expressionism



Imagism



Free verse



Vers libre



Symbolism



The Blue Rider



Oulipo [show]

v t e

Schools of poetry

[show] v t e

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Español Français ‫עברית‬ Português Slovenščina Edit links This page was last modified on 12 June 2015, at 22:11. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional may apply. By using this site, you agree to the of Use and . Wikipedia® is a ed trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

The Movement (literature) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Movement (literature))

This article is about a specific literary movement. For other literary movements, see List of literary movements. The Movement was a term coined in 1954 by J.D. Scott, literary editor of The Spectator, to describe a group of writers including Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, Donald Davie, D.J. Enright, John Wain, Elizabeth Jennings, Thom Gunn, and Robert Conquest. The Movement was essentially English in character, as poets from other parts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland were not actively involved. Contents [hide]



1Description



2Representative collections



3Decline



4Notes

o 4.1Bibliography 

5References

Description[edit] Although considered a literary group, of The Movement saw themselves more as an actual movement, with each writer sharing a common purpose.[1] The Movement poets were considered anti-romantic, but Larkin and Hughes featured romantic elements. To these poets, good poetry meant simple, sensuous content and traditional, conventional and dignified form.[citation needed] The Movement's importance is its worldview that took into Britain’s reduced dominance in world politics. The group's objective was to prove the importance of English poetry over the new modernist poetry. The of The Movement were not anti-modernists; they were opposed to modernism, which was reflected in the Englishness of their poetry.[1]

The Movement sparked the divisions among different types of British poetry. Their poems were nostalgic for the earlier Britain and filled with pastoral images of the decaying way of life as Britain moved farther from the rural and more towards the urban.[1]

Representative collections[edit] The Movement produced two anthologies, Poets of the 1950s (1955) (editor D. J. Enright, published in Japan) and New Lines (1956). Conquest, who edited the New Linesanthology, described the connection between the poets as 'little more than a negative determination to avoid bad principles.' These 'bad principles' are usually described as "excess", both in of theme and stylistic devices. Poets in the original New Lines anthology in 1956 included Kingsley Amis, Robert Conquest, Donald Davie, D. J. Enright,Thom Gunn, John Holloway, Elizabeth Jennings, Philip Larkin and John Wain. The polemic introduction to New Lines particularly targeted the 1940s poets, the generation of Dylan Thomas[2] In 1963, a sequel to the original New Lines anthology, titled New Lines 2 was published. It included many of the authors from the original anthology, as well as younger English poets like Thomas Blackburn, Edwin Brock, Hilary Corke, John Fuller, Ted Hughes, Edward Lucie-Smith, Anthony Thwaite and Hugo Williams.

Decline[edit] The "Angry Young Men" movement occurred in 1956 during the turning point of The Movement.[3] Lodge attributed The Movement’s decline to the publication of the New Lines anthology.[2] Afterwards, The Group became less exclusive. It was no longer requisite for to fight and defend one another's work as they had become accepted of the literary world. The Group's included Philip Hobsbaum, Alan Brownjohn, Adrian Mitchell, Peter Porter, Edward Lucie-Smith and George MacBeth, Ian Hamilton’s Review school and Michael Horovitz’s "Children of Albion".[2] The Group was similar to The Movement, as they shared similar ideas about the form and seriousness of modernist poetry. [1]

Notes[edit] Bibliography[edit] 

Enright, D. J. (editor) Poets of the 1950s: an anthology of new English verse, Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1955



Morrison, Blake, The Movement, Oxford University Press, 1980

References[edit] 1; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d Marcus, Laura; Nicholls, Peter (2004). The Cambridge History of TwentiethCentury English Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. 399–. ISBN 978-0-521-82077-6.

2; ^ Jump up to:

David Lodge wrote: Dylan Thomas was made to stand for everything they detested: verbal obscurity, metaphysical pretentiousness, and romantic rhapsodizing. David Lodge (1 January 1981). Working with Structuralism: Essays and Reviews on Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Literature. Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7100-0658-5. a b c

3; Jump up^ Angry Young Men

New York School (art) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For educational institutions in the state of New York, see education in New York.

This article is about an art movement. It is not to be confused with the New York school of photography, spanning the 1930s to 1960s and identified only in retrospect.

[hide]This article has multiple issue

This article contains embedded lists th

This article includes a list of reference The New York School (synonymous with abstract expressionist painting) was an informal group of American poets, painters, dancers, and musicians active in the 1950s and 1960s in New York City. They often drew inspiration from surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular action painting, abstract expressionism, jazz, improvisational theater, experimental music, and the interaction of friends in the New York City art world's vanguard circle. Contents [hide]



1The poets



2The composers



3The dancers



4New York School abstract expressionists of the 1950s and 1960



5References



6Bibliography

The poets[edit] Concerning the New York School poets, critics argued that their work was a reaction to the Confessionalist movement in Contemporary Poetry. Their poetic subject matter was often light, violent, or observational, while their writing style was often described as cosmopolitan and world-traveled. The poets often wrote in an immediate and spontaneous manner reminiscent of stream of consciousness writing, often using vivid imagery. They drew on inspiration from Surrealism and the contemporary avant-garde art movements, in particular the action painting of their friends in the New York City art world circle such as Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning. Poets often associated with the New York School include John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, Kenneth Koch, James Schuyler, Barbara Guest, Ted Berrigan, Bernadette Mayer, Alice Notley, Kenward Elmslie, Frank Lima, Ron Padgett, Lewis Warsh, Tom Savage and Joseph Ceravolo. O'Hara was at the center of the group before his death in 1966. Because of his numerous friendships and his post as a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, he provided connections between the poets and painters such as Jane Freilicher, Fairfield Porter, and Larry Rivers (who was also his lover). There were many t works and collaborations: Rivers inspired a play by Koch, Koch and Ashbery together wrote the poem "A Postcard to Popeye", Ashbery and Schuyler wrote the novel A Nest of Ninnies, and Schuyler collaborated on an ode with O'Hara, whose portrait was painted by Rivers.[1] Koch, O'Hara, Schuyler, and Ashbery were quite different as poets, but they ired each other and had much in common personally:[1]



Except for Schuyler, all overlapped at Harvard University,



Except for Koch, all were and/or are homosexual,



Except for Ashbery, all did military service,



Except for Koch, all reviewed art,



Except for Ashbery, all lived in New York during their formative years as poets.

All four were inspired by French Surrealists such as Raymond Roussel, Pierre Reverdy, and Guillaume Apollinaire. David Lehman, in his book on the New York poets, wrote: "They favored wit, humor and the advanced irony of the blague (that is, the insolent prank or jest) in ways more suggestive of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg than of the New York School abstract expressionist painters after whom they were named."[1]

The composers[edit] The term also refers to a circle of composers in the 1950s which included John Cage, Morton Feldman, Earle Brown and Christian Wolff.[2] Their music paralleled the music and events of the Fluxus group, and drew its name from the Abstract Expressionist painters above.

The dancers[edit] During the 1960s the Judson Dance Theater located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York City, revolutionized Modern dance. Combining in new ways the idea ofPerformance art, radical and new Choreography, sound from avant-garde composers, and dancers in collaboration with several New York School Visual artists. The group of artists that formed Judson Dance Theater are considered the founders of Postmodern dance. The theater grew out of a dance composition class taught by Robert Dunn, a musician who had studied with John Cage. The artists involved with Judson Dance Theater were avantgarde experimenatalists who rejected the confines of ballet technique, vocabulary and theory. The first Judson concert took place on July 6, 1962, with dance works presented by Steve Paxton, Freddie Herko, David Gordon, Alex and Deborah Hay, Yvonne Rainer, Elaine Summers, William Davis, and Ruth Emerson. Seminal dance artists that were a part of the Judson Dance Theater include: David Gordon, Steve Paxton, Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Lucinda Childs, Deborah Hay, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Aileen loff, and Meredith Monk. The years 1962 to 1964 are considered the golden age of the Judson Dance Theater. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s New York School artists collaborated with several other choreographer / dancers including: Simone Forti, Anna Halprin, Merce Cunningham,Martha Graham, and Paul Taylor.

New York School abstract expressionists of the 1950s and 1960[edit] See also: 9th Street Art Exhibition and Tenth Street galleries The New York School which represented the New York abstract expressionists of the 1950s was documented through a series of artists' committee invitational exhibitionscommencing with the 9th Street Art Exhibition in 1951 and followed by consecutive exhibitions at the Stable Gallery, NYC: Second Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1953;[3] Third Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1954;[4] Fourth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, 1955;[5] Fifth Annual Exhibitions of Painting and Sculpture, 1956[6] and Sixth New York Artists’ Annual Exhibition, 1957.[7] Included in the New York School were Bradley Walker Tomlin (1899–1953), Rosemarie Beck (1923–2003) and Philip Guston (1913–1980) Other New York School artists, including those of the 1960s, have included painters Richard PousetteDart, Cecile Gray Bazelon, Seymour Boardman, Ilya Bolotowsky, Ernest Briggs, Peter Busa,[8] Lawrence Calcagno, Nicolas Carone, Nanno de Groot, Beauford Delaney, Lynne Mapp Drexler, Edward Dugmore, Amaranth Ehrenhalt, Perle Fine, Karl Hagedorn, John Hultberg, Albert Kotin, Clarence Major, Misha Reznikoff, William Scharf, Ethel Schwabacher, Kendall Shaw, Thomas Sills, Merton Simpson, and Jack Stewart.[9][10]In addition, painter/sculptors Karel Appel, Claire Falkenstein, Betty Parsons, and Antoni Tàpies are known as of the New York School.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]

Galleries[edit] The Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City specializes in 1950s and 1960s New York School art, and exhibits expressionism, geometric abstraction, and painterlyabstraction.[12][22][23][24][25] It most frequently exhibits works in oil and acrylic, as well as sculpture.[12] The Tibor de Nagy Gallery and Stable Gallery have also exhibited New York School art, and in 1998, the Gagosian Gallery also in New York City presented an exhibit of New York School art.[26][27][28]

References[edit] 1; ^ Jump up to:

[1] Yezzi, David, "Last One Off the Barricade Turn Out the Lights", a review inThe New York Times of The Last Avant-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets, by David Lehman, Thursday, January 3, 1999 a b c

2; Jump up^ See David Ni of Music and the Visual Arts, Routledge 2001, pp. 17–56. 3; Jump up^ Second Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, (poster), Albertkotin.com 4; Jump up^ Third Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, (poster), Albertkotin.com 5; Jump up^ Fourth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, (poster), Albertkotin.com 6; Jump up^ Fifth Annual Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture, (poster), Albertkotin.com 7; Jump up^ New York Artists' 6th Annual Exhibition. (poster), Albertkotin.com 8; Jump up^ "Peter Busa - Biography". Acme Fine Art. Retrieved 2015-07-25. 9; Jump up^ "The Art of Karl Hagedorn", Highbrow Magazine, May 7, 2014 10; Jump up^ [2] 11; Jump up^ Holland Cotter (July 13, 2005). "'Betty Parsons and the Women'; An Artist and Dealer and the Women She Promoted", The New York Times

12; ^ Jump up to:

2010 Artist's & Graphic Designer's Market. Writer's Digest Books. 2009.ISBN 1599635682. a b c

13; Jump up^ Stephen Pace, Christine A. Berry, Lisa N. Peters (2011). Stephen Pace:Abstract Expressionist. Spanierman Gallery LLC. ISBN 1935617117.

14; Jump up^ Keith Eldon Byerman (2012). The Art and Life of Clarence Major. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0820330558.

15; Jump up^ 2009 Artist's & Graphic Designer's Market – Listings. F+W Media, Inc. 2008.ISBN 1582976546.

16; Jump up^ Art Now Gallery Guide: National & international 18. Art Now, Incorporated. 1999. 17; Jump up^ The Studio Museum in Harlem: Twenty-Five Years of African-American Art. The Studio Museum in Harlem. 1994. ISBN 0942949110.

18; Jump up^ Marcia G. Yerman (March 9, 2015). "A Conversation With Amaranth Ehrenhalt". The Huffington Post.

19; Jump up^ Peter Plagens (May 26, 2012). "Art Confronts Issues of War And Bigotry". The Wall Street Journal.

20; Jump up^ David Cohen (July 10, 2008). "The Location of the Second Generation". The New York Sun.

21; Jump up^ "The Writer's Brush". CBS News. December 16, 2007. 22; Jump up^ Magda Salvesen, Diane Cousineau (2005). Artists' Estates: Reputations in Trust. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0813536049.

23; Jump up^ Marika Herskovic (2003). American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s: An Illustrated Survey: with Artists' Statements, Artwork and Biographies. New York School Press. ISBN 0967799414.

24; Jump up^ "About". anitashapolskygallery.com. 25; Jump up^ Jane Maulfair (August 7, 1987). "Her Concrete Love of Abstract Art Turned a Jim Thorpe Church into a Gallery". The Morning Call.

26; Jump up^ Cate McQuaid (January 31, 2015). "Helen Frankenthaler’s art prompts new take on history at the Rose". Boston Globe.

27; Jump up^ "Raymond Spillenger of the New York School Gets Noticed", The New York Times, June 8, 2014

28; Jump up^ "The New York School – March 17 – April 25, 1998 – Gagosian Gallery".gagosian.com.

Bibliography[edit] 

Philip Pavia; Natalie Edgar, Club without walls: selection from the Journals of Philip Pavia, New York: Midmarch Arts, 2007.



Irving Sandler, ‘’The New York School: the painters & sculptors of the fifties,’’, New York; London: Harper and Row, 1978. ISBN 0-06-438505-1, ISBN 978-0-06-438505-3



Irving Sandler, ‘’ The triumph of American painting: a history of abstract expressionism’’, New York; London: Harper and Row, 1977. ISBN 0-06-430075-7, ISBN 978-0-06-430075-9



Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4



Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6



Statutes of Liberty, The New York School of Poets, Geoff Ward, Second Edition, 2001.



The New American Poetry, 1945–1960, Donald Merriam Allen, 1969.



An Anthology of New York Poets, Ron Padgett (ed.) and David Shapiro (ed.), 1970.



Marjorie Perloff, Frank O'Hara: Poet Among Painters, University of Texas Press, 1977.



The Last Avant-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets, David Lehman, 1998.



Maurice Tuchman (ed.), The New York School, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1965.



Dore Ashton, The New York School: A Cultural Reckoning, Penguin Books, 1979.



Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art : Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1983. [show]

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Objectivist poets From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The objectivist poets were a loose-knit group of second-generation Modernists who emerged in the 1930s. They were mainly American and were influenced by, amongst others, Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams. The basic tenets of objectivist poetics as defined by Louis Zukofsky were to treat the poem as an

object, and to emphasise sincerity, intelligence, and the poet's ability to look clearly at the world. While the name of the group is similar to Ayn Rand's school of philosophy, the two movements are not d in any way, and are, in fact, radically different.[1] The core group consisted of the Americans Zukofsky, Williams, Charles Reznikoff, George Oppen and Carl Rakosi, and the British poet Basil Bunting. Later, another American poet, Lorine Niedecker, became associated with the group. A number of other poets were included in early publications under the Objectivist rubric without actually sharing the attitudes and approaches to poetry of this core group. Although these poets generally suffered critical neglect, especially in their early careers, and a number of them abandoned the practice of writing and/or publishing poetry for a time, they were to prove highly influential for later generations of writers working in the tradition of modernist poetry in English. Contents [hide]

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1Roots

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2Early publications

o 2.1Some example poems o 2.2Language and poetry o 2.3Reaction 

3Aftermath of Objectivism



4Legacy

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5Notes

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6References

o 6.1Print o 6.2Online 

7External links

Roots[edit] The period 1909 to 1913 saw the emergence of Imagism, the first consciously avant garde movement in 20th century English-language poetry. Pound, who was Imagism's prime mover, served as foreign editor of Harriet Monroe's magazine Poetry. In October 1912, he submitted three poems each by H.D. and Richard Aldington under the label Imagiste. Aldington's poems were printed in the November issue, and H.D.'s appeared in the January 1913 issue. The March 1913 issue of Poetry also contained Pound's A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste and F. S. Flint's essay Imagisme. This publication history meant that this London-based movement had its first readership in the United States. It also meant that Imagism was available as a model for American Modernist poets of the next generation. Zukofsky was one such poet. He published a poem in Poetry in 1924 and introduced himself to Pound in 1927, when he sent the older poet his "Poem beginning 'The,'". Pound published the poem in his magazine The Exile, and a long correspondence and friendship between the two began. This relationship was strengthened by Zukofsky's 1929 essay on Pound's long work in progress The Cantos. Pound also provided an introduction to William Carlos Williams, a physician and poet who had been a classmate of Pound's while at the University of Pennsylvania and who lived in Rutherford, New Jersey, not far from Zukofsky. Zukofsky and Williams quickly became close friends and were to be literary collaborators for the rest of Williams's life. Another of Zukofsky's literary mentors at this period was Charles Reznikoff, a New York poet whose early work was also influenced by Imagism. By 1928, the young American poet George Oppen and his wife Mary Oppen had become friendly with Zukofsky and Reznikoff. Another young American poet, Carl Rakosi, started corresponding with Pound around this time, and the older poet again recommended him to Zukofsky. The final member of the core group, Basil Bunting, was

anEnglish poet who came from a Quaker background and who had been imprisoned as a conscientious objector during World War I. In 1923, Bunting met Pound in Paris and the two men developed a close literary friendship, with Bunting living near Pound at Rapallo from 1931 to 1933. In 1930, Bunting published his first collection of poetry, Redimiculum Matellarum, and Pound introduced him to Zukofsky. The term 'Objectivist' developed because Harriet Monroe insisted on a group name for the February 1931 issue of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, which Monroe had allowed Zukofsky to guest edit, at Pound's urging.[2] Zukofsky recounts the occasion with Monroe in Prepositions: "Harriet Monroe at the time insisted, we'd better have a title for it, call it something. I said, I don't want to. She insisted; so, I said, alright, if I can define it in an essay, and I used two words, sincerity and objectification, and I was sorry immediately. But it's gone down into the history books; they forgot the founder, thank heavens, and kept the , and, of course, I said objectivist, and they said objectivism and that makes all the difference. Well, that was pretty bad, so then I spent the next thirty years trying to make it simple." [3] It also seems that the core group did not see themselves as a coherent movement but rather as a group of individual poets with some shared approach to their art. As well as the matters covered in Zukofsky's essays, the elements of this approach included: a respect for Imagist achievement in the areas of vers libre and highly concentrated language and imagery; a rejection of the Imagists' interest in classicism andmythology; for Reznikoff, Zukofsky, Rakosi and Oppen, a shared Jewish heritage (which, for all but Oppen included an early childhood in which English was not their first language); generally left-wing, and, in the cases of Zukofsky, Rakosi, and Oppen at least, Marxist politics.

Early publications[edit] The first appearance of the group was in a special issue of Poetry magazine in February 1931; this was arranged for by Pound and edited by Zukofsky (Vol. 37, No. 5). In addition to poems by Rakosi, Zukofsky, Reznikoff, George Oppen, Basil Bunting and William Carlos Williams, Zukofsky included work by a number of poets who would have little or no further association with the group: Howard Weeks, Robert McAlmon, Joyce Hopkins, Norman Macleod, Kenneth Rexroth, S. Theodore Hecht, Harry Roskolenkier, Henry Zolinsky, Whittaker Chambers, Jesse Lowenthal, Emanuel Carnevali (as translator of Arthur Rimbaud), John Wheelwright, Richard Johns and Martha Champion. An appendix (Symposium) featured texts by Parker Tyler and Charles Henri Ford, with a note by Zukofsky, a text by Samuel Putnam and Zukofsky-translated poems by André Salmon andRené Taupin. The issue also contained Zukofsky's essays Program: 'Objectivists' 1931 and Sincerity and Objectification: With Special Reference to the Work of Charles Reznikoff, a reworking of a study of Reznikoff's work originally written some time earlier. In this second essay, Zukofsky expands on the basic tenets of Objectivist poetics, stating that in sincerity "Writing occurs which is the detail, not mirage, of seeing, of thinking with the things as they exist, and of directing them along a line of melody", and that objectification relates to "the appearance of the art form as an object". This position echoes Pound's 1918 dictum (in an essay, "A Retrospective", in which he is looking back at Imagism) "I believe in technique as the test of a man's sincerity".

Some example poems[edit] As an example, Zukofsky cites the following short section from A Group of Verse, a long poem sequence that was Reznikoff's contribution to the issue: Among the heaps of brick and plaster lies a girder, still itself among the rubbish. In which the girder among the rubbish represents –for Zukofsky– the poem as object, sincere in itself. Oppen continued to refer to these lines as a poetic touchstone as late as 1976, though he would often mis them as "a girder, still itself among the rubble." Oppen's own contribution was a poem titled "1930s", later collected (without the title) as the opening section of Oppen's first collection called Discrete Series, a book-length poem sequence. The knowledge not of sorrow, you were saying, but of boredom Is — aside from reading speaking smoking —

Of what, Maude Blessingbourne it was, wished to know when, having risen, “approached the window as if to see what really was going on”; And saw rain falling, in the distance more slowly, The road clear from her past the windowglass — Of the world, weather-swept, with which one shares the century. Of his own poetry, Zukofsky chose to include "A" — Seventh Movement, the first part of a sixpage section from what was to become an 800-page poem. This extract takes as its subject a set of roadworks in the street outside his New York home: Horses: who will do it? out of manes? Words Will do it, out of manes, out of airs, but They have no manes, so there are no airs, birds Of words, from me to them no singing gut. For they have no eyes, for their legs are wood, For their stomachs are logs with print on them; Blood red, red lamps hang from necks or where could Be necks, two legs stand A, four together M. "Street Closed" is what print says on their stomachs; That cuts out everybody but the diggers; You're cut out, and she's cut out, and the jiggers Are cut out. No! we can't have such nor bucks As won't, tho they're not here, thru a hoop Strayed on a manhole — me? Am on a stoop. extract from "A"-7 by Louis Zukofsky

Language and poetry[edit] Another aspect of Objectivist poetics that is not explicitly addressed in these essays is an interest in exploiting the resonances of small, everyday words. As Zukofsky was to write some time later (in 1946), "a case can be made for the poet giving some of his life to the use of the words the and a: both of which are weighted with as much epos and historical destiny as one man can perhaps resolve. Those who do not believe this are too sure that the little words mean nothing among so many other words." This concern is also reflected in Oppen's statement "if we still possessed the word 'is', there would be no need to write poems".

Reaction[edit] Reaction to the issue was not uniformly welcoming, and the March 1931 issue of the magazine contained a hostile response by the editor herself under the title "The Arrogance of Youth". Monroe was particularly angered by Zukofsky's rejection of Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, Edgar Lee Masters, and Edna St. Vincent Millay, all of whom were regular contributors to the magazine. However, not all reactions were so unfavorable; Niedecker read the issue at her local public library in Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin, and wrote to Zukofsky shortly thereafter, beginning a friendship and frequent literary correspondence that would last until her death 40 years later. The Poetry issue was followed in 1932 by the Zukofsky-edited An 'Objectivist' Anthology. This anthology featured far fewer contributors: Basil Bunting, Mary Butts, s Fletcher, Robert McAlmon, George Oppen, Ezra Pound, Carl Rakosi, Kenneth Rexroth, Charles Reznikoff, William Carlos Williams, Louis Zukofsky and Forest Anderson, T. S. Eliot, R. B. N. Warriston and Jerry Reisman. The anthology served to highlight the differences between these poets as much as their shared attitudes to writing. Much of the difference stemmed from Zukofsky's insistence on form over content, which conflicted with many of the other poets' concern with the

real world. As Rakosi would later write: "if Reznikoff was an Objectivist, Zukofsky is not and never was one." An Objectivist Anthology was published by To, Publishers, a small press organized by Zukofsky, Reznikoff and George and Mary Oppen, and funded from Oppen's small private income. Zukofsky acted as general editor from New York City, for which he drew a small monthly salary, and the Oppen's arranged for the books' typesetting and printing from Le Beausset, a small village in the south of where the Oppens were living. The press also published A Novelette and Other Prose (1932) by Williams and Prolegomena 1(1932) by Ezra Pound. This was a reprint of two of Pound's prose books, How to Read and The Spirit of Romance, bound in one volume. While the press had ambitious plans, planning to print Williams' uncollected prose, Pound's complete critical works, Bunting's translation of Italian poet Federigo Tozzi, Zukofsky's 55 Poems, and at least one book by Reznikoff, the press ran into several problems, and folded late in 1932 before any more volumes appeared. The Oppens returned to the United States in 1932 and, together with Zukofsky, Williams, and Reznikoff, went on to form the Objectivist Press to publish more books of Objectivist work. The first titles to appear were Williams' Collected Poems 1921–31 (1934), with an introduction by Wallace Stevens, Oppen's Discrete Series, with an introduction by Ezra Pound, followed by Reznikoff's Jerusalem the Golden, (1934, poetry), his Testimony, (1934, prose), with an introduction by Kenneth Burke and his In Memoriam: 1933 (1934, poetry). Reznikoff's Separate Way (1936) was the last publication of The Objectivist Press, not counting Zukofsky's A Test of Poetry (1948), which was published under its imprint twelve years later.

Aftermath of Objectivism[edit] In 1935, the Oppens ed the Communist Party of America, and George abandoned poetry in favor of political activism. In 1950, the couple moved to Mexico to escape the strongly antiCommunist political atmosphere of the times. It would be 1958 before Oppen wrote any further poetry. The Oppens returned to New York in 1960, and George went on to publish six books of poetry between 1962 and 1978, by which time he was finding it increasingly difficult to write— he had Alzheimer's disease. He won the Pulitzer Prize in 1969 for Of Being Numerous. Mary Oppen published an of their life, including a close-up view of the Objectivist period, in her 1978 memoir Meaning a Life. George Oppen died in 1984, and Mary died in 1990. After publishing his 1941 Selected Poems, Carl Rakosi also abandoned poetry, dedicating himself to a career as a social worker. Shortly after turning 21, Rakosi had legally changed his name to Callman Rawley under which name he served as the head of the Minneapolis Jewish Children's and Family Service from 1945 until his retirement in 1968. A unexpected letter received from the English poet Andrew Crozier in 1965 about his early poetry encouraged Rakosi to start writing and publishing poetry again. A collection,Amulet, was published by New Directions Publishers in 1967, and a number of other volumes were to appear over the following 46 years. These included his Collected Poems in 1986. Rakosi died in 2004, aged 100. After Redimiculum Matellarum, Bunting's next book publication was Poems: 1950. After a lively decade spent largely working in Iran for the British foreign service and The Times of London, Bunting returned to live in his native Northumbria after his expulsion from Iran in 1952 by Mossadeq, and the 1960s were to prove to be a very productive decade for him. Publications from this time include possibly his best-known work, the long poem Briggflatts (1966), described by critic Cyril Connolly as "the finest long poem to have been published in England since T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets", and Collected Poems (1968, revised editions 1978 and 1985). An Uncollected Poems appeared in 1991 and his Complete Poems in 2000. In 1933, Niedecker visited Zukofsky in New York, where she and Zukofsky were rumored to have had a brief affair. She soon returned to her home in rural Wisconsin, a landscape that was to influence much of her later writing. Her first book, New Goose, was published by the James A. Decker Press in 1946. As was the case for many of the other Objectivists, a combination of critical neglect and personal circumstances meant that this early publication was followed by a longish period of poetic silence during which she was unable to find a publisher for her work. Although she continued writing for much of the intervening period, her next book, My Friend

Tree, did not appear until 1961. She published relatively frequently after that, and her Collected Works appeared in 2002. In 1941, Reznikoff published a collection of poems called Going To and Fro and Walking Up and Down. After that, although he continued to write and to publish in periodicals, his poetry had no further book publication until the 1959 Inscriptions: 1944–1956. In 1962, New Directions published a selection of poems called By the Waters of Manhattan. Three years later, they brought out Testimony: The United States, 1885–1890: Recitative, the first installment of a long work based on court records covering the period 1855 to 1915. The book was a commercial and critical flop, and New Directions dropped him. In the 1970s, Black Sparrow Press started publishing Reznikoff, bringing out the completeTestimony as well as a similar work, Holocaust, based on courtroom s of Nazi concentration camps. In the years after Reznikoff's death in 1976, Black Sparrow brought all his major works back into print. Zukofsky had begun work on a long poem in 24 parts called A in 1927. The first seven "movements" of this work appeared in the Objectivist Anthology, having previously appeared in magazines. These early sections show the influence of The Cantos, though Zukofsky was to further develop his own style and voice as A progressed. The 1930s also saw him continue his involvement in Marxist politics, an interest that went back to his college friendship with Whittaker Chambers. Although he would continue to write short poems and prose works, notably the 1963 Bottom: On Shakespeare, the completion of A was to be the major concern of the remainder of Zukofsky's writing life. As the poem progressed, formal considerations tended to be foregrounded more and more, with Zukofsky applying a wide range of devices and approaches, from the sonnet to aleatory or random composition. The final complete edition was going to press as the poet lay on his deathbed in 1978. His final written work was the index to this volume.

Legacy[edit] The early critical reception of the Objectivists was generally hostile, particularly in reviews by Morris Schappes and Yvor Winters, as well as Harriet Monroe's already-mentioned unfavorable reaction to the Poetry special issue. However, they did have an immediate impact, especially on the work of their two Imagist mentors, Williams and Pound. Williams and Zukofsky were to maintain a lifelong personal and creative relationship which was to prove important for both men. For Zukofsky, the example of Williams helped to keep him focused on external realities and things. For Williams, Zukofsky served as a reminder of the importance of form. As Mark Scroggins writes, "from Zukofsky, Williams learned to shape his often amorphous verse into more sharply chiselled measures." Pound, too, was influenced by the Objectivist sense of form, their focus on everyday vocabulary, and their interests in politics, economics and specifically American subject matter. The critic Hugh Kenner has argued that these influences helped shape the sections of The Cantos published during the 1930s, writing "Pound was reading them, and they him". The poets of the Beat Generation, a group of American bohemian writers to emerge at the end of the 1940s that included Allen Ginsberg, Gary Snyder and Jack Kerouac, owed much to Pound and Williams, and were led, through them, to the Objectivists. In the 1950s and 1960s, Zukofsky was sought out by younger poets including Paul Blackburn,Jerome Rothenberg, Jonathan Williams, Denise Levertov, Gilbert Sorrentino and Allen Ginsberg. His work was also wellknown to the Black Mountain poets, especially Robert Creeley and Cid Corman, whose Origin magazine and press were to serve as valuable publishing outlets for the older poet. Zukofsky's formal procedures, especially his interest in aleatory writing, were a key influence on Jackson Mac Low and John Cage, amongst others, and through them on theLanguage School, an avant garde group of poets who started publishing in the 1970s and who included Bruce Andrews, Charles Bernstein, Ron Silliman, Lyn Hejinian, Bob Perelman, Michael Palmer, Rae Armantrout, Carla Harryman, Barrett Watten, Clark Coolidge, Hannah Weiner, Susan Howe, Tina Darragh and Fanny Howe.

Oppen and Reznikoff influenced subsequent generations of poets, most notably, Theodore Enslin, Harvey Shapiro, Michael Heller, Norman Finkelstein, Rachel Blau DuPlessis,John Taggart, and Armand Schwerner to name a few. Their poetry continues the Objectivist obsession with language, ethics, and world and often addresses modern, urban, Jewish life, both secular and religious. DuPlessis, on first glance, seems an exception to this list. Her poetry seems not to immediately possess the so-called themes of an Objectivist aesthetic as practiced in the work of a Reznikoff, a Niedecker or an Oppen. As a young woman and university student, DuPlessis began a lifelong correspondence with Oppen and was deeply influenced by Oppen's integrity, sincerity, and courage. Though establishing herself as a poet with tendencies and obsessions at some remove from an Objectivist ethos (or so it may be argued at a first reading) DuPlessis has played a crucial role in the dissemination and survival of Objectivist poetry and poetics well into the 21st century. The life of a man such as Oppen made a lasting impression on DuPlessis. DuPlessis gained Oppen's trust as well and she was given the opportunity of editing Oppen's Selected Letters, which were published posthumously. Bunting's physical presence in Newcastle in the 1960s, together with his close relationships with a number of younger poets (including Tom Pickard, Thomas A. Clark, Richard Caddel and Barry MacSweeney), meant that he was a major father figure for the poets of the British Poetry Revival. This younger generation were also drawn to the works of the other Objectivists, and their writings began to be more widely known in Britain. For example, it was a letter from the Revival poet Andrew Crozier which prompted Rakosi's return to poetry. Amidst the continuous reappraisals, critical and otherwise, of the legacy and literary formation of the Objectivists, a well known mapping of the territory continues to be one put forth by poet Ron Silliman: "three-phase Objectivism". Though unclear, precisely, who coined the phrase, this rubric offers a useful way of dealing with the intercession of the Objectivist poets into our consciousness. Writes Silliman: .. the process requires you to position yourself within the terrain of a poetics. All any literary formation is, in one sense, is just such a process carried out consciously, collectively & in public. To see that, one need only look at the three broad phases of Objectivism –



§ The 1930s, interactivity, optimism, t publishing projects, critical statements, recruiting (Niedecker)



§ The 1940s & ‘50s, almost totally receding, with several Objectivists either not publishing and even not writing for long periods of time



§ 1960s onward, the emergence & success of these writers precisely as a literary formation[4]

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Axelrod, Steven Gould, Camille Roman and Thomas Travisano (2012). The New Anthology of American Poetry: Vol. III: Postmodernisms 1950Present. Piscataway NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0813551562.

2; Jump up^ http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5669 3; Jump up^ http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5669 4; Jump up^ from Silliman's Blog, October 30, 2002

References[edit] Print[edit] 

DuPlessis, Rachel Blau & Peter Quartermain (eds) The Objectivist Nexus: Essays in Cultural Poetics, (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1999). ISBN 0-81730973-X



Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (Faber and Faber, 1975 edition). ISBN 0-571-106684



McAllister, Andrew (ed) The Objectivists: An Anthology (Bloodaxe Books, 1996). ISBN 1-85224-341-4.



Perloff, Marjorie, "Barbed-Wire Entanglements": The "New American Poetry," 1930–1932" in Modernism/modernity - Volume 2, Number 1, January 1995, pp. 145–175.



Scroggins, Mark. The Poem of a Life: A Biography of Louis Zukofsky, Shoemaker & Hoard, 2007.

Online[edit] 

Andrew Crozier: On Carl Rakosi's Life and Career Captured October 13, 2005.



Milton Hindus: Charles Reznikoff: A Biographical Essay Captured October 13, 2005.



Joseph G. Kronick: George Oppen's Life and Career Captured October 13, 2005.



Mark Scroggins: A Biographical Essay on Louis Zukofsky Captured October 10, 2005.



Richard Caddel: Minor Poet, Not Conspicuously Dishonest: Basil Bunting at 100 Captured October 27, 2005.



Peter Nicholls: Modernising Modernism: from Pound to Oppen Captured November 14, 2005.

External links[edit] 

Four poems by Basil Bunting Captured November 23, 2005.



Some poems by Lorine Niedecker Captured November 23, 2005.



A poem by George Oppen Captured November 23, 2005.



Some poems by Carl Rakosi Captured November 23, 2005.



Two versions of a poem by Charles Reznikoff Captured November 23, 2005.

Parnassianism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Parnassian)

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article in French. (February 2011) Click [show] for important translation instructions. [show]

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Parnassianism (or Parnassism) was a French literary style which began during the positivist period of the 19th century. The style was influenced by the author Théophile Gautier as well as by the philosophical ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer.

Parnassianism was a literary style characteristic of certain French poetry during the positivist period of the 19th century, occurring after romanticism and prior to symbolism. The name is derived from the original Parnassian poets' journal, Le Parnasse contemporain, itself named after Mount Parnassus, home of the Muses of Greek mythology. The anthology was first issued in 1866, then again in 1869 and 1876, including poems by Charles Leconte de Lisle, Théodore de Banville, Sully Prudhomme, Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, François Coppée and José María de Heredia. The Parnassians were influenced by Théophile Gautier and his doctrine of "art for art's sake". As a reaction to the less disciplined types of romantic poetry, and what they considered the excessive sentimentality and undue social and political activism of Romantic works, the Parnassians strove for exact and faultless workmanship, selecting exotic and classical subjects which they treated with rigidity of form and emotional detachment. Elements of this detachment were derived from the philosophical work of Arthur Schopenhauer. Despite its French origins, Parnassianism was not restricted to French authors. Perhaps the most idiosyncratic of Parnassians,Olavo Bilac (Alberto de Oliveira's disciple) was an author from Brazil who managed carefully to craft verses and metre while maintaining a strong emotionalism in them. PolishParnassians included Antoni Lange, Felicjan Faleński, Cyprian Kamil Norwid and Leopold Staff. The most important Romanian poet with Paranassian influences was Alexandru Macedonski. Gerard Manley Hopkins used the term Parnassian to describe competent but uninspired poetry. He identified this trend particularly with the work of Alfred Tennyson, citing the poem "Enoch Arden" as an example[citation needed].[1] This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacksinline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2014)

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Hopkins, Gerard Manley (2002). The Major Works. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 185–186. ISBN 978-0-19-953885-0. In

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Maurice Souriau, Histoire du Parnasse, ed. Spes, 1929

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Louis-Xavier de Ricard, Petits mémoires d'un Parnassien

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Adolphe Racot, Les Parnassiens, introduction and commentaries by M. Pakenham, presented by Louis Forestier, Aux Lettres modernes: collection avant-siècle, 1967.



Yann Mortelette, Histoire du Parnasse, Paris : Fayard, 2005, 400 p.



Le Parnasse. Mémoire de la critique, ed. Yann Mortelette, Paris : PUPS, 2006, 444 p.



André Thérive, Le Parnasse, ed. PAUL-DUVAL, 1929.

 Luc Decaunes, La Poésie parnassienne Anthologie, Seghers, 1977. In Brazil Poets 

Bilac, Olavo. Complete Works

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CORREIA, Raimundo. 15 poems

 OLIVEIRA, Alberto. 20 sonets Essays and criticisms

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AZEVEDO, Sanzio de. Parnasianismo na poesia brasileira. Fortaleza: Ceará University, 2000.

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BOSI, Alfredo. A intuição da agem em um soneto de Raimundo Correia, in --- (org). Leitura de Poesia. São Paulo: Ática, 2003.

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CANDIDO, Antonio. No coração do silêncio. in: ---. Na sala de aula. São Paulo: Ática, 1985.

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CAVALCANTI, Camillo. Fundamentos modernos das Poesias de Alberto de Oliveira, doctoral thesis at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, 2008.

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FISCHER, Luis Augusto. Parnasianismo brasileiro. Porto Alegre: Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2003.

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MAGALHÃES Jr., Raymundo. Olavo Bilac. Rio de Janeiro: Americana, 1974.

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MARTINO, Pierre. Parnasse et symbolisme. Armand Colin, 1967. (Parnaso y symbolismo, Ed. Ateneo)

Pastoral From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Pastoral (disambiguation). This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states the Wikipedia editor's particular feelingsabout a topic, rather than the opinions of experts. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style.(September 2011)

Alvan Fisher, Pastoral Landscape, 1854

A pastoral lifestyle (see pastoralism) is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasonsand the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to

a genre of literature, art and music that depicts such life in an idealized manner, typically for urban audiences. A pastoral is a work of this genre, also known as bucolic, from theGreek βουκολικόν, from βουκόλος, meaning a cowherd.[1][2] Contents [hide]

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1Pastoral literature

o 1.1Pastoral literature in general o 1.2Pastoral poetry ;

1.2.1Pastoral epic

o 1.3Pastoral romances o 1.4Pastoral plays 

2Pastoral music

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3Pastoral art

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4Pastoral theory

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5See also

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6References

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7External links

Pastoral literature[edit] Pastoral literature in general[edit] Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various techniques to place the complex life into a simple one. Paul Alpers distinguishes pastoral as a mode rather than a genre, and he bases this distinction on the recurring attitude of power; that is to say that pastoral literature holds a humble perspective toward nature. Thus, pastoral as a mode occurs in many types of literature (poetry, drama, etc.) as well as genres (most notably the pastoral elegy). Terry Gifford, a prominent literary theorist, defines pastoral in three ways in his critical book Pastoral. The first way emphasizes the historical literary perspective of the pastoral in which authors recognize and discuss life in the country and in particular the life of a shepherd.[3] This is summed up by Leo Marx with the phrase "No shepherd, no pastoral."[3]The second type of the pastoral is literature that "describes the country with an implicit or explicit contrast to the urban."[3] The third type of pastoral depicts the country life with derogative classifications.[3] Hesiod's Works and Days presents a 'golden age' when people lived together in harmony with nature. This Golden Age shows that even before Alexandria, ancient Greeks had sentiments of an ideal pastoral life that they had already lost. This is the first example of literature that has pastoral sentiments and may have begun the pastoral tradition. Ovid's Metamorphoses is much like the Works and Days with the description of ages (golden, silver, brazen, iron and human) but with more ages to discuss and less emphasis on the gods and their punishments. In this artificially constructed world, nature acts as the main punisher. Another example of this perfect relationship between man and nature is evident in the encounter of a shepherd and a goatherd who meet in the pastures in Theocritus' poem Idylls 1. Traditionally, pastoral refers to the lives of herdsmen in a romanticized, exaggerated, but representative way. In literature, the adjective 'pastoral' refers to rural subjects and aspects of life in the countryside among shepherds, cowherds and other farm workers that are often romanticized and depicted in a highly unrealistic manner. The pastoral life is usually characterized as being closer to the Golden age than the rest of human life. The setting is a Locus Amoenus, or a beautiful place in nature, sometimes connected with images of the Garden of Eden.[4] An example of the use of the genre is the short poem by the 15th-

century Scottish makar Robert Henryson Robene and Makyne which also contains the conflicted emotions often present in the genre. A more tranquil mood is set by Christopher Marlowe's well known lines from The ionate Shepherd to His Love: Come live with me and be my Love, And we will all the pleasures prove That hills and valleys, dale and field, And all the craggy mountains yield." There will we sit upon the rocks And see the shepherds feed their flocks, By shallow rivers, to whose falls Melodious birds sing madrigals. "The ionate Shepherd to His Love" exhibits the concept of Gifford's second definition of pastoral. The speaker of the poem, who is the titled shepherd, draws on the idealization of urban material pleasures to win over his love rather than resorting to the simplified pleasures of pastoral ideology. This can be seen in the listed items: "lined slippers," "purest gold," "silver dishes," and "ivory table" (lines 13, 15, 16, 21, 23). The speaker takes on a voyeuristic point of view with his love, and they are not directly interacting with the other true shepherds and nature. Pastoral shepherds and maidens usually have Greek names like Corydon or Philomela, reflecting the origin of the pastoral genre. Pastoral poems are set in beautiful rural landscapes, the literary term for which is "locus amoenus" (Latin for "beautiful place"), such as Arcadia, a rural region of Greece, mythological home of the god Pan, which was portrayed as a sort of Eden by the poets. The tasks of their employment with sheep and other rustic chores is held in the fantasy to be almost wholly undemanding and is left in the background, abandoning the shepherdesses and their swains in a state of almost perfect leisure. This makes them available for embodying perpetual erotic fantasies. The shepherds spend their time chasing pretty girls — or, at least in the Greek and Roman versions, pretty lads as well. The eroticism of Virgil's second eclogue, Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin ("The shepherd Corydon burned with ion for pretty Alexis") is entirely homosexual, although the use of that term is anachronistic due to a lack of any idea of sexual identity in the times in which Virgil was writing.[citation needed]

Pastoral poetry[edit]

Georgics Book III, Shepherd with Flocks, Vergil (Vatican Library)

Pastoral literature continued after Hesiod with the poetry of the Hellenistic Greek Theocritus, several of whose Idylls are set in the countryside (probably reflecting the landscape of the island of Cos where the poet lived) and involve dialogues between herdsmen.[5]Theocritus may have drawn on authentic folk traditions of Sicilian shepherds. He wrote in the Doric dialect but the metre he chose was thedactylic hexameter associated with the most prestigious form of Greek poetry, epic. This blend of simplicity and sophistication would play a major part in later pastoral verse. Theocritus was imitated by the Greek poets Bion and Moschus. The Roman poet Virgil adapted pastoral into Latin with his highly influential Eclogues. Virgil introduces two very important uses of pastoral, the contrast between urban and rural lifestyles and political allegory[6] most notably in Eclogues 1 and 4 respectively. In doing so, Virgil presents a more idealized portrayal of the lives of shepherds while still employing the traditional pastoral conventions of Theocritus. He was the first to set his poems in Arcadia, an idealized location to which much later pastoral literature will refer. Horace's The Epodes, ii Country Joys has "the dreaming man" Alfius, who dreams of escaping his busy urban life for the peaceful country. But as "the dreaming man" indicates, this is just a dream for Alfius. He is too consumed in his career as a usurer to leave it behind for the country.[7] Later Silver Latin poets who wrote pastoral poetry, modeled principally upon Virgil's Eclogues, include Calpurnius Siculus and Nemesianus. Italian poets revived the pastoral from the 14th century onwards, first in Latin (examples include works by Petrarch, Pontano and Mantuan) then in the Italian vernacular (Sannazaro, Boiardo). The fashion for pastoral spread throughout Renaissance Europe. In Spain, Garcilaso de la Vega was an important pioneer and his motifs find themselves renewed in the 20th century Spanish language poet Giannina Braschi. Leading French pastoral poets include Marot and Ronsard.

Romantic artist, illustrator and poet William Blake's hand painted print illustrating his pastoral poem "The Shepherd" depicts the pastoral scene of a shepherd watching his flock with a shepherd's crook. This image represents copy B, printed and painted in 1789 and currently held by the Library of Congress.[8]

The first pastorals in English were the Eclogues (c. 1515) of Alexander Barclay, which were heavily influenced by Mantuan. A landmark in English pastoral poetry was Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender, first published in 1579. Spenser's work consists of twelve eclogues, one for each month of the year, and is written in dialect. It contains elegies, fables and a discussion of the role of poetry in contemporary England. Spenser and his friends appear under various pseudonyms (Spenser himself is "Colin Clout"). Spenser's example was imitated by such poets as Michael Drayton (Idea, The Shepherd's Garland) and William Browne (Britannia's Pastorals). During this period of England's history, many authors explored "anti-pastoral" themes. Two examples of this is Sir Philip Sidney's “The TwentyThird Psalm” and “The Nightingale” focus on the world in a very antipastoral view. In “The Twenty-Third Psalm,” Nature is portrayed as something we need to be protected from, and in “The Nightingale,” the woe of Philomela is compared to the speaker's own pain. Additionally, he wrote Arcadia which is filled with pastoral descriptions of the landscape. "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd" (1600) by Sir Walter Raleigh also comments on the anti-pastoral as the nymph responds realistically to the idealizing shepherd of The ionate Shepherd to His Love by embracing and explaining the true course of nature and its incompatibility with the love that the Shepherd yearns for with the nymph. In the 17th century came the arrival of the Country house poem. Included in this genre is Aemilia Lanyer’s The Description of Cooke-

ham in 1611, in which a woman is described in of her relationship to her estate and how it mourns for her when she leaves it. In 1616, Ben Jonson wrote To Penshurst, a poem in which he addresses the estate owned by the Sidney family and tells of its beauty. The basis of the poem is a harmonious and joyous elation of the memories that Jonson had at the manor. It is beautifully written with iambic pentameter, a style that Jonson so eloquently uses to describe the culture of Penshurst. It is very important to note the insertion of Pan and Bacchus as notable company of the manor. Pan, Greek god of the Pastoral world, half man and half goat, was connected with both hunting and shepherds; Bacchus was the god of wine, intoxication and ritual madness. This reference to Pan and Bacchus in a pastoral view demonstrates how prestigious Penshurst was, to be worthy in the company with gods, notions of just how romanticized the estate was. "A Country Life", another 17th century work by Katherine Philips, was also a country house poem. Philips focuses on the joys of the countryside and looks upon the lifestyle that accompanies it as being "the first and happiest life, when man enjoyed himself." She writes about maintaining this lifestyle by living detached from material things, and by not over-concerning herself with the world around her. Andrew Marvell's "Upon Appleton House" was written when Marvell was working as a tutor for Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, in 1651. The poem is very rich with metaphors that relate to religion, politics and history. Similar to Jonson's "To Penshurst", Marvell's poem is describing a pastoral estate. It moves through the house itself, its history, the gardens, the meadows and other grounds, the woods, the river, his Pupil Mary, and the future. Marvell used nature as a thread to weave together a poem centered around man. We once again see nature fully providing for man. Marvell also continuously compares nature to art and seems to point out that art can never accomplish on purpose what nature can achieve accidentally or spontaneously. Robert Herrick's The Hock-cart, or Harvest Home was also written in the 17th century. In this pastoral work, he paints the reader a colorful picture of the benefits reaped from hard work. This is an atypical interpretation of the pastoral, given that there is a celebration of labor involved as opposed to central figures living in leisure and nature just taking its course independently. This poem was mentioned in Raymond Williams', The Country and the City. This acknowledgment of Herrick's work is appropriate, as both Williams and Herrick accentuate the importance of labor in the pastoral lifestyle. The Pastoral Elegy is a subgenre that uses pastoral elements to lament a death or loss. The most famous pastoral elegy in English is John Milton's "Lycidas" (1637), written on the death of Edward King, a fellow student at Cambridge University. Milton used the form both to explore his vocation as a writer and to attack what he saw as the abuses of the Church. Also included is Thomas Gray's, "Elegy on a Country Churchyard" (1750). The formal English pastoral continued to flourish during the 18th century, eventually dying out at the end. One notable example of an 18th-century work is Alexander Pope'sPastorals (1709). In this work Pope imitates Edmund Spenser's Shepheardes Calendar, while utilizing classical names and allusions aligning him with Virgil. In 1717, Pope'sDiscourse on Pastoral Poetry was published as a preface

to Pastorals. In this work Pope sets standards for pastoral literature and critiques many popular poets, one of whom is Spenser, along with his contemporary opponent Ambrose Phillips. During this time period Ambrose Phillips, who is often overlooked because of Pope, modeled his poetry after the Native English form of Pastoral, employing it as a medium to express the true nature and longing of Man. He strove to write in this fashion to conform to what he thought was the original intent of Pastoral literature. As such, he centered his themes around the simplistic life of the Shepherd, and, personified the relationship that humans once had with nature. John Gay, who came a little later was criticized for his poem's artificiality by Doctor Johnson and attacked for their lack of realism by George Crabbe, who attempted to give a true picture of rural life in his poem The Village. In 1590, Edmund Spenser also composed a very famous pastoral epic called The Faerie Queene, in which he employs the pastoral mode to accentuate the charm, lushness, and splendor of the poem's (super)natural world. Spenser alludes to the pastoral continuously throughout the work and also uses it to create allegory in his poem, with the characters as well as with the environment, both of which are meant to have symbolic meaning in the real world. It is composed of six books but Spenser intended to write twelve. He wrote the poem primarily to honor Queen Elizabeth. William Cowper addressed the artificiality of the fast paced city life in his poems Retirement (1782) and The Winter Nosegay (1782). Pastoral nevertheless survived as a mood rather than a genre, as can be seen from such works as Matthew Arnold's Thyrsis (1867), a lament on the death of his fellow poetArthur Hugh Clough. Robert Burns can be read as a Pastoral poet for his nostalgic portrayals of rural Scotland and simple farm life in To A Mouse and The Cotter's Saturday Night. Burns explicitly addresses the Pastoral form in his Poem on Pastoral Poetry. In this he champions his fellow Scot Allan Ramsey as the best Pastoral poet since Theocritus. Another subgenre is the Edenic Pastoral, which alludes to the perfect relationship between God, man, and nature in the Garden of Eden. It typically includes biblical symbols and imagery. In 1645 John Milton wrote L'Allegro, which translates as the happy person. It is a celebration of Mirth personified, who is the child of love and revelry. It was originally composed to be a companion poem to, Il Penseroso, which celebrates a life of melancholy and solitude. Milton's, On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (1629) blends Christian and pastoral imagery. Pastoral epic[edit] Milton is perhaps best known for his epic Paradise Lost, one of the few Pastoral epics ever written. A notable part of Paradise Lost is book IV where he chronicles Satan’s tres into paradise. Milton’s iconic descriptions of the garden are shadowed by the fact that we see it from Satan’s perspective and are thus led to commiserate with him. Milton elegantly works through a presentation of Adam and Eve’s pastorally idyllic, eternally fertile living conditions and focuses upon their stewardship of the garden. He gives much focus to the fruit bearing trees and Adam and Eve's care of them, sculpting an image of pastoral harmony. However, Milton in turn continually comes back to Satan, constructing him as a character the audience can easily identify with and perhaps even like. Milton creates Satan as character meant to destabilize the audience’s understanding of themselves and the world

around them. Through this mode, Milton is able to create a working dialogue between the text and his audience about the ‘truths’ they hold for themselves.

Pastoral romances[edit] Italian writers invented a new genre, the pastoral romance, which mixed pastoral poems with a fictional narrative in prose. Although there was no classical precedent for the form, it drew some inspiration from ancient Greek novels set in the countryside, such as Daphnis and Chloe. The most influential Italian example of the form was Sannazzaro's Arcadia(1504). The vogue for the pastoral romance spread throughout Europe producing such notable works as Bernardim Ribeiro "Menina e Moça" (1554) in Portuguese, [9] Montemayor's Diana (1559) in Spain, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia (1590) in England, and Honoré d'Urfé's Astrée (1607–27) in .

Pastoral plays[edit]

A Pastoral (watercolour, 1905) by John Reinhard Weguelin

Pastoral drama also emerged in Renaissance Italy. Again, there was little Classical precedent, with the possible exception of Greek satyr plays. Poliziano's Orfeo (1480) shows the beginnings of the new form, but it reached its zenith in the late 16th century with Tasso's Aminta (1573), Isabella Andreini's Mirtilla (1588), and Guarini's Il pastor fido (1590). John Lyly's Endimion(1579) brought the Italian-style pastoral play to England. John Fletcher's The Faithful Shepherdess, Ben Jonson's The Sad Shepherd and Sidney's The Lady of May are later examples. Some of Shakespeare's plays contain pastoral elements, most notably As You Like It (whose plot was derived from Thomas Lodge's pastoral romance Rosalynde) and The Winter's Tale, of which Act 4 Scene 4 is a lengthy pastoral digression. The forest in As You Like It can be seen as a place of pastoral idealization, where life is simpler and purer, and its inhabitants live more closely to each other, nature and God than their urban counterparts. However, Shakespeare plays with the bounds of pastoral idealization. Throughout the play, Shakespeare employs various characters to illustrate pastoralism. His protagonistsRosalind and Orlando metaphorically depict the importance of the coexistence of realism and idealism, or urban and rural life. While Orlando is absorbed in the ideal, Rosalind serves as a

mediator, bringing Orlando back down to reality and embracing the simplicity of pastoral love. She is the only character throughout the play who embraces and appreciates both the real and idealized life and manages to make the two ideas coexist. Therefore, Shakespeare explores city and country life as being appreciated through the coexistence of the two.

Pastoral music[edit] Theocritus's Idylls include strophic songs and musical laments, and, as in Homer, his shepherds often play the syrinx, or Pan flute, considered a quintessentially pastoral instrument. Virgil's Eclogues were performed as sung mime in the 1st century, and there is evidence of the pastoral song as a legitimate genre of classical times. The pastoral genre was a significant influence in the development of opera. After settings of pastoral poetry in the pastourelle genre by the troubadours, Italian poets and composers became increasingly drawn to the pastoral. Musical settings of pastoral poetry became increasingly common in first polyphonic and then monodic madrigals: these later led to the cantata and the serenata, in which pastoral themes remained on a consistent basis. Partial musical settings of Giovanni Battista Guarini's Il pastor fido were highly popular: the texts of over 500 madrigals were taken from this one play alone. Tasso's Aminta was also a favourite. As opera developed, the dramatic pastoral came to the fore with such works as Jacopo Peri's Dafne and, most notably, Monteverdi's L'Orfeo. Pastoral opera remained popular throughout the 17th-century, and not just in Italy, as is shown by the French genre of pastorale héroïque, Englishman Henry Lawes's music for Milton's Comus (not to mention John Blow's Venus and Adonis), and Spanish zarzuela. At the same time, Italian and German composers developed a genre of vocal and instrumental pastorals, distinguished by certain stylistic features, associated with Christmas Eve. The pastoral, and parodies of the pastoral, continued to play an important role in musical history throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. John Gay may have satirized the pastoral in The Beggar's Opera, but also wrote an entirely sincere libretto for Handel's Acis and Galatea. Rousseau's Le Devin du village draws on pastoral roots, andMetastasio's libretto Il re pastore was set over 30 times, most famously by Mozart. Rameau was an outstanding exponent of French pastoral opera.[10] Beethoven also wrote his famous Pastoral Symphony, avoiding his usual musical dynamism in favour of relatively slow rhythms. More concerned with psychology than description, he labelled the work "more the expression of feeling than [realistic] painting". The pastoral also appeared as a feature of grand opera, most particularly in Meyerbeer's operas: often composers would develop a pastoral-themed "oasis", usually in the centre of their work. Notable examples include the shepherd's "alte Weise" from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde, or the pastoral ballet occupying the middle of Tchaikovsky's The Queen of Spades. The 20th-century continued to bring new pastoral interpretations, particularly in ballet, such as Ravel'sDaphis and Chloe, Nijinsky's use of Debussy's Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, and Stravinsky's Le sacre du printemps and Les Noces.[11] The Pastorale is a form of Italian folk song still played in the regions of Southern Italy where the zampogna continues to thrive. They

generally sound like a slowed down version of a tarantella, as they encom many of the same melodic phrases. The pastorale on the zampogna can be played by a solo zampogna player, or in some regions can be accompanied by the piffero (also commonly called a ciaramella, 'pipita', or bifora), which is a primitive key-less double reed oboe type instrument.

Pastoral art[edit] Main article: commons:Category:Shepherds in art Idealised pastoral landscapes appear in Hellenistic and Roman wall paintings. Interest in the pastoral as a subject for art revived in Renaissance Italy, partly inspired by the descriptions of pictures Sannazzaro included in his Arcadia. The Fête champêtre (Pastoral Symphony) attributed to Giorgione is perhaps the most famous painting in this style. Later, French artists were also attracted to the pastoral, notably Claude, Poussin (e.g. Et in Arcadia ego) and Watteau (in his Fêtes galantes).[12] Thomas Cole has a series of paintings titled The Course of Empire, and the second of these paintings (shown on the right) depicts the perfect pastoral setting.

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Giorgione, Pastoral Concert. Louvre, Paris. A work which the Louvre now attributes to Titian, c. 1509.[13]

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Nicolas Poussin Arcadian Shepherds, 1627, Chatsworth House

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Nicolas Poussin Et in Arcadia ego, 1637-1638, Louvre

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Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire,The Arcadia or Pastoral State, 1834

Pastoral theory[edit] In the past four hundred years, a range of writers have worked on theorizing the nature of pastoral. These include Friedrich Schiller, [14] George Puttenham,[15] William Empson,[16]Frank Kermode, [17] Raymond Williams,[18] Renato Poggioli,[19] Annabel Patterson,[20] Paul Alpers,[21] and Ken Hiltner.[22] George Puttenham was one of the first Pastoral theorists. He did not see the form as merely a recording of a prior rustic way of life but a guise for political discourse, which other forms had previously neglected. The Pastoral, he writes, has a didactic duty to “contain and enforme morall discipline for the amendment of mans behaviour”.[15] Friedrich Schiller linked the Pastoral to childhood and a childlike simplicity. For Schiller, we perceive in nature an “image of our infancy irrevocably past”.[23] Sir William Empson spoke of the ideal of Pastoral as being embedded in varying degrees of ambivalence, and yet, for all the apparent dichotomies, and contradicting elements found within it, he felt there was a unified harmony within it. He refers to the pastoral process as 'putting the complex into the simple.' Empson argues that ". . . good proletarian art is usually Covert Pastoral", and uses Soviet Russia's propaganda about the working class as evidence. Empson also emphasizes the importance of the double plot as a tool for writers to discuss a controversial topic without repercussions. Raymond Williams argues that the foundation of the pastoral lies in the idea that the city is a highly urban, industrialized center that has removed us from the peaceful life we once had in the countryside. However, he states that this is really a "myth functioning as a memory" that literature has created in its representations of the past. As a result, when society evolves and looks back to these representations, it considers its own present as the decline of the simple life of the past. He then discusses how the city's relationship

with the country affected the economic and social aspects of the countryside. As the economy became a bigger part of society, many country new-comers quickly realized the potential and monetary value that lay in the untouched land. Furthermore, this new system encouraged a social stratification in the countryside. With the implementation of paper money came a hierarchy in the working system, as well as the "inheritance of titles and making of family names". Poggioli was concerned with how death reconciled itself with the pastoral, and thus came up with a loose categorization of death in the pastoral as 'funeral elegy', the most important tropes of which he cites as religion (embodied by Pan); friendship; allegory;and poetic and musical calling. He concedes though that such a categorization is open to much misinterpretation. As well, Poggioli focused on the idea that Pastoral was a nostalgic and childish way of seeing the world. In The Oaten Flue, he claims that the shepherd was looked up to was because they were “an ideal kind of leisure class." Frank Kermode discusses the pastoral within the historical context of the English Renaissance. His first condition of pastoral poetry is that it is an urban product. Kermode establishes that the pastoral is derived as an opposition between two modes of living, in the country and in the city. London was becoming a modern metropolis before the eyes of its citizens. The result of this large-scale urban sprawl left the people with a sense of nostalgia for their country way of living. His next argument focuses on the artificiality of poetry, drawing upon fellow theorist, Puttenham. Kermode elaborates on this and says, "the cultivated, in their artificial way, reflect upon and describe, for their own ends, the natural life". Kermode wants us to understand that the recreation or reproduction of the natural is in itself artificial. Kermode elaborates on this in of imitation, describing it as "one of the fundamental laws of literary history" because it "gives literary history a meaning in of itself, and provides the channels of literary tradition". Kermode goes on to explain about the works of Virgil and Theocritus as progenitors of the pastoral. Later poets would draw on these earlier forms of pastoral, elaborating on them to fit their own social context. As the pastoral was becoming more modern, it shifted into the form of Pastourelle. This is the first time that the pastoral really deals with the subject of love. Annabel Patterson emphasizes many important ideas in her work, Pastoral and Ideology. One of these is that the pastoral mode, especially in the later 18th century, was interpreted in vastly different ways by different groups of people. As a result, distinctive illustrations emerged from these groups which were all variations of the understanding of Virgil’s Eclogues. Patterson explains that Servius' Commentary is essential to understanding the reception of Virgil's Eclogues. The commentary discusses how poets used analogy in their writings to indirectly express the corruption within the church and government to the public. When speaking of post-Romanticism, it is imperative to take into consideration the influence and effect of Robert Frost on pastoral ideology. His poem, Build Soil is a critique of war and also a suggestion that pastoral, as a literary mode, should not place emphasis on social and political issues, but should rather, as Patterson says, "turn in upon itself, and replace reformist instincts with personal growth and regeneration".William Wordsworth was a highly respected poet in the 1800s and his poem, Prelude, published in 1805,

was an excellent example of what a dream of a new golden age might materialize as or look like. Paul Alpers, in his 1996 book, What is Pastoral?, describes the recurring plot of pastoral literature as the lives of shepherds. With William Empson's notion of placing the complex into the simple, Alpers thus critically defines pastoral as a means of allegory. Alpers also classifies pastoral as a mode of literature, as opposed to a genre, and he defines the attitude of pastoral works maintaining a humble relationship with nature. Alpers also defines pastoral convention as the act of bringing together, and authors use this to discuss loss. He says the speakers in pastoral works are simple herdsmen dramatized in pastoral encounters. However, authors like Herrick changed the herdsmen to nymphs, maidens, and flowers. Thus, achieving a mode of simplicity but also giving objects voice. This is done by personifying objects like flowers. Moreover, authors that do this in their works are giving importance to the unimportant. Alpers talks about pastoral lyrics and love poems in particular. He says "a lyric allows its speaker to slip in and out of pastoral guise and reveal directly the sophistication which prompted him to assume it in the first place″. In other words, he claims pastorals lyrics have both pastoral and not pastoral characteristics, perhaps like in the comparisons between urban and rural, but they always give importance to and enhance on the pastoral. Alpers talks about love poems and how they can be turned into pastoral poems simply by changing words like lover to shepherd. And he mentions Shakespeare as one of the authors who did this in his works. Furthermore, Alpers says the pastoral is not only about praise for the rural and the country side. For instance, Sidney dispraises the country life in The Garden. Pastoral can also include the urban, the court, and the social like in L’Allegro. Alpers says that pastoral narration contradicts “normal” narrative motives and that there is a double aspect of pastoral narration: heroic poetry and worldly realities with narrative motives and conventions. And in respect to pastoral novels, Alpers says pastoral novels have different definitions and examples depending on the reader. Also, the pastoral novel differs from Theocritus and Virgil’s works. He says there are pastoral novels of the country life, of the longing for the simple, and with nature as the protagonist. And says the literary category of pastoral novels is realistic and post-realistic fiction with a rural theme or subject based on traditional pastoral. In What Else Is Pastoral?, Ken Hiltner argues that Renaissance pastoral poetry is more often a form of nature writing than critics like Paul Alpers and Annabel Patterson give it credit for. He explains that even though there is a general lack of lavish description in Renaissance Pastoral, this is because they were beginning to use gestural strategies, and artists begin to develop an environmental consciousness as nature around them becomes endangered. Another argument presented in the book is that our current environmental crisis clearly has its roots in the Renaissance. To do this we are shown examples in Renaissance pastoral poetry that show a keen awareness of the urban sprawl of London contrasted to the countryside and historical records showing that many at the time were aware of the issue of urban growth and attempted to stop it.

See also[edit] 

American Pastoral

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ βουκολικόν. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at thePerseus Project. βουκόλος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

2; Jump up^ Harper, Douglas. "bucolic". Online Etymology Dictionary.

3; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d Gifford, Terry (1999). Pastoral. The New Critical Idiom. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 12. ISBN 0415147328.

4; Jump up^ Bridget Ann Henish, The Medieval Calendar Year, p 96, ISBN 0-271-01904-2

5; Jump up^ Introduction (p.14) to Virgil: The Eclogues trans. Guy Lee (Penguin Classics)

6; Jump up^ Article on "Bucolic poetry" in The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (1989)

7; Jump up^ Horace's Delights of the Country Epode ii Retrieved October 14, 2011

8; Jump up^ Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi (eds.). "Songs of Innocence, copy B, object 4 (Bentley 5, Erdman 5, Keynes 5) "The Shepherd"". William Blake Archive. Retrieved January 17, 2014.

9; Jump up^ Warner, Charles Dudley (2008). A Library of the World's Best Literature - Ancient and Modern - Vol.XLIII. Cosimo, Inc. p. 456. ISBN 1-60520-251-7.

10; Jump up^ See Cuthbert Girdlestone, Jean-Philippe Rameau: His Life and Work, particularly p.377 ff.

11; Jump up^ General reference for this section: Geoffrey Chew and Owen Jander (2001). Pastoral. Grove Music Online. ISBN 978-1561592630.

12; Jump up^ Article on "Pastoral" in The Oxford Companion to Art (ed. H. Osborne)

13; Jump up^ From the Louvre Museum Official Website It is often called the Fête Champêtre(meaning "Picnic") in older works.

14; Jump up^ Friedrich Schiller, On Naive and Sentimental Poetry (1795).

15; ^ Jump up to: George Puttenham, Arte of English a b

Poesie (1589).

16; Jump up^ William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral. (1935). 17; Jump up^ Frank Kermode, English Pastoral Poetry: From the Beginnings to Marvell. (1952).

18; Jump up^ Raymond Williams, The Country and the City. Oxford U P, 1973.

19; Jump up^ Renato Poggioli, The Oaten Flute: Essays on Pastoral Poetry and the Pastoral Ideal.Harvard U P, 1975.

20; Jump up^ Annabel Patterson. Pastoral and ideology : Virgil to Valéry. U of California P, 1987.

21; Jump up^ Paul Alpers, What is Pastoral? U of Chicago P, 1996.

22; Jump up^ Ken Hiltner, What Else is Pastoral?: Renaissance Literature and the Environment.Cornell U P, 2011.

23; Jump up^ Friedrich Schiller. "On Naive and Sentimental Poetry".http://schillerinstitute.org/transl/Schiller_essays/naive_s entimental-1.html

External links[edit] Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia articlePastoral Poetry.

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Two Idylls by Theocritus (English)

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The Eclogues of Virgil

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The complete works of Christopher Marlowe

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Shepheardes Calendar by Edmund Spenser

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La Castità Conquistata: The Function of the Satyr in Pastoral Drama, by Meredith Kennedy Ray (University of Chicago)

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'The Pastoral Concert' at the Louvre site

Performance poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011)

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H. O. Tanager performs at a bookstore in Boise, Idaho.

Performance poetry is poetry that is specifically composed for or during a performance before an audience. During the 1980s, the term[1] came into popular usage to describe poetry written or composed for performance rather than print distribution. Contents [hide]

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1History

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2Poetry in oral cultures

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3Advent of printing

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420th century

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5The 1970s and after

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6The United Kingdom

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7See also

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8References

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9External links

History[edit] The term performance poetry originates from an early press release describing the 1980s performance poet Hedwig Gorski, whose audio recordings achieved success on spoken word radio programs around the world.[2] Her band, East of Eden Band, was described[by whom?] as the most successful at music and poetry collaborations, allowing cassettes of her live radio broadcast recordings to stay in rotation with popular underground music recordings on some radio stations. Gorski, an art school graduate, tried to come up with a term that would distinguish her text-based vocal performances from performance art, especially the work of performance artists, such as Laurie Anderson, who worked with music at that time. Performance poets relied more on the rhetorical and philosophical expression in their poetics than performance artists, who arose from the visual art genres of painting and sculpture. The Austin Chronicle newspaper, printing Gorski's bi-weekly "Litera" column, first published the term "performance poetry" to describe the work of Gorski with composer D'Jalma Garnier III as early as 1982. She began using the term, however, to describe

a 1978 "neo-verse drama" and "conceptual spoken poetry for five voices" titled Booby, Mama! that employs the cut-up method made popular by William Burroughs and conceptual art methods.[3] The National Endowment for the Arts categorized performance art within the visual arts judging s; it originally placed performance poetry within the category of theater before correcting it to literature in the 21st century. Since many performance poets did not have publications, the former classification made performance poets categorically ineligible for the NEA fellowship funding or recognition. Their audio cassettes were not acceptable sample material for literature grant consideration. A stated objection to this presentation method protested their performance poems translated into text on paper could not compete with poetry written for print publication. The National Endowment for the Arts is now accepting varied presentations for publication verification for poetry fellowship applicants, including audio recordings that have no printed versions of the poems. Performance poetry with music peaked during the 1980s just as performance art peaked in the 1970s. During that time, San Francisco and New York were the centers for this type of activity; however, Austin, Texas (The Third Coast) also had a thriving scene during the 1980s with a coterie of unique characters. Some of the best[according to whom?] original Austin performance poets and performing poets who went on to national and international notoriety include Raul Salinas, Konstantyn K. Kuzminsky, Joy Cole, Hedwig Gorski, Roxy Gordon, Ricardo Sanchez, Harryette Mullen, who was nominated for the National Book Award. The Austin Poets Audio Anthology Project, a public arts project, recorded them for radio broadcasts. There were many others, though, and Hedwig Gorski once wrote in "Litera" that some were "eerie", a word used by one newspaper reviewer to describe Gorski's vocals on the East of Eden Band track "There's Always Something That Can Make You Happy". Other performing writers in the robust literary scene of the Austin area during that time when performance poetry turned into a school of poetry included Pat Littledog, Eleanor Crockett, Jim Ryan, Chuck Taylor, Greg Gauntner, Albert Huffstickler, W. Joe Hoppe, Andy Clausen, poet and playwright Isabella Russell-Ides (Getting Dangerously Close To Myself, Slough Press) and David Jewell (poet); most recorded on Hedwig Gorski's audio anthology project. Jewell deserves special mention as a transitional figure, younger than the aforementioned, and one not especially rooted in the Beats like Gorski who has strong connections toGinsberg, Corso, Gary Snyder, and others. By the 1990s the general poetry public was less interested in the Beat Poets of the 1950s and 1960s. They were looking for something fresher, newer, hipper, more in touch with the times in which they were living. Performance poets established clubs, cafes, and media as venues that later became stages for the emerging slam poetry scene. Unlike Gorski, who with East of Eden Band, began broadcasting live performance poetry on radio [4] and distributing the recordings of these broadcasts in place of publishing in print, Jewell and slam poets were more interested in small live audiences. Venues like Nuyorican Poets Cafe in New York City and mass media formats, like Gorski's and John Giorno's, form the two lines of influence leading to Def Poetry on HBO.

Galway Kinnell performing a poetic piece in Vermont

Performing poets-writers and especially performance poets excelled in the ability to put the event of oral literature into the primary social/communicative function for literature. The plurality of the literary

performance is under the control of the poet/writer, and the performer never minimizes the participation of the audience . It is important to that performance was the primary distribution method for poetics since tribal times and ancient Greece. As Gorski often states, broadcast and technology sur books in reaching mass audiences for poetry, and just as writing poetry for print made poetry a completely different artform since the invention of the book, audio "mediums influence the way poets write just as they do painters and sculptors".[5] Today, performance poetry is also being used as a means to promote literacy in public school systems. Global Writes Inc. has been incorporating technology, such as videoconferencing and podcasts, into literacy programs as a means for students to share their poetry. [6]

Poetry in oral cultures[edit] Performance poetry is not solely a postmodern phenomenon. It began with the performance of oral poems in pre-literate societies. By definition, these poems were transmitted orally from performer to performer and were constructed using devices such as repetition, alliteration, rhyme andkennings to facilitate memorization and recall. The performer "composed" the poem from memory, using the version they had learned as a kind of mental template. This process allowed the performer to add their own flavor to the poem in question, although fidelity to the traditional versions of the poems was generally favored.

Advent of printing[edit] Although popular works, including popular poems or collections of poems, were already being distributed for private reading and study in manuscript form, there can be little doubt that the introduction of cheap printing technologies accelerated this trend considerably. The result was a change in the poet's role in society. From having been an entertainer, the poet became primarily a provider of written texts for private readings. The public performance of poetry became generally restricted, at least in a European context, to the staging of plays in verse and occasionally, for example in the cases of the Elizabethan madrigalists or Robert Burns, as texts for singing. Apart from this, the performance of poetry was restricted to reading aloud from printed books within families or groups of friends.

20th century[edit] The early years of the 20th century saw a general questioning of artistic forms and conventions. Poets like Basil Bunting and Louis Zukofsky called for a renewed emphasis on poetry as sound. Bunting in particular argued that it the poem on the page was like a musical score; not fully intelligible until sounded. This attitude to poetry helped to encourage an environment in which poetry readings were fostered. This was reinforced by Charles Olson's call for a poetic line based on human breath. Clive Sansom devoted much of his life to gathering and contributing poetry and drama particularly suited to performance by children. During the 1950s, the American poet Cid Corman began to experiment with what he called oral poetry. This involved spontaneously composing poems into a tape recorder. Allen Ginsberg was to take up this practice in the 1960s. David Antin, who heard some of Corman's tapes, took the process one step further. He composed his talk-poems by improvising in front of an audience. These performances were recorded and the tapes were later transcribed to be published in book form. Around the same time, Jerome Rothenberg was drawing on his ethnopoetic researches to create poems for ritual performances as happenings. Perhaps most famously, the writers of the Beat generation were noted for performance events that married poetry and jazz. Also in the late 1960s, other poets outside San Francisco and New York City were experimenting with performance pieces. Notable among these was David Franks, at the time a faculty member at the Maryland Institute College of Art. Franks' work was not poetry recited to a musical counterpoint but literary pieces in which the performance was a necessary and integral part of the work itself. In Britain, sound poets like Bob Cobbing and Edwin Morgan were exploring the possibilities of live performance. Cobbing's groups Bird Yak and Konkrete Canticle involved collaborative performance with other poets and musicians and were partly responsible for drawing a number of the poets of the British Poetry Revival into the performance arena.

Meanwhile, many more mainstream poets in both Britain and the United States were giving poetry readings, largely to small academic gatherings on university campuses. Poetry readings were given national prominence when Robert Frost recited "The Gift Outright" from memory at the inauguration of John F. Kennedy[6].After that event, spoken word recordings of Frost and other major figures enjoyed increased popularity.

The 1970s and after[edit] This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by ing the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (January 2016) By the 1970s, three main forms of poetry performance had emerged. First was the poetry reading, at which poems that had been written for the page were read to an audience, usually by the author. Poetry readings have become widespread and poetry festivals and reading series are now part of the cultural landscape of most Western societies. However, most people would not consider the poetry readings of this type as part of the performance poetry phenomena. This leaves three types of poetry performance: poems written specifically for performance on the Jerome Rothenberg model and poems like those of David Antin that are composed during performance. Both these types would generally be considered to constitute performance poetry. Another type based on the Beat method of reading their print poems is poetry with music. The bands with performance poets make spoken vocals an exercise in not singing, but the texts are not categorized as songs. While Ginsberg sang his Blake songs with a harmonium, the original practitioner of this third and most popular type of performance poetry is Hedwig Gorski, who coined the term performance poetry to describe her work with music.[7] She is sometimes called a neo-beat, but considers herself an American "futurist". Unlike the Beats, Ginsberg and Kerouac, her poems were written for performance with music that was specifically composed for the poems. Her spoken vocals have come as close to singing as possible without really singing. That is the key to Gorski's performance poetry: the marriage of poetry to music written specifically to fit poems written for vocal performance.[8] The other type of performance poetry Gorski practiced is without music and tied to conceptual art, but that was at appearances in smaller venues that could not accommodate her band. [9] Unlike Antin and Cormin, Gorski never improvised text but wrote poetry only for performance while eschewing printed poetry. In the U. S., the rise to prominence of the L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E poets with their distrust of speech as a basis for poetry has, broadly speaking, meant that performance poetry went out of fashion with the avantgarde. However, the increasing popularity of open mikes, which allow "unknown" poets to take the stage and share their own work in 3- to 5-minute increments and of poetry slams has meant that performance poetry is now one of the most widespread forms of popular poetry. Chief among the proponents of these new forms of popular poetry were Bob Holman in New York, Marc Smith in Chicago and Alan Kaufman in San Francisco. In the 1990s, the Favorite Poem project of then U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky gave new visibility to ordinary Americans reading and performing their favorite poems. Contemporary performance poets are now experimenting with poetry performances adapted to CD, to video, and to Web audiences.

A poet with a few enraptured fans

The Beat Poets were the first to popularize crossing over into recorded media to distribute their performed poetry. The best-known Beat poet,Allen Ginsberg, followed the lead of fellow Beat, Jack Kerouac, in reciting his work for audio recording. Ginsberg always used music with his readings and often accompanied himself on the harmonium. Ginsberg put William Blake's poems to music and performed them with the harmonium. Even though the Beats did not use the term "Performance Poetry" to categorize their work with music and audio recordings, the Beats provided an immediate model for the work of Hedwig Gorski. She is a Nova Scotia College of Art and Design art school graduate in 1976. The art school was infamous for starting the careers of numerous 1970s performance artists, such as Vito Acconci, known for photographing his bites. It is worth noting that Gorski, who coined the term "Performance Poetry" to describe her poems written only for performance,[10] recordings, and broadcast usually with her musical band East of Eden Band,[11] is the only woman, besides Patti Smith, in this group of late twentiethcentury innovators reviving oral poetry. Similar to the ancient bards, touring became a widespread means for performance poets and slammers to distribute their work since the 1990s. The Poetry Slam is a competitive live performance format founded by poet Marc Smith in Chicago, which has become a hotbed for performance poetry. Performance poetry has also been boosted considerably by the appearance of Def Jam—the hiphop recording company helmed by Russell Simmons—on the scene. def jam has created a television show that showcases performance poets that runs on HBO, as well as a show of performance poets that ran on Broadway for almost a year and won a Tony Award. Hispanic performing artists, such as Pedro Pietri, Miguel Algarín, Giannina Braschi, and Guillermo Gómez-Peña, are known for their humorous and politically charged attacks against American imperialism. Later contemporary Latino poets such as Willie Perdomo, Edwin Torres (poet) and Caridad de la Luz would follow in this tradition. Closely tied to Chicano poets is the Native American poet John Trudell who recorded and crossed over with his poetry and music cassettes. Trudell arose from the persecution on his reservation by FBI agents, who allegedly killed his wife and children. Protest is significant with the minority practitioners of performance poetry, such as def poets and slammers. This adds to the vitality of American performance poetry and connects to the social protest of Beat poets like Allen Ginsberg.[12] In , fr:Lucien Suel, Akenaton, and many other represents the way of performance poetry ...

The United Kingdom[edit] In the United Kingdom, where the influence of L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E was more limited, many avantgarde poets are deeply committed to continuing the performance of Cobbing and his peers. Well-known names include cris cheek and Aaron Williamson. The work of UK poet Michael Horovitz in spreading this tradition in Britain during the early 1960s should also be acknowledged. His Live New Departures - a

touring version of his poetry and arts journal New Departures (launched 1959) - gave space and opportunities to poets like Pete Brown and Adrian Mitchell as these three principals combined performed verse with the backing of jazz musicians like pianist Stan Tracey and saxophonist Bobby Wellins. However, the emergence of performed poetry as a popular art form can probably be linked to Allen Ginsberg’s stunning performance at the Albert Hall in 1965 at theInternational Poetry Incarnation. Horovitz, Brown and Mitchell would Ginsberg and Beat colleagues Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Gregory Corso and other European poets at that landmark London occasion. These developments were also connected to the emergence of the Liverpool Poets, which referred mainly to the poets Roger McGough, Adrian Henri and Brian Patten who fired up audiences across the UK in the 70s and then the likes of John Hegley emerged in the 80s, influenced as much by stand-up comedy as a love for wordplay, creating the template for what became recognised as contemporary British performance poetry - a format still exemplified by the work of acts such as Murray Lachlan Young, sca Beard and Gerard McKeown. Apples and Snakes, a collective promoting performance poetry in pubs and at festivals, was started by Mandy Williams, PR Murry and Jane Addison in London in 1982 inspired by the work of New Variety/CAST. They worked with 'ranting poets' such as Attila the Stockbroker and Seething Wells and other poets and musicians with a political message such as Billy Bragg and Linton Kwesi Johnson. Apples and Snakes continues today, 31 years later, as a national organisation. In the 90s, however, in big cities like Manchester and London, a different style emerged that was influenced more by hip hop with much less emphasis on comedy in the manner of Def Poets in the United States. Well-known writers from this evolution include Lemn Sissay and the late Dike Omeje from the Manchester scene and Roger Robinson and El Crisis from the London circuit. On the experimental front, a number of new initiatives have grown around collaborative stage work using poetry and movement. ShadoWork, for instance, aims to 'disrupt and enrich the conventional regimes of author, text and audience' by combining (simple) theatrical movement with the full range of voice and stage in ways designed to draw deeper attention to the text. Developments such as ShadoWork represent a 'counter-cultural' mode of performance poetry which shuns bald entertainment value, and others such as theTell Tales initiative and Jonzi D's Lyrikal Fearta (which he calls choreopoetry[13]) go even further, extending spoken word to short prose productions and fusing performance poetry with dance. British performance poetry continues to thrive at a grassroots level, with performances in pubs and theatres, as well as at arts festivals such as Glastonbury and The EdinburghFringe. Slams as well as open mikes for more traditional writers remain popular. Media works influenced by radio performance poet Hedwig Gorski have gained ground;[14] there has been some crossover into TV and radio. [15] Many contemporary British performance poets have been influenced by punk poets like John Cooper Clarke and reggae poets like Linton Kwesi Johnson as well as by comedy and hip hop. In 2003 the first UK conference of performance poetry, organised by Lucy English, was held at Bath Spa University. Speakers included performing poets from the United States Bob Holman and Charles Bernstein. Bath Spa university runs a performance poetry module as part of its Creative Writing programme.

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Australian performance poetry

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Hedwig Gorski

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Language poets

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List of performance poets

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Literary movements

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Poetry reading

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Slam Poetry

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Spoken Word

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ The term originated with an art school graduate and later creative writing P h.D. who wanted to distinguish her public poetry performances from performance art in ments and while writing for the Austin Chronicle. Intoxication: Heathcliff on Powell Street. Slough Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4276-0475-4

2; Jump up^ Wheeler, Lesley. Voicing American Poetry: Sound and Performance from the 1920s to the Present. Cornell U P, 2008.

3; Jump up^ Intoxication: Heathcliff on Powell Street. College Station, TX: Slough Press, 2007, 2009. ISBN 978-1-4276-0475-0

4; Jump up^ Wheeler, Lesley. Voicing American Poetry: Sound and Performance from the 1920s to the Present. Cornell U P, 2008.

5; Jump up^ http://hedwiggorski.com 6; Jump up^ "What We Do". Global Writes. Retrieved January 24, 2016. 7; Jump up^ [1]

Postmodernism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Post-modernist)

This article is about the movement. For the condition or state of being, see Postmodernity. For other uses, see Postmodernism (disambiguation).

Postmodernism preceded by Modernism

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Postmodernism is a late-20th-century movement in the arts, architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.[1][2]Postmodernism articulates that the world is in a state of perpetual incompleteness and permanent unresolve. Postmodernism promotes the notion of radical pluralism; that there are many ways of knowing, and many truths to a fact. From a postmodern perspective knowledge is articulated from perspectives, with all its uncertainties, complexity and paradox. Thus knowledge is relational and all realities are woven on local linguistic looms.[3] Postmodernism includes skeptical interpretations of culture,literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction andpost-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thought. The term postmodernism has been applied to a host of movements, mainly in art, music, and literature, that reacted against tendencies in modernism, and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques.[4] Contents [hide]

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1History

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2Influence on art

o 2.1Architecture o 2.2Urban planning o 2.3Literature o 2.4Music o 2.5Graphic design

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3Influential postmodernist philosophers

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4Deconstruction

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5Postmodernism and structuralism

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6Post-postmodernism

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7Criticisms

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8See also

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9References

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10Further reading

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11External links

History[edit] The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.[5] J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the doublemindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."[6] In 1921 and 1925, postmodernism had been used to describe new forms of art and music. In 1942 H. R. Hays described it as a new literary form. However, as a general theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918".[7]

Portland Building, an example ofPostmodern architecture

In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with modern architecture, and led to the postmodern architecture movement,[8] perhaps also a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style. Postmodernism in architecture is marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms (eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles. Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post modern world happened between 1937 and 1957 (when he was writing). He described an as yet "nameless era" which he characterised as a shift to conceptual world based on pattern purpose and process rather than mechanical cause, outlined by four new realities: the emergence of Educated Society, the importance of international development, the decline of the nation state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western cultures. [9] In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, Mel Bochner described "postmodernism" in art as having started with Jasper Johns, "who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art, and treated art as a critical investigation." [10] More recently, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views, which he identifies as either (a) Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed, (b) Scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry, (c) Social-

traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization, or (d) Neoromantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.[11] Postmodernist ideas in philosophy and the analysis of culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory and has been the point of departure for works of literature,architecture, and design, as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law and culture, starting in the late 20th century. These developments—re-evaluation of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from industrial to service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term Postmodernity,[12] as opposed to Postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement. Postmodernism has also been used interchangeably with the term post-structuralism out of which postmodernism grew, a proper understanding of postmodernism or doing justice to the postmodernist thought demands an understanding of the poststructuralist movement and the ideas of its advocates. Post-structuralism resulted similarly to postmodernism by following a time of structuralism. It is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form.[13] "Postmodernist" describes part of a movement; "Postmodern" places it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of contemporary history.

Influence on art[edit] Main article: Postmodern art

Architecture[edit] Main article: Postmodern architecture

Detail of the postmodern Abteiberg Museum in .

The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived blandness and failed Utopianism of the Modern movement. Modern Architecture, as established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function,[14] and dismissal of "frivolous ornament."[15][16] Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out anachronisms in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.[17]Definitive postmodern architecture such as the work of Michael Graves and Robert Venturi rejects the notion of a 'pure' form or 'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. Modernist Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is associated with the phrase "less is more"; in contrast Venturi famously said, "Less is a bore." Postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge Modernism as antiquated and "totalitarian", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate truths or principles. It is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that distinguishes the postmodernism aesthetic. Among writers defining the of this discourse is Charles Jencks, described by Architectural Design Magazine as "the definer of Post-Modernism for thirty years" and the "internationally acclaimed critic..., whose name became synonymous with Post-modernism in the 80s".[18]

Urban planning[edit] Postmodernism is a rejection of 'totality', of the notion that planning could be 'comprehensive', widely applied regardless of context, and rational. In this sense, Postmodernism is a rejection of its predecessor: Modernism. From the 1920s onwards, the Modern movement sought to design and plan cities which

followed the logic of the new model of industrialmass production; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation and prefabricated design solutions (Goodchild 1990). Postmodernism also brought a break from the notion that planning and architecture could result in social reform, which was an integral dimension of the plans of Modernism (Simonsen 1990). Furthermore, Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogenous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57). Within Modernism, urban planning represented a 20th-century move towards establishing something stable, structured, and rationalised within what had become a world of chaos, flux and change (Irving 1993, 475). The role of planners predating Postmodernism was one of the 'qualified professional' who believed they could find and implement one single 'right way' of planning new urban establishments (Irving 1993). In fact, after 1945, urban planning became one of the methods through which capitalism could be managed and the interests of developers and corporations could be istered (Irving 1993, 479). Considering Modernism inclined urban planning to treat buildings and developments as isolated, unrelated parts of the overall urban ecosystems created fragmented, isolated, and homogeneous urban landscapes (Goodchild, 1990). One of the greater problems with Modernist-style of planning was the disregard of resident or public opinion, which resulted in planning being forced upon the majority by a minority consisting of affluent professionals with little to no knowledge of real 'urban' problems characteristic of post-Second World War urban environments: slums, overcrowding, deteriorated infrastructure, pollution and disease, among others (Irving 1993). These were precisely the 'urban ills' Modernism was meant to 'solve', but more often than not, the types of 'comprehensive', 'one size fits all' approaches to planning made things worse., and residents began to show interest in becoming involved in decisions which had once been solely entrusted to professionals of the built environment. Advocacy planning and participatory models of planning emerged in the 1960s to counter these traditional elitist and technocratic approaches to urban planning (Irving 1993; Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007). Furthermore, an assessment of the 'ills' of Modernism among planners during the 1960s, fuelled development of a participatory model that aimed to expand the range of participants in urban interventions (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007, 21). Jane Jacobs's 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479). However, the transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32pm on 15 July in 1972, when Pruitt Igoe; a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480). Since then, Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity, and it exalts uncertainty, flexibility and change (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007). Postmodern planning aims to accept pluralism and heighten awareness of social differences in order to accept and bring to light the claims of minority and disadvantaged groups (Goodchild 1990). It is important to note that urban planning discourse within Modernity and Postmodernity has developed in different contexts, even though they both grew within a capitalist culture. Modernity was shaped by a capitalist ethic of FordistKeynesian paradigm of mass, standardized production and consumption, while postmodernity was created out of a more flexible form of capital accumulation,labor markets and organisations (Irving 1993, 60). Also, there is a distinction between a postmodernism of 'reaction' and one of 'resistance'. A postmodernism of 'reaction' rejects Modernism and seeks to return to the lost traditions and history in order to create a new cultural synthesis, while Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them (Irving 1993, 60). As a result of Postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to there being one single 'right way' of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of 'how to plan' (Irving 474). [19][20][21][22]

Literature[edit]

Orhan Pamuk, winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Main article: Postmodern literature Literary postmodernism was officially inaugurated in the United States with the first issue of boundary 2, subtitled "Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture", which appeared in 1972. David Antin, Charles Olson, John Cage, and the Black Mountain College school of poetry and the arts were integral figures in the intellectual and artistic exposition of postmodernism at the time.[23] boundary 2 remains an influential journal in postmodernist circles today.[24] Jorge Luis Borges's (1939) short story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote, is often considered as predicting postmodernism[25] and conceiving the ideal of the ultimate parody.[26] Samuel Beckett is sometimes seen as an important precursor and influence. Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include Vladimir Nabokov, William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, John Hawkes, William Burroughs, Giannina Braschi, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, E.L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosinski, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon[27] (Pynchon's work has also been described as "high modern"[28]), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jachym Topol and Paul Auster. In 1971, the Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective, in which the author traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman. In 'Postmodernist Fiction' (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant[clarification needed], and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology. In Constructing Postmodernism (1992), McHale's second book, he provides readings of postmodern fiction and of some of the contemporary writers who go under the label of cyberpunk. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007),[29] follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism.

Music[edit]

Composer Henryk Górecki.

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) Main articles: Postmodern music and Postmodern classical music Postmodern music is either music of the postmodern era, or music that follows aesthetic and philosophical trends of postmodernism. As the name suggests, the postmodernist movement formed partly in reaction to the ideals of the modernist. Because of this, postmodern music is mostly defined in opposition

to modernist music, and a work can either be modernist, or postmodern, but not both. Jonathan Kramer posits the idea (followingUmberto Eco and Jean-François Lyotard) that postmodernism (including musical postmodernism) is less a surface style or historical period (i.e., condition) than an attitude. The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism. Composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism. Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions. Postmodern classical music as well is not a musical style, but rather refers to music of the postmodern era. It bears the same relationship to postmodernist music that postmodernity bears to postmodernism. Postmodern music, on the other hand, shares characteristics with postmodernist art—that is, art that comes after and reacts againstmodernism. Though representing a general return to certain notions of music-making that are often considered to be classical or romantic[citation needed], not all postmodern composers have eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. The works of Dutch composer Louis Andriessen, for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic. Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.

Graphic design[edit] Postmodern designers were in the beginning stages of what we now refer to as "graphic design". They created works beginning in the 1970s without any set adherence to rational order and formal organization. They also seemed to entirely pay no attention to traditional conventions such as legibility. Another characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its own sites and venues, detractors and advocates". [30] Yet, while postmodern design did not consist of one unified graphic style, the movement was an expressive and playful time for designers who searched for more and more ways to go against the system. Key influential postmodern graphic designers include Wolfgang Weingart, April Greiman, Tibor Kalman, and Jamie Reid.

Influential postmodernist philosophers[edit]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) See also: Postmodern philosophy Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of "subjectivity" and "objectivity" and asserted that similar grounding oppositions in logic ultimately refer to one another. Instead of resisting the ission of this paradox in the search for understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the "Hermeneutic Circle". He stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal and immanentapprehension of them. In this vein, he asserted that it was the task of contemporary philosophy to recover the original question of (or "openness to") Dasein (translated as Being or Being-there) present in the Presocratic philosophers but normalized, neutered and standardized since Plato. This was to be done, in part, by tracing the record ofDasein's sublimation or forgetfulness through the history of philosophy which meant that we were to ask again what constituted the grounding conditions in ourselves and in the World for the affinity between beings and between the many usages of the term "being" in philosophy. To do

this, however, a non-historical and, to a degree, self-referential engagement with whatever set of ideas, feelings or practices would permit (both the non-fixed concept and reality of) such a continuity was required — a continuity permitting the possible experience, possible existence indeed not only of beings but of all differences as they appeared and tended to develop. Such a conclusion led Heidegger to depart from the Phenomenology of his teacher Husserl and prompt instead an (ironically anachronistic) return to the yet-unasked questions of Ontology, a return that in general did not acknowledge an intrinsic distinction between phenomena and noumena or between things in themselves (de re) and things as they appear (seequalia): Being-in-the-world, or rather, the openness to the process of Dasein's/Being's becoming was to bridge the age-old gap between these two. In this latter premise, Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche, another principal forerunner of Post-structuralist and Postmodernist thought. Influential to thinkers associated with Postmodernism are Heidegger's critique of the subject-object or sense-knowledge division implicit in Rationalism, Empiricism and Methodological Naturalism, his repudiation of the idea that facts exist outside or separately from the process of thinking and speaking them (however, Heidegger is not specifically aNominalist), his related ission that the possibilities of philosophical and scientific discourse are wrapped up in the practices and expectations of a society and that concepts and fundamental constructs are the expression of a lived, historical exercise rather than simple derivations of external, apriori conditions independent from historical mind and changing experience (see Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Heinrich von Kleist, Weltanschauung and Social Constructionism), and his Instrumentalist and Negativist notion that Being (and, by extension, reality) is an action, method, tendency, possibility and question rather than a discrete, positive, identifiable state, answer or entity (see alsoProcess Philosophy, Dynamism, Instrumentalism, Pragmatism and Vitalism). Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) Re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of 'presence' or metaphysics in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of Destruktion, came to be known as Deconstruction. Derrida utilized, like Heidegger, references to Greek philosophical notions associated with the Skeptics and the Presocratics, such as Epoché and Aporia to articulate his notion of implicit circularity between premises and conclusions, origins and manifestations, but — in a manner analogous in certain respects to Gilles Deleuze — presented a radical re-reading of canonical philosophical figures such as Plato, Aristotle and Descartes as themselves being informed by such "destabilizing" notions. Michel Foucault (1926–1984) Introduced concepts such as 'discursive regime', or re-invoked those of older philosophers like 'episteme' and 'genealogy' in order to explain the relationship among meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders (see The Order of Things, The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish and The History of Sexuality). In direct contradiction to what have been typified as Modernist perspectives on epistemology, Foucault asserted that rational judgment, social practice and what he called 'biopower' are not only inseparable but codeterminant. While Foucault himself was deeply involved in a number of progressive political causes and maintained close personal ties with of the far-Left, he was also controversial with Leftist thinkers of his day, including those associated with various strains of Marxism, proponents of Left libertarianism(e.g. Noam Chomsky) and Humanism (e.g. Jürgen Habermas), for his rejection of what he deemed to be Enlightenment concepts of freedom, liberation, selfdetermination and human nature. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and exclusion. In line with his rejection of such 'positive' tenets of Enlightenment-era Humanism, he was active, with Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, in

the Anti-Psychiatry Movement, considering much of institutionalized psychiatry and, in particular, Freud's concept of repression central to Psychoanalysis (which was still very influential in during the 1960s and 70s), to be both harmful and misplaced. Foucault was known for his controversial aphorisms, such as "language is oppression", meaning that language functions in such a way as to render nonsensical, false or silent tendencies that might otherwise threaten or undermine the distributions of power backing a society's conventions — even when such distributions purport to celebrate liberation and expression or value minority groups and perspectives. His writings have had a major influence on the larger body of Postmodern academic literature. Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998) Identified in The Postmodern Condition a crisis in the "discourses of the Human Sciences" latent in Modernism but catapulted to the fore by the advent of the "computerized" or "telematic" era (see Information Revolution). This crisis, insofar as it pertains to academia, concerns both the motivations and justification procedures for making research claims: unstated givens or values that have validated the basic efforts of academic research since the late 18th century might no longer be valid (particularly, in Social Science & Humanities research, though examples from Mathematics are given by Lyotard as well). As formal conjecture about real-world issues becomes inextricably linked to automated calculation, information storage and retrieval, such knowledge becomes increasingly "exteriorised" from its knowers in the form of information. Knowledge is materialized and made into a commodity exchanged between producers and consumers; it ceases to be either an idealistic end-in-itself or a tool capable of bringing about liberty or social benefit; it is stripped of its humanistic and spiritual associations, its connection with education, teaching and human development, being simply rendered as "data" — omnipresent, material, unending and without any contexts or pre-requisites.[31] Furthermore, the 'diversity' of claims made by various disciplines begins to lack any unifying principle or intuition as objects of study become more and more specialized due to the emphasis on specificity, precision and uniformity of reference that competitive, database-oriented research implies. The value-premises upholding academic research have been maintained by what Lyotard considers to be quasi-mythological beliefs about human purpose, human reason and human progress — large, background constructs he calls "Metanarratives". These Metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid Informatization and the commercialization of the University and its functions. The shift of authority from the presence and intuition of knowers — from the good-faith of Reason to seek diverse knowledge integrated for human benefit or truth fidelity — to the automated database and the market had, in Lyotard's view, the power to unravel the very idea of 'justification' or 'legitimation' and, with it, the rationale for research altogether — esp. in disciplines pertaining to human life, society and meaning. We are now controlled not by binding extra-linguistic value paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of "language games" (a concept Lyotard imports from JL Austin's theory of speech acts). In his vision of a solution to this "vertigo," Lyotard opposes the assumptions of universality, consensus, and generality that he identified within the thought of Humanistic, Neo-Kantian philosophers like Jürgen Habermas and proposes a continuation of experimentation and diversity to be assessed pragmatically in the context of language games rather than via appeal to a resurrected series of transcendentals and metaphysical unities. Richard Rorty (1931–2007) Argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary Analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. In addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of Representationalism and Correspondence theory that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the ivity of natural phenomena in relation to

consciousness. As a proponent of anti-foundationalism and anti-essentialism within a Pragmatist framework, he echoes Postmodern strains of Conventionalism and Philosophical Relativism, but opposes much Postmodern thinking with his commitment to Social Liberalism. Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007), In Simulacra and Simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the "Real" is short-circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. Baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events (political, literary, artistic, personal, or otherwise), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context; they therefore have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment, and ivity in industrialized populations. He claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the "disappearance" of mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances. Fredric Jameson (born 1934) Set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of Postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at theWhitney Museum, later expanded as Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991). Eclectic in his methodology, Jameson has continued a sustained examination of the role that Periodization continues to play as a grounding assumption of critical methodologies in Humanities disciplines. He has contributed extensive effort to explicating the importance of concepts of Utopianism and Utopia as driving forces in the cultural and intellectual movements of Modernity, and outlining the political and existential uncertainties that may result from the decline or suspension of this trend in the theorized state of Postmodernity. Like Susan Sontag, Jameson served to introduce a wide audience of American readers to key figures of the 20th Century Continental European intellectual Left, particularly those associated with the Frankfurt School,Structuralism and Post-Structuralism. Thus, his importance as a 'translator' of their ideas to the common vocabularies of a variety of disciplines in the Anglo-American academic complex is equally as important as his own critical engagement with them. Douglas Kellner (born 1943) In "Analysis of the Journey," a journal birthed from postmodernism, Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of modern theory" must be forgotten. His defined in the depth of postmodernism are based on advancement, innovation, and adaptation. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the of this theory in real life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and technology studies as a major part of his analysis; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. The scale was larger than just postmodernism alone; it must be interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. The reality of the September Eleventh attacks on the United States of America is the catalyst for his explanation. This catalyst is used as a great representation due to the mere fact of the planned ambush and destruction of "symbols of globalization", insinuating the World Trade Centers. One of the numerous, yet appropriate definitions of postmodernism and the qualm aspect aids this attribute to seem perfectly accurate. In response, Kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the September Eleventh attacks. He questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory due to the level of irony.[32] In further studies, he enhances the idea of semiotics in alignment with the theory. Similar to the act of September 11 and the symbols that were interpreted through this postmodern ideal, he continues to even describe this as "semiotic systems" that people use to make sense of their lives and the events that occur in them. Kellner's adamancy that signs are necessary to understand one's culture is what

he analyzes from the evidence that most cultures have used signs in place of existence. [citation needed] Finally, he recognizes that many theorists of postmodernism are trapped by their own cogitations. He finds strength in theorist Baudrillard and his idea of Marxism. Kellner acknowledges Marxism's end and lack of importance to his theory. The conclusion he depicts is simple: postmodernism, as most utilize it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one's reality will be one's reality as they know it. [33]

Deconstruction[edit] Main article: Deconstruction One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is "deconstruction," a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed by Jacques Derrida. The notion of a "deconstructive" approach implies an analysis that questions the already evident understanding of a text in of presuppositions, ideological underpinnings, hierarchical values, and frames of reference. A deconstructive approach further depends on the techniques of close reading without reference to cultural, ideological, moral opinions or information derived from an authority over the text such as the author. At the same time Derrida famously writes: "Il n'y a pas d'hors-texte (there is no such thing as outside-of-the-text)."[34] Derrida implies that the world follows the grammar of a text undergoing its own deconstruction. Derrida's method frequently involves recognizing and spelling out the different, yet similar interpretations of the meaning of a given text and the problematic implications of binary oppositions within the meaning of a text. Derrida's philosophy inspired a postmodern movement called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by the intentional fragmentation, distortion, and dislocation of architectural elements in deg a building. Derrida discontinued his involvement with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenmann in Chora L Works: Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman.[35]

Postmodernism and structuralism[edit]

Main article: Manifestations of Postmodernism Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French Existentialism. It has been seen variously as an expression of Modernism, High modernism, or postmodernism[by whom?]. "Poststructuralists" were thinkers who moved away from the strict interpretations and applications of structuralist ideas. Many

American academics consider post-structuralism to be part of the broader, less well-defined postmodernist movement, even though many post-structuralists insisted it was not. Thinkers who have been called structuralists include the anthropologist Claude LéviStrauss, the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas. The early writings of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the literary theorist Roland Barthes have also been called structuralist. Those who began as structuralists but became post-structuralists include Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze. Other post-structuralists include Jacques Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-François Lyotard, Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. The American cultural theorists, critics and intellectuals whom they influenced include Judith Butler, John Fiske, Rosalind Krauss, Avital Ronell, and Hayden White. Post-structuralism is not defined by a set of shared axioms or methodologies, but by an emphasis on how various aspects of a particular culture, from its most ordinary, everyday material details to its most abstract theories and beliefs, determine one another. Post-structuralist thinkers reject Reductionism and Epiphenomenalism and the idea that cause-and-effect relationships are top-down or bottom-up. Like structuralists, they start from the assumption that people's identities, values and economic conditions determine each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation.[36] Thus the French structuralists considered themselves to be espousing Relativism andConstructionism. But they nevertheless tended to explore how the subjects of their study might be described, reductively, as a set of essential relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. (An example is Claude Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Study of Myth"[37]). Poststructuralists thinkers went further, questioning the existence of any distinction between the nature of a thing and its relationship to other things.

Post-postmodernism[edit]

Main article: Post-postmodernism Recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoborek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or

society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudomodernism). None of these new theories and labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. The exhibition Postmodernism - Style and Subversion 1970–1990 at the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 January 2012) was billed as the first show to document postmodernism as a historical movement.

Criticisms[edit] Main article: Criticism of postmodernism Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the assertions that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism. For example, Noam Chomsky has argued that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to Hume's advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'."[38] Christian apologist William Lane Craig has noted "The idea that we live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, engineering, and technology; rather, they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics. But, of course, that's not postmodernism; that's modernism!"[39] Formal, academic critiques of postmodernism can also be found in works such as Beyond the Hoax and Fashionable Nonsense. However, as for continental philosophy, American academics have tended to label it "postmodernist", especially practitioners of "French Theory". Such a trend might derive from U.S. departments of Comparative Literature.[40] It is interesting to note that Félix Guattari, often considered a "postmodernist", rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist visions of the world were not flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social and environmental domains at the same time.[41] Philosopher Daniel Dennett declared, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but it has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by their distrust of the very idea of truth and their disrespect for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and nothing can be confirmed, only asserted with whatever style you can muster."[42]

See also[edit] Theory



Critical Theory



Integral Theory



Transmodernism Culture and politics



Defamiliarization



Sokal Affair



Syncretism

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ "postmodernism: definition of postmodernism in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)". oxforddictionaries.com.

2; Jump up^ Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; American Heritage Dictionary's definition of "postmodern"

3; Jump up^ http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/degreeprograms/master-of-social-work/academics/coursedescriptions/

4; Jump up^ Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2004 5; Jump up^ Hassan, Ihab, The Postmodern Turn, Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture, Ohio University Press, 1987. p. 12ff.

6; Jump up^ Thompson, J. M. "Post-Modernism," The Hibbert Journal. Vol XII No. 4, July 1914. p. 733

7; Jump up^ Arnold J. Toynbee, A study of History, Volume 5, Oxford University Press, 1961 [1939], p. 43.

8; Jump up^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2004 9; Jump up^ Drucker, Peter F. (1957). Landmarks of Tomorrow (PDF). New York: Harper Brothers. Retrieved 2 August 2015.

10; Jump up^ Bochner, Mel. Solar system & rest rooms: writings and interviews, 1965-2007, MIT Press, 2008, p. 91.

11; Jump up^ Walter Truett Anderson (1996). The Fontana Postmodernism Reader.

12; Jump up^ "TRANS Nr. 11: Paul Michael Lützeler (St. Louis): From Postmodernism to Postcolonialism". inst.at.

13; Jump up^ Yilmaz, K 2010, 'Postmodernism and its Challenge to the Discipline of History: Implications for History Education', Educational Philosophy & Theory, 42, 7, pp. 779-795, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 18 April 2012.

14; Jump up^ Sullivan, Louis. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered," published Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).

15; Jump up^ Loos, Adolf. "Ornament and Crime," published 1908.

16; Jump up^ Manfredo Tafuri, 'Architecture and utopia: design and capitalist development', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976.

17; Jump up^ Venturi, et al. 18; Jump up^ "Radical Post-Modernism: Architectural Design". Retrieved 12 February 2012.

19; Jump up^ Goodchild, B 1990, 'Planning and the Modern'Postmodern Debate', in The Town Planning Review, vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 119–137.

20; Jump up^ Hatuka, T & D'Hooghe, A 2007, 'After Postmodernism: readdressing the Role of Utopia in Urban Design and Planning', in Places: Forum of Design for the Public Realm, vol. 19, Issue 2, pp. 20–27/

21; Jump up^ Irving, A 1993, 'The Modern/Postmodern Divide and Urban Planning', in The University of Toronto Quareterly, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 474–487.

22; Jump up^ Simonsen, K 1990, 'Planning on 'Postmodern' Conditions', in Acta Sociologica, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 51–62.

23; Jump up^ Anderson, The origins of postmodernity, London: Verso, 1998, Ch.2: "Crystallization".

24; Jump up^ boundary 2, Duke University Press, Boundary2.dukejournals.org

25; Jump up^ Elizabeth Bellalouna, Michael L. LaBlanc, Ira Mark Milne (2000) Literature of Developing Nations for Students: L-Z p.50

26; Jump up^ Stavans (1997) p.31 27; Jump up^ "7 - Pynchon's postmodernism Cambridge Companions Online - Cambridge University Press". Universitypublishingonline.org. Retrieved 2013-04-04.

28; Jump up^ "Mail, Events, Screenings, News: 32". People.bu.edu. Retrieved 2013-04-04.

29; Jump up^ "What Was Postmodernism?". Electronic Book Review. 2007-12-20. Retrieved2013-04-04.

30; Jump up^ Drucker, Johanna and Emily McVarish (2008). Graphic Design History. Pearson. pp. 305– 306. ISBN 978-0132410755.

31; Jump up^ Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Les Éditions de Minuit, 1979. English Translation by Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Manchester University Press, 1984. See Chapter 1, The Field: Knowledge in Computerised Societies.//

32; Jump up^ Lule, Jack. "The Postmodern Adventure (Book)." Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 78.4 (2001): 865–866. Academic Search Premier. Web. 2 Apr 2012.

33; Jump up^ Danto, AC 1990, "The Hyper-Intellectual", New Republic, 203, 11/12, pp. 44-48, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 2 April 2012. .

34; Jump up^ Derrida (1967), Of Grammatology, Part II, Introduction to the "Age of Rousseau," section 2 "...That Dangerous Supplement...", title, The Exorbitant Question of Method, pp. 158–59, 163.

35; Jump up^ Benoît Peeters, Derrida: A Biography, pp. 377– 8, translated by Andrew Brown, Polity Press, 2013, ISBN 9780745656151

36; Jump up^ Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (First published New York: Basic Books, 1963; New York: Anchor Books Ed., 1967), 324. Lévi-Strauss, quoting D'Arcy Westworth Thompson states: "To those who question the possibility of defining the interrelations between entities whose nature is not completely understood, I shall reply with the following comment by a great naturalist: In a very large part of morphology, our essential task lies in the comparison of related forms rather than in the precise definition of each; and the deformation of a complicated figure may be a phenomenon easy of comprehension, though the figure itself has to be left unanalyzed and undefined."

37; Jump up^ Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Anthropologie Structurale. Paris: Éditions Plon, 1958. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (New York: Basic Books, 1963), 228.

38; Jump up^ "Noam Chomsky on PostModernism". bactra.org.

39; Jump up^ Craig, William Lane (July 3, 2008). "God is Not Dead Yet". Christianity Today. Retrieved 30 April 2014.

40; Jump up^ "Italian Theory". UniNomade. 3 March 2013. 41; Jump up^ Guattari, Felix (1989). "The three ecologies" (PDF). new formations (8): 134.

42; Jump up^ DENNETT ON WIESELTIER V. PINKER IN THE NEW REPUBLIChttp://edge.org/conversation/dennett-onwieseltier-v-pinker-in-the-new-republic

Further reading[edit] 

Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" (ISBN 0-8021-3800-4)



Anderson, Walter Truett. The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader). New York: Tarcher. (1995) (ISBN 087477-801-8)



Anderson, Perry. The origins of postmodernity. London: Verso, 1998.



Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense, Mimesis International.



Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Language of Exile." International Studies Quarterly v 34, no 3 259-68.



Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.



Beck, Ulrich (1986) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.



Benhabib, Seyla (1995) 'Feminism and Postmodernism' in (ed. Nicholson) Feminism Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange. New York: Routledge.



Berman, Marshall (1982) All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity (ISBN 0-14-010962-5).



Bertens, Hans (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. London: Routledge. (ISBN 978-0-415-06012-7).



Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. Postmodern Theory (1991) excerpt and text search



Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn (1997) excerpt and text search



Bielskis, Andrius (2005) Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).



Braschi, Giannina (1994), Empire of Dreams, introduction by Alicia Ostriker, Yale University Press, New Haven, London.



Brass, Tom, Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism (London: Cass, 2000).



Butler, Judith (1995) 'Contingent Foundations' in (ed. Nicholson) Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange. New Yotk: Routledge.



Callinicos, Alex, Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique (Cambridge: Polity, 1999).



Drabble, M. The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6 ed., article "Postmodernism".



Farrell, John. "Paranoia and Postmodernism," the epilogue to Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006), 309-327.



Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications.



Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press.



Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. volume I. Samizdat [1] (ISBN 978-2-9807774-3-1)



Goulimari, Pel

Romanticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Romance (disambiguation).

Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818 Eugène Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its Orientalist subject from a play by Lord Byron

Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808

Romanticism (also the Romantic era or the Romantic period) was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, the latter also being celebrated. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution,[1] the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature.[2] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[3] education,[4] and the natural sciences. [5] It had a significant and complex effect on politics, and while for much of the Romantic period it was associated with liberalismand radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was perhaps more significant. The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe—especially that experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublimity and beauty of nature. It considered folk art and ancient custom to be noble statuses, but also valued spontaneity, as in the musical impromptu. In contrast to the rational and Classicist ideal models, Romanticism revivedmedievalism[6] and elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, early urban sprawl, and industrialism. Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, the events and ideologies of the French Revolution were also proximate factors. Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of "heroic" individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.[7]The decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. [8] Contents [hide]



1Defining Romanticism

o 1.1Basic characteristics o 1.2Etymology o 1.3The period o 1.4Context and place in history 

2Romantic literature

o 2.1 o 2.2Great Britain ;

2.2.1England

;

2.2.2Scotland

o 2.3 o 2.4Poland o 2.5Russia o 2.6Spain o 2.7Portugal o 2.8Italy o 2.9South America o 2.10United States ;

2.10.1Influence of European Romanticism on American writers



3Romantic visual arts



4Romanticism and music



5Romanticism outside the arts

o 5.1Sciences o 5.2Historiography o 5.3Theology 

6Romantic nationalism

o 6.1Polish nationalism and messianism 

7Gallery



8Romantic authors



9Scholars of Romanticism



10See also

o 10.1Related o 10.2Opposing o 10.3Related subjects o 10.4Related movements 

11Notes



12References



13Further reading



14External links

Defining Romanticism[edit] Basic characteristics[edit] Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the starting point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that "the artist's feeling is his law".[9] To William Wordsworth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which the poet then "recollect[s] in tranquility," evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art.[10] To express these feelings, it was considered that the content of the art had to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial" rules that dictated what a work should consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone.[11] As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator's own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin.[12][13][14] This idea is often called "romantic originality."[15] William Blake, The Little Girl Found, from Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794

Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. However, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe that a close connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".[16] According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a ionate effort at self-assertion both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals." [17]

Etymology[edit] The group of words with the root "Roman" in the various European languages, such as romance and Romanesque, has a complicated history, but by the middle of the 18th century "romantic" in English and romantique in French were both in common use as adjectives of praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets, in a sense close to modern English usage but without the sexual connotation. The application of the term to literature first became common in , where the circle around the Schlegel brothers, critics Augustand Friedrich, began to speak of romantische Poesie ("romantic poetry") in the 1790s, contrasting it with "classic" but in of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel wrote in his Dialogue on Poetry (1800), "I seek and find the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and the word itself are derived."[18] In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the fairly new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. The use of the word did not become general very quickly, and was probably spread more widely in by its persistent use by Madame de Staël in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in .[19] In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp" and "classic lyre", [19] but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, "I perceive that in , as well as in

Italy, there is a great struggle about what they call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', which were not subjects of classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago". [20] It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the Académie française took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.[21]

The period[edit] The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place "roughly between 1770 and 1848",[22] and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, perhaps a little later than some other critics.[23] Others have proposed 1780–1830.[24] In other fields and other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be considerably different; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described stylistically as "Late Romantic" and were composed in 1946–48. [25] However, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier. The early period of the Romantic Era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (1789–1799) followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism.[26] The key generation of French Romantics born between 1795–1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de Vigny, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums".[27] According to Jacques Barzun, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century. [28]

Context and place in history[edit] The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the Counter-Enlightenment, a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the French Revolution, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important, but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range of conservative views, [29] and nationalism was in many countries strongly associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below. In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and agreed values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth", [30] and hence not only to nationalism, but also fascism andtotalitarianism, with a gradual recovery coming only after World War II. [31] For the Romantics, Berlin says, in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups – states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a ionate belief in spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold up a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals represent the self-expression of the artist's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some "external" voice – church, state, public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste – is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their existence for those who are in any sense creative.[32]

John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott, 1888, after a poem byTennyson; like many Victorianpaintings, romantic but not Romantic

Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948); some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of modernity,[33] and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalism—a "Counter-Enlightenment"— [34][35] to be associated most closely with German Romanticism. An earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."[36] The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new style of Realism, which affected literature, especially the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera. This movement was led by , with Balzac and Flaubert in literature and Courbet in painting; Stendhal and Goya were important precursors of Realism in their respective media. However, Romantic styles, now often representing the established and safe style against which Realists rebelled, continued to flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In music such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some writers as "Late Romantic" and by others as "Neoromantic" or "Postromantic", but other fields do not usually use these ; in English literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian" avoids having to characterise the period further. In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and some art became more conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it was. Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings that great change was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous technique, as in the poems of Tennysonor many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.

Romantic literature[edit] See also: Romantic poetry

Henry Wallis, The Death of Chatterton 1856, by suicide at 17 in 1770

In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of "sensibility" with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for nature. Furthermore, several romantic authors, such as Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, based their writings on the supernatural/occult and human psychology. Romanticism tended to regard satire as something unworthy of serious attention, a prejudice still influential today.[37] The precursors of Romanticism in English poetry go back to the middle of the 18th century, including figures such as Joseph Warton(heaster at Winchester College) and his brother Thomas Warton, Professor of Poetry at Oxford University.[38] Joseph maintained that invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a poet. Thomas Chatterton is generally considered the first Romantic poet in English.[39] The Scottish poet James Maherson influenced the early development of Romanticism with the international success of hisOssian cycle of poems published in 1762, inspiring both Goethe and the young Walter Scott. Both Chatterton and Maherson's work involved elements of fraud, as what they claimed was earlier literature that they had discovered or compiled was, in fact, entirely their own work. The Gothic novel, beginning with Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764), was an important precursor of one strain of Romanticism, with a delight in horror and threat, and exotic picturesque settings, matched in Walpole's case by his role in the early revival of Gothic architecture. Tristram Shandy, a novel by Laurence Sterne (1759–67) introduced a whimsical version of the anti-rational sentimental novel to the English literary public.

[edit]

Title page of Volume III of Des Knaben Wunderhorn, 1808

An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and ionate temperament. At that time was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of nationalism. Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the brothers Schlegel) a center for early German Romanticism ("Jenaer Romantik"). Important writers were Ludwig Tieck, Novalis (Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 1799), Heinrich von Kleist and Friedrich Hölderlin. Heidelberg later became a center of German Romanticism, where writers and poets such

as Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff met regularly in literary circles. Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the German Forest, and Germanic myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example, E. T. A. Hoffmann's Der Sandmann (The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The significance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical mythology and children's literature, above all in . Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary figures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn("The Boy's Magic Horn" or cornucopia), a collection of versified folk tales, in 1806–08. The first collection of Grimms' Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm was published in 1812.[40] Unlike the much later work of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.[41] Another strain is exemplified by Schiller's highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in his play The Robbers of 1781.

Great Britain[edit] England[edit]

George Henry Harlow,Byron c. 1816

In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of John Clare. Also such novelists as Walter Scott from Scotland and Mary Shelley, and the essayists William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb. The publication in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many of the finest poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the start of the movement. The majority of the poems were by Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor in his native Lake District, or his feelings about nature—which he more fully developed in his long poem The Prelude, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem in the volume was Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which showed the Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the period when they were writing, the Lake Poets were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were ed by the critic and writerWilliam Hazlitt and others.

Girodet, Chateaubriand in Rome, 1808

In contrast Lord Byron and Walter Scott achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings; Goethe called Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century".[42] Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full epic poem Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitfiul partnership. Byron had equal success with the first part of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four "Turkish tales", all in the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813, drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic novel in verse. These featured different variations of the "Byronic hero", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was effectively inventing the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley, set in the 1745 Jacobite Rising, which was an enormous and highly profitable success, followed by over 20 further Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.[43] In contrast to , Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution, whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a firm Unionist. Several spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on Lake Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel Frankenstein by Shelley's wife-tobe Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byron's doctor John William Polidori. The lyrics ofRobert Burns in Scotland and Thomas Moore, from Ireland reflected in different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work. Though they have modern critical champions such as György Lukács, Scott's novels are today more likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them over the following decades, such as Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini's I puritani (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished satire Don Juan.[44] Unlike many Romantics, Byron's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death at 36 in 1824 from disease when helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from a distance to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend.[45] Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government sinecure, but wrote relatively little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded as finishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding decades were no less committed to Romantic values. The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott, was Jane Austen, whose essentially conservative world-view had little in common with her Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics [who?] have detected tremors under the surface of some works, especially Mansfield Park (1814) and Persuasion (1817).[46] But

around the mid-century the undoubtedly Romantic novels of the Yorkshire-based Brontë family appeared, in particular Charlotte's Jane Eyre and Emily's Wuthering Heights, which were both published in 1847. Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's The Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in , and through these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements" to them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear;[47] Coleridge said that, “Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning.”[48] Scotland[edit] Main article: Romanticism in Scotland

Robert Burns in Alexander Nasmyth's portrait of 1787

Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form.[49]James Maherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics.Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[50] It was also popularised in by figures that included Napoleon.[51] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience. [52] Robert Burns (1759–96) and Walter Scott (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. [53] Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.[54] It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century. [55] Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg(1770–1835), Allan Cunningham (1784–1842) and John Galt (1779–1839).[56] One of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his family's English peerage.[57]

Raeburn's portrait ofWalter Scott in 1822

Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review (founded in 1802) andBlackwood's Magazine (founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism. [58][59] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles nationalism." [60] Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.[61]

[edit] Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French literature, even more so than in the visual arts. The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the Ancien regime, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at first hand. The first major figure was François-René de Chateaubriand, a minor aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential novella of exile René (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (Génie du christianisme 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs from beyond the grave").[62]

The "battle of Hernani" was fought nightly at the theatre in 1830

After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is Wellington's aide-de-camp").[63] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with Henri III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with Hernani—a historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearian style that had famously riotous performances, themselves as much a spectacle as the play, on its first run in 1830. [64] Like Dumas, he is best known for his novels, and was already writing The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831), one of the best known works of his long career. The preface to his unperformed play "Cromwell" gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The career of Prosper Mérimée followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of Carmen, with his novella of 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best work. French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include Alfred de Musset, Gérard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamartine and the flamboyantThéophile Gautier, whose prolific output in various forms continued until his death in 1872. George Sand took over from Germaine de Staël as the leading female writer, and was a central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with Chopin and several others.[65] Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French retreat from Moscow in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).

Poland[edit]

Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag, by Walenty Wańkowicz

Main article: Romanticism in Poland Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first poems in 1822, and end with the crushing of theJanuary Uprising of 1863 against the Russians. It was strongly marked by interest in Polish history.[66] Polish Romanticism revived the old "Sarmatism" traditions of the szlachta or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of great Polish poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński, as well as prose writers such as Henryk Sienkiewicz. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the defining qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism period, differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered the loss of national statehood as was the case with Poland. [67] Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading of its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "Great Emigration," resettling in , , Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States.

Juliusz Słowacki, a Polish poet considered one of the "Three National Bards" of Polish literature— a major figure in the Polish Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama.

Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, folklore and country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of the Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically

subversive ideas. Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their country's sovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the poeta wieszcz (the prophet). Thewieszcz (bard) functioned as spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its independence. The most notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz. Zygmunt Krasinski also wrote to inspire political and religious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for victory at whatever price in Poland's struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Poland's spiritual role in its fight for independence, advocating an intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two early dramas, Nie-boska komedyia[68] (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the later Psalmy przyszłości (1845), he asserted that Poland was the Christ of Europe: specifically chosen by God to carry the world's burdens, to suffer, and eventually be resurrected.

Russia[edit] Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; Svetlana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792; Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Prisoner of the Caucasus, 1820– 1821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin, 1825–1832). Pushkin's work influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition as Russia's greatest poet.[69] Other Russian poets include Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda, 1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Küchelbecker. Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev's poems often described scenes of nature or ions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day, north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life. Baratynsky's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the previous century.

Spain[edit] Main article: Romanticism in Spanish literature Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well-known literature with a huge variety of poets and playwrights. The most important Spanish poet during this movement wasJosé de Espronceda. After him there were other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Mariano José de Larra and the dramatist José Zorrilla, author of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned the pre-romantics José Cadalso and Manuel José Quintana.[70] The plays of Antonio García Gutiérrez were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi's operasIl trovatore and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also influenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia and in Galicia there was a national boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaguer and the Galician Rosalía de Castro, the main figures of the national revivalist movements Renaixença and Rexurdimento, respectively.[71]

Portugal[edit] Modern Portuguese poetry develops its character from the work of its Romantic epitome, Almeida Garrett, a very prolific writer who helped shape the genre with the masterpieceFolhas Caídas (1853). This late arrival of a truly personal Romantic style would linger on to the beginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of poets such asAlexandre Herculano, Cesário Verde and António Nobre. However, an early Portuguese expression of Romanticism is found already in Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, especially in his sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century.

Italy[edit] Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement, yet still important; it began officially in 1816 when Mme de Staël wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca italiana called "Sulla maniera e l'utilità delle traduzioni", inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to study new authors from other countries. Before that date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anticipating Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri and Giovanni Berchet. Better known authors such as Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were influenced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and Classicism.[72]

South America[edit]

A print exemplifying the contrast between neoclassical vs. romantic styles of landscape and architecture (or the "Grecian" and the "Gothic" as they are termed here), 1816

Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was influenced heavily by Esteban Echeverría, who wrote in the 1830 and 1840s. His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas' dictatorship. Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three different periods. The first one is basically focused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include José de Alencar, who wrote "Iracema" and "O Guarani", and Gonçalves Dias, renowned by the poem "Canção do Exílio" (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound influence of European themes and traditions, involving the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted in these works. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement; the greatest writer of this period is Castro Alves.[73]

United States[edit]

Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State (1 of 5), 1836

In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen Bryant's "To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being published. American Romantic Gothic literature made an early appearance with Washington Irving's The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) and Rip Van Winkle(1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau, exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans. There are picturesque "local color" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. Edgar Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and melodrama of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson still show elements of its influence and imagination, as does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry of Emily Dickinson—nearly unread in her own time— and Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however, psychological and social realism were competing with Romanticism in the novel.

Influence of European Romanticism on American writers[edit] The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was filled with corruption.[74] Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy and art. The movement appealed to the revolutionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and promised a new blossoming of American culture. [74][75] American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement. [76] The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the period. [26] The Romantic period saw an increase in female authors and also female readers.

Romantic visual arts[edit] See also: Gothic Revival architecture

Thomas Jones, The Bard, 1774, a prophetic combination of Romanticism and nationalism by the Welsh artist

In the visual arts, Romanticism first showed itself in landscape painting, where from as early as the 1760s British artists began to turn to wilder landscapes and storms, and Gothic architecture, even if they had to make do with Wales as a setting. Caspar David Friedrich andJ. M. W. Turner were born less than a year apart in 1774 and 1775 respectively and were to take German and English landscape painting to their extremes of Romanticism, but both their artistic sensibilities were formed when forms of Romanticism was already strongly present in art. John Constable, born in 1776, stayed closer to the English landscape tradition, but in his largest "six-footers" insisted on the heroic status of a patch of the working countryside where he had grown up—challenging the traditional hierarchy of genres, which relegated landscape painting to a low status. Turner also painted very large landscapes, and above all, seascapes. Some of these large paintings had contemporary settings and staffage, but others had small figures that turned the work into history painting in the manner of Claude Lorrain, like Salvator Rosa a late Baroque artist whose

landscapes had elements that Romantic painters repeatedly turned to. Friedrich often used single figures, or features like crosses, set alone amidst a huge landscape, "making them images of the transitoriness of human life and the premonition of death."[77] Other groups of artists expressed feelings that verged on the mystical, many largely abandoning classical drawing and proportions. These included William Blake and Samuel Palmer and the other of the Ancients in England, and in Philipp Otto Runge. Like Friedrich, none of these artists had significant influence after their deaths for the rest of the 19th century, and were 20th century rediscoveries from obscurity, though Blake was always known as a poet, and Norway's leading painter Johan Christian Dahlwas heavily influenced by Friedrich. The Rome-based Nazarene movement of German artists, active from 1810, took a very different path, concentrating on medievalizing history paintings with religious and nationalist themes.[78]

Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, Ossian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, 1800–02

The arrival of Romanticism in French art was delayed by the strong hold of Neoclassicism on the academies, but from the Napoleonieriod it became increasingly popular, initially in the form of history paintings propagandising for the new regime, of which Girodet'sOssian receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes, for Napoleon's Château de Malmaison, was one of the earliest. Girodet's old teacherDavid was puzzled and disappointed by his pupil's direction, saying: "Either Girodet is mad or I no longer know anything of the art of painting".[79] A new generation of the French school,[80] developed personal Romantic styles, though still concentrating on history painting with a political message. Théodore Géricault (1791– 1824) had his first success with The Charging Chasseur, a heroic military figure derived from Rubens, at the Paris Salon of 1812 in the years of the Empire, but his next major completed work, The Raft of the Medusa of 1821, remains the greatest achievement of the Romantic history painting, which in its day had a powerful anti-government message. Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) made his first Salon hits with The Barque of Dante (1822), The Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827). The second was a scene from the Greek War of Independence, completed the year Byron died there, and the last was a scene from one of Byron's plays. With Shakespeare, Byron was to provide the subject matter for many other works of Delacroix, who also spent long periods in North Africa, painting colourful scenes of mounted Arab warriors. His Liberty Leading the People (1830) remains, with the Medusa, one of the best-known works of French Romantic painting. Both reflected current events, and increasingly "history painting", literally "story painting", a phrase dating back to the Italian Renaissance meaning the painting of subjects with groups of figures, long considered the highest and most difficult form of art, did indeed become the painting of historical scenes, rather than those from religion or mythology.[81] Francisco Goya was called "the last great painter in whose art thought and observation were balanced and combined to form a faultless unity".[82] But the extent to which he was a Romantic is a complex question. In Spain, there was still a struggle to introduce the values of the Enlightenment, in which Goya saw himself as a participant. The demonic and anti-rational monsters thrown up by his imagination are only superficially similar to those of the Gothic fantasies of northern Europe, and in many ways he remained wedded to the classicism and realism of his training, as well as looking forward to the Realism of the later

19th century.[83] But he, more than any other artist of the period, exemplified the Romantic values of the expression of the artist's feelings and his personal imaginative world.[84] He also shared with many of the Romantic painters a more free handling of paint, emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke and impasto, which tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a self-effacing finish.

Cavalier gaulois by Antoine-Augustin Préault, Pont d'Iéna, Paris

Sculpture remained largely impervious to Romanticism, probably partly for technical reasons, as the most prestigious material of the day, marble, does not lend itself to expansive gestures. The leading sculptors in Europe, Antonio Canova and Bertel Thorvaldsen, were both based in Rome and firm Neoclassicists, not at all tempted to allow influence from medieval sculpture, which would have been one possible approach to Romantic sculpture. When it did develop, true Romantic sculpture—with the exception of a few artists such as Rudolf Maison—[85] rather oddly was missing in , and mainly found in , with François Rude, best known from his group of the 1830s from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, David d'Angers, and Auguste Préault. Préault's plaster relief entitled Slaughter, which represented the horrors of wars with exacerbated ion, caused so much scandal at the 1834 Salon that Préault was banned from this official annual exhibition for nearly twenty years.[86] In Italy, the most important Romantic sculptor was Lorenzo Bartolini.[87]

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Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814

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Théodore Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa, 1819

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Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People 1830

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J.M.W. Turner, The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken up, 1839

In , historical painting on idealized medieval and Renaissance themes is known as the style Troubadour, a term with no equivalent for other countries, though the same trends occurred there. Delacroix, Ingres and Richard Parkes Bonington all worked in this style, as did lesser specialists such as Pierre-Henri Révoil (1776–1842) and Fleury-François Richard (1777–1852). Their pictures are often small, and feature intimate private and anecdotal moments, as well as those of high drama. The lives of great artists such as Raphael were commemorated on equal with those of rulers, and fictional characters were also depicted. Fleury-Richard's Valentine of Milan weeping for the death of her husband, shown in the Paris Salon of 1802, marked the arrival of the style, which lasted until the mid-century, before being subsumed into the increasingly academic history painting of artists like Paul Delaroche.[88]

sco Hayez, Crusaders Thirsting near Jerusalem

Another trend was for very large apocalyptic history paintings, often combining extreme natural events, or divine wrath, with human disaster, attempting to outdo The Raft of the Medusa, and now often drawing comparisons with effects from Hollywood. The leading English artist in the style was John Martin, whose tiny figures were dwarfed by enormous earthquakes and storms, and worked his way through the biblical disasters, and those to come in the final days. Other works such as Delacroix's Death of Sardanapalusincluded larger figures, and these often drew heavily on earlier artists, especially Poussin and Rubens, with extra emotionalism and special effects. Elsewhere in Europe, leading artists adopted Romantic styles: in Russia there were the portraitists Orest Kiprensky and Vasily Tropinin, with Ivan Aivazovsky specializing in marine painting, and in Norway Hans Gude painted secenes of fjords. In Italysco Hayez (1791–1882) was the leading artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan. His long, prolific and extremely successful career saw him begin as a Neoclassical painter, right through the Romantic period, and emerge at the other end as a sentimental painter of young women. His Romantic period included many historical pieces of

"Troubadour" tendencies, but on a very large scale, that are heavily influenced byGian Battista Tiepolo and other late Baroque Italian masters. Literary Romanticism had its counterpart in the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an untamed American landscape found in the paintings of the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings. They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as in Fredric Edwin Church’s piece Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death and decay. They also show the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their European counterparts by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an American identity in the art world is reflected in W. C. Bryant’s poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for Europe, where Bryant encourages Cole to the powerful scenes that can only be found in America. Some American paintings (such as Albert Bierstadt’s The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak) promote the literary idea of the “noble savage” by portraying idealized Native Americans living in harmony with the natural world. Thomas Cole's paintings tend towards allegory, explicit in The Voyage of Life series painted in the early 1840s, showing the stages of life set amidst an awesome and immense nature.

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Thomas Cole, Childhood, one of the 4 scenes in The Voyage of Life, 1842

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William Blake, Albion Rose, 1794-5

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Louis Janmot, from his series "The Poem of the Soul", before 1854

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Thomas Cole, 1842, The Voyage of Life Old Age

Romanticism and music[edit] See also: Romantic music, Musical nationalism and List of Romantic-era composers

Ludwig van Beethoven, painted by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820

Musical Romanticism is predominantly a German phenomenon—so much so that one respected French reference work defines it entirely in of "The role of music in the aesthetics of German romanticism". [89] Another French encyclopedia holds that the German temperament generally "can be described as the deep and diverse action of romanticism on German musicians", and that there is only one true representative of Romanticism in French music, Hector Berlioz, while in Italy, the sole great name of musical Romanticism is Giuseppe Verdi, "a sort of [Victor] Hugo of opera, gifted with a real genius for dramatic effect". Nevertheless, the huge popularity of German Romantic music led, "whether by imitation or by reaction", to an often nationalistically inspired vogue amongst Polish, Hungarian, Russian, Czech, and Scandinavian musicians, successful "perhaps more because of its extra-musical traits than for the actual value of musical works by its masters".[90]

Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, Portrait of Niccolò Paganini, 1819

Frederic Chopin in 1838 byEugène Delacroix

Although the term "Romanticism" when applied to music has come to imply the period roughly from 1800 until 1850, or else until around 1900, the contemporary application of "romantic" to music did not coincide with this modern interpretation. Indeed, one of the earliest sustained applications of the term to music occurs in 1789, in the Mémoires of André Grétry.[91] This is of particular interest because it is a French source on a subject mainly dominated by Germans, but also because it explicitly acknowledges its debt to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (himself a composer, amongst other things) and, by so doing, establishes a link to one of the major influences on the Romantic movement generally.[92] In 1810 E.T.A. Hoffmann named Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven as "the three masters of instrumental compositions" who "breathe one and the same romantic spirit". He justified his view on the basis of these composers' depth of evocative expression and their marked individuality. In Haydn's music, according to Hoffmann, "a childlike, serene disposition prevails", while Mozart (in the late E-flat major Symphony, for example) "leads us into the depths of the spiritual world," with elements of fear, love, and sorrow, "a presentiment of the infinite ... in the eternal dance of the spheres". Beethoven's music, on the other hand, conveys a sense of "the monstrous and immeasurable," with the pain of an endless longing that "will burst our breasts in a fully coherent concord of all the ions."[93] This elevation in the valuation of pure emotion resulted in the promotion of music from the subordinate position it had held in relation to the verbal and plastic arts during the Enlightenment. Because music was considered to be free of the constraints of reason, imagery, or any other precise concept, it came to be regarded, first in the writings of Wackenroder and Tieck and later by writers such as Schelling and Wagner, as preeminent among the arts, the one best able to express the secrets of the universe, to evoke the spirit world, infinity, and the absolute.[94] This chronologic agreement of musical and literary Romanticism continued as far as the middle of the 19th century, when Richard Wagnerdenigrated the music of Meyerbeer and Berlioz as "neoromantic": "The Opera, to which we shall now return, has swallowed down the Neoromanticism of Berlioz, too, as a plump, fine-flavoured oyster, whose digestion has conferred on it anew a brisk and well-to-do appearance." [95] It was only toward the end of the 19th century that the newly emergent discipline of Musikwissenschaft (musicology)—itself a product of the historicizing proclivity of the age—attempted a more scientific periodization of music history, and a distinction between Viennese Classical and Romantic periods was proposed. The key figure in this trend wasGuido Adler, who viewed Beethoven and Franz Schubert as transitional but essentially Classical composers, with Romanticism achieving full maturity only in the post-Beethoven generation of Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Berlioz, and Franz Liszt. From Adler's viewpoint, found in books like Der Stil in der Musik (1911), composers of the New German School and various late-19th-century nationalist composers were not Romantics but "moderns" or "realists" (by analogy with the fields of painting and literature), and this schema remained prevalent through the first decades of the 20th century.[92] By the second quarter of the 20th century, an awareness that radical changes in musical syntax had occurred during the early 1900s caused another shift in historical viewpoint, and the change of century came to be seen as marking a decisive break with the musical past. This in turn led historians such as Alfred Einstein[96] to extend the musical "Romantic Era" throughout the 19th century and into the first decade of the 20th. It has continued to be referred to as such in some of the standard music references such

asThe Oxford Companion to Music[97] and Grout's History of Western Music[98] but was not unchallenged. For example, the prominent German musicologist Friedrich Blume, the chief editor of the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1949–86), accepted the earlier position that Classicism and Romanticism together constitute a single period beginning in the middle of the 18th century, but at the same time held that it continued into the 20th century, including such pre–World War II developments asexpressionism and neoclassicism.[99] This is reflected in some notable recent reference works such as the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians[92] and the new edition ofMusik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.[100]

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Franz Liszt, 1847

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Daniel Auber, c.1868

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Giovanni Boldini, Portrait ofGiuseppe Verdi, 1886

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Robert Schumann, 1839

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Hector Berlioz, 1850

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Richard Wagner, c. 1870s

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Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1847

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Felix Mendelssohn, 1839

In the contemporary music culture, the romantic musician followed a public career depending on sensitive middle-class audiences rather than on a courtly patron, as had been the case with earlier musicians and composers. Public persona characterized a new generation of virtuosi who made their way as soloists, epitomized in the concert tours ofPaganini and Liszt, and the conductor began to emerge as an important figure, on whose skill the interpretation of the increasingly complex music depended. [101]

Romanticism outside the arts[edit]

Akseli Gallen-Kallela, The Forging of the Sampo, 1893. An artist from Finland deriving inspiration from the Finnish "national epic", the Kalevala

Sciences[edit] Main article: Romanticism in science The Romantic movement affected most aspects of intellectual life, and Romanticism and science had a powerful connection, especially in the period 1800–40. Many scientists were influenced by versions of the Naturphilosophie of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and others, and without abandoning empiricism, sought in their work to uncover what they tended to believe was a unified and organic Nature. The English scientist Sir Humphry Davy, a prominent Romantic thinker, said that understanding nature required “an attitude of iration, love and worship, [...] a personal response.”[102] He believed that knowledge was only attainable by those who truly appreciated and respected nature. Self-understanding was an important aspect of Romanticism. It had less to do with proving that man was capable of understanding nature (through his budding intellect) and therefore controlling it, and more to do with the emotional appeal of connecting himself with nature and understanding it through a harmonious co-existence.[103]

Historiography[edit] History writing was very strongly, and many would say harmfully, influenced by Romanticism. [104] In England Thomas Carlyle was a highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and

exemplified the phrase "hero-worship",[105] lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative effect on the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its own version of history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and villains.[106] Nationalist ideology of the period placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly over-emphasize the continuity between past periods and the present, leading to national mysticism. Much historical effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic historical myths created in the 19th century.

Theology[edit] To insulate theology from reductionism in science, 19th-century post-Enlightenment German theologians moved in a new direction, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.[107]

Romantic nationalism[edit] Main article: Romantic nationalism Egide Charles Gustave Wappers,Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, 1834, Musée d'Art Ancien,Brussels. A romantic vision by aBelgian painter.

Hans Gude, Fra Hardanger, 1847. Example of Norwegian romantic nationalism.

One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is visible in and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization-Latinization were sought out. And, in Catalonia, nationalists reclaimed Catalanism from before the Hispanicization of the Catholic Monarchs in the 15th century, when the Crown of Aragon was unified with the Castilian nobility.[citation needed] Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.[citation needed] The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as theFrench Republic became Napoleon's Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. InPrussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others,Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or

nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806: Those who speak the same language are ed to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality—then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.[108] This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales;[109] Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. Vuk Karadžić contributed to Serbian folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants, as an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales, and proverbs, as well as the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian. [110] Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[111]

The November Uprising (1830–31) in Kingdom of Poland against theRussian Empire

Polish nationalism and messianism[edit] Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently lost its independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Uprising under Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesushad suffered to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "Christ among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of Christendom and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for Western civilization. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed against the Russians) where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In "Books of the Polish nation and Polish pilgrimage" Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save

mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic,messianistic and Christian vision in part III of poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the book as well as Masonic symbols.

Gallery[edit] Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century

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Joseph Vernet, 1759,Shipwreck; the 18th century "sublime"

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Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts

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Henry Fuseli, 1781, The Nightmare, a classical artist whose themes often anticipate the Romantic

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Philip James de Loutherbourg,Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key location of the EnglishIndustrial Revolution

French Romantic painting

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Théodore Géricault, The Charging Chasseur, c. 1812

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Ingres, Death of Leornardo da Vinci, 1818, one of hisTroubadour style works

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Eugène Delacroix, Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1843–44

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Eugène Delacroix, The Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron

Other

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Joseph Anton Koch, Waterfalls at Subiaco 1812–1813, a "classical" landscape to art historians

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James Ward, 1814–1815,Gordale Scar

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John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constable's large "six footers"

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J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption ofVesuvius, by Friedrich's closest follower

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William Blake, c. 1824–27, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides,Tate

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Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia

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J. M. W. Turner, The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art

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Hans Gude, Winter Afternoon,1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo

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Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum,St. Petersburg

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John Martin, 1852, The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing Art Gallery

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Frederic Edwin Church, 1860,Twilight in the Wilderness,Cleveland Museum of Art

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Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak

Romantic authors[edit] 

Jane Austen

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Nikoloz Baratashvili

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William Blake

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Brontë family

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Robert Burns

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Lord Byron

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Thomas Carlyle

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Alexander Chavchavadze

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Samuel Taylor Coleridge

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Alexandre Dumas

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Maria Edgeworth

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Ralph Waldo Emerson

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Aleksander Fredro

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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

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Nikolai Gogol

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Nathaniel Hawthorne

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Victor Hugo

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Washington Irving

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John Keats

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Zygmunt Krasiński

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Józef Ignacy Kraszewski

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Herman Melville

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Adam Mickiewicz

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Cyprian Kamil Norwid

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Mikhail Lermontov

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Grigol Orbeliani

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Edgar Allan Poe

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Alexander Pushkin

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Mary Robinson

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George Sand

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Walter Scott

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Mary Shelley

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Percy Shelley

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Juliusz Słowacki



Henry David Thoreau



William Wordsworth

Scholars of Romanticism[edit] 

Gerald Abraham



M. H. Abrams



Donald Ault



Jacques Barzun



Ian Bent



Isaiah Berlin



Tim Blanning



Harold Bloom



Friedrich Blume



James Chandler



Jeffrey N. Cox



Carl Dahlhaus



Northrop Frye



Peter Kitson



Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe



Paul de Man



Jerome McGann



Anne K. Mellor



Jean-Luc Nancy



Ashton Nichols



Leon Plantinga



Christopher Ricks



Charles Rosen



René Wellek



Susan J. Wolfson

See also[edit] Related [edit]

Related subjects[edit]



Humboldtian



Dark Romanticism



Nationalism



Folklore



Sentimentalism



Gothic fiction



Transcendentalism



List of romantics

Opposing [edit]



Mal du siècle



Neoclassicism



Middle Ages in history



Positivism



Neo-romanticism



Rationalism



Post-romanticism



Realism



Romantic hero



The Academy



Romantic realism



The Enlightenment



Romanticism in science



Utilitarianism



Ultra-Romanticism



Opium and Romanticism

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "''Romanticism''. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.

2; Jump up^ Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). ""Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism".Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Retrieved 2014-05-14.

3; Jump up^ David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967) 4; Jump up^ Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 onJohann Heinrich Pestalozzi

5; Jump up^ Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society2005 149(3): 304–315

6; Jump up^ Perpinya, Núria. Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a spoon of Game of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity. Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014

7; Jump up^ "'A remarkable thing,' continued Bazarov, 'these funny old romantics! They work up their nervous system into a state of agitation, then, of course, their equilibrium is upset.'" (Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, chap. 4 [1862])

8; Jump up^ Szabolcsi, B. (1970). "The Decline of Romanticism: End of the Century, Turn of the Century-- Introductory Sketch of an Essay". Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 12: 263. doi:10.2307/901360. JSTOR 901360.

9; Jump up^ Novotny, 96 10; Jump up^ From the Preface to the 2nd edition of Lyrical Ballads, quoted Day, 2

11; Jump up^ Day, 3 12; Jump up^ Ruthven (2001) p.40 quote: "Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius."

13; Jump up^ Spearing (1987) quote: "Surprising as it may seem to us, living after the Romantic movement has transformed older ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was prized more highly than original

San Francisco Renaissance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The term San Francisco Renaissance is used as a global designation for a range of poetic activity centered on San Francisco and which brought it to prominence as a hub of the American poetic avant-garde.[citation needed] However, others (e.g., Alan Watts, Ralph J. Gleason) felt this renaissance was a broader phenomenon and should be seen as also encoming visual and performing arts, philosophy, cross-cultural interests (particularly those that involved Asian cultures), and new social sensibilities. Contents [hide]



1First beginnings



2A movement emerges

o 2.1Impact of the "New American Poetry" 

3The Beats



4Legacy



5Notes



6References

o 6.1Print o 6.2Recordings and sound-files o 6.3See also o 6.4External links

First beginnings[edit] Kenneth Rexroth—poet, translator, critic, and author—is generally considered to be the founding father of the renaissance. Rexroth was a prominent second generationmodernist poet who corresponded with Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams and was published in the Objectivist Anthology. He was amongst the first American poets to explore Japanese poetry traditions such as haiku and was also heavily influenced by jazz. If Rexroth was the founding father, Madeline Gleason was the founding mother. During the 1940s, both she and Rexroth befriended a group of younger Berkeley poets consisting of Robert Duncan, Jack Spicer and Robin Blaser. Gleason and Duncan were particularly close and read and criticized each other's work.

A movement emerges[edit] In April 1947, Gleason organized the First Festival of Modern Poetry at the Lucien Labaudt Gallery, Gough Street. Over the space of two evenings, she brought twelve poets, including Rexroth, Robert

Duncan and Spicer to an audience of young poets and poetry lovers. This was the first public recognition of the range of experimental poetic practice that was current in the city. During the 1950s, Duncan and Robert Creeley both spent periods of time teaching at Black Mountain College and acted as links between the San Francisco poets and the Black Mountain poets. Many of the San Francisco writers began to publish in Cid Corman's Origin and in the Black Mountain Review, the house journals of the Black Mountain group. Spicer's interest in the cante jondo also led to links with the deep image poets. In 1957, Spicer ran his seminar Poetry as Magic at San Francisco State College with Duncan as a participant.

Impact of the "New American Poetry"[edit] Perhaps the crucial cultural document here was (and is) Donald Allen's anthology The New American Poetry 1945-1960. In this assemblage, Allen had grouped some of the poets "San Francisco Renaissance", and as Marjorie Perloff observes: Duncan emerg(ed) as the leading poet of this group even as he also belongs to Black Mountain. These poets, who largely became known through oral performance in the Bay Area, include the following thirteen: Brother Antoninus (William Everson), Robin Blaser, Jack Spicer, James Broughton, Madeline Gleason, Helen Adam,Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Bruce Boyd, Kirby Doyle, Richard Duerden, Philip Lamantia, Ebbe Borregaard, and Lew Welch. [1] The Allen anthology was central to defining both the poetics and broader cultural dynamics of a particular historical moment now referred to as the San Francisco Renaissance. Though a particular "generation" had now been named (in large part because of the Allen anthology), today the debate continues as to the viability or use of the term San Francisco Renaissance as a "label" to define an entire era or generation. Those who believe the term is accurate will argue on the one hand that indeed a "group" did forge a "renaissance": the impact on our historical consciousness was (and is) measurable. Therefore, for them, the use of the term is still verifiable. On the other hand, there are those who argue that the label San Francisco Renaissance is just that: a "label". As a label, therefore, it exists as a convenient and arbitrary "grouping" of something which remains (and even must remain) "unverifiable". Since the impact of such a broad phenomenon on our consciousness cannot be measured, such an impact has not even been recognized or articulated yet, much less addressed as problematic in itself. Beyond defining itself as itself (i.e. such as defining some measurable impact on consciousness or on ourselves as human beings) critics of the term San Francisco Renaissance argue that beyond that particular use as a label (even if it helps to signal the arrival of a "new" phenomenon not ed for on our consciousness), a word itself, as such, cannot act for us as an organizing principle. In other words, we are misguided if we do not recognize how this label fails us (beyond a certain usefulness as a label or "grouping") when it comes to truly measuring (much less ing for) the impact of multiple, broad and dynamic social, political, and artistic changes in our consciousness. Among those critical of terminology and among those who dare to question how and why it can impact consciousness, asking what that proposes for a definition of the human, perhaps Ron Silliman has been most articulate: ...San Francisco Renaissance is a grouping that I’ve argued before was largely a fiction created by Allen’s need to organize his materials[2]

The Beats[edit] Around the same time that Duncan, Spicer and Blaser were at Berkeley, Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen and Lew Welch were attending Reed College in Portland together. These three, along with Kirby Doyle, a native San Franciscan, were to form the nucleus of the West Coast wing of the Beat Generation. Lawrence Ferlinghetti had been studying for a doctorate at the Sorbonne and, while in Paris, he met Kenneth Rexroth, who later persuaded him to go to San Francisco to experience the growing literary scene there. Between 1951 and 1953 Ferlinghetti taught French, wrote literary criticism, and painted. In 1953, he and a business partner established the City Lights Bookstore and started publishing from City Lights Press two years later.

Snyder and Whalen, along with Michael McClure, were among the poets who performed at the famous Six Gallery poetry reading that Kenneth Rexroth organized in San Francisco on October 13 (or October 7, sources vary), 1955. This reading signaled the full emergence of the San Francisco Renaissance into the public consciousness and helped establish the city's reputation as a center for countercultural activity that came to full flower during the hippie years of the 1960s. A short fictional of this event forms the second chapter of Jack Kerouac's 1958 novel The Dharma Bums. In the he describes Allen Ginsberg's famous reading of his poem "Howl". Kerouac and Ginsberg had attended the reading with some of their poet friends.

Legacy[edit] The Bay Area-based philosopher and writer Alan Watts, in his autobiography, mentioned that by around 1960 or so "… something else was on the way, in religion, in music, in ethics and sexuality, in our attitudes to nature, and in our whole style of life" (from Watts, In My Own Way). Some of the songwriters of the rock-music generation of the mid-1960s and later read and appreciated writers like Kerouac, Snyder, McClure, Ferlinghetti, and Ginsberg (e.g., Bob Dylan, for one, has talked about this). Hence, given that much of the late-'60s wave of groundbreaking rock music developed within rock's famous "San Francisco Sound," it seems very likely that the writers of the San Francisco Renaissance had an influence on the lyrics, both artistically and in of attitudes to living. The "underground press" that developed in America and elsewhere in the 1960s had one of its most interesting and colorful examples in the San Francisco Oracle which reflected the hippie culture and other aspects of the counterculture. The Oracle gave much space to writings by Gary Snyder, Allen Ginsberg, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael McClure, and other Beat writers, along with emerging younger writers. Both Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Michael McClure were featured on-stage in the rock-star jammed The Last Waltz, a documentary and concert film made by Martin Scorsese aboutThe Band (who had an immense following in the late '60s to mid '70s) and a large number of their musical friends.

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Whose New American Poetry?: Anthologizing In The Nineties 2; Jump up^ Silliman's Blog

References[edit] Print[edit] 

Allen, Donald M., ed. The New American Poetry: 1945-1960 (1960, reissued 1999); (University of California Press).



Ellingham, Lewis & Killian, Kevin. Poet Be Like God: Jack Spicer and the San Francisco Renaissance, (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1998).



French, Warren G. "The San Francisco Poetry Renaissance 1955-1960" (Twayne, 1991). ISBN 08057-7621-4



Davidson, Michael. The San Francisco Renaissance: Poetics and Community at Mid-Century, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).



Kerouac, Jack The Dharma Bums, (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1958). ISBN 0-14-004252-0



Snyder, Gary The Real Work: Interviews & Talks 1964-1979. (New York: New Directions, 1980). ISBN 0-8112-0761-7



Spicer, Jack The Collected Books of Jack Spicer. Edited and with commentary by Robin Blaser. (Santa Rosa, Calif.: Black Sparrow Press, 1975).



Watts, Alan W. "Breakthrough" (chapter) in In My Own Way, (New York: Pantheon, 1972). ISBN 0394-46911-9



Wagstaff, Christopher (ed). Madeline Gleason: Collected Poems 1919–1979 (has a very useful historical introduction)

Recordings and sound-files[edit] 

Howls, Raps & Roars: Recordings from the San Francisco poetry renaissance (compilation) (Universal Music Group, 1963; Fantasy Records 1993).

See also[edit] 

Bickford's (restaurant)

External links[edit] 

The Beats and the San Francisco Renaissance Captured April 25, 2005.



City Lights History

Sound poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sound poetry is an artistic form bridging literary and musical composition, in which the phonetic aspects of human speech are foregrounded instead of more conventionalsemantic and syntactic values; "verse without words". By definition, sound poetry is intended primarily for performance. Contents [hide]



1History and development

o 1.1The vanguards of the 20th Century o 1.2Later developments o 1.3Early examples 

2Female practitioners



3Other examples of sound poets



4Theories of sound poetry



5See also



6Sources



7References



8External links

History and development[edit] The vanguards of the 20th Century[edit] While it is sometimes argued that the roots of sound poetry are to be found in oral poetry traditions, the writing of pure sound texts that downplay the roles of meaning and structure is a 20th-century phenomenon. The Futurist and Dadaist Vanguards of the beginning of this century were the pioneers in creating the first sound poetry forms. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti discovered that onomatopoeias were

useful to describe a battle in Tripoli where he was a soldier, creating a sound text that became a sort of a spoken photograph of the battle. Dadaists were more involved in sound poetry and they invented different categories:



Bruitist poem it is the phonetic poem, not so different from the futurist poem. Invented by Richard Huelsenbeck.



Simultaneous poem a poem read in different languages, with different rhythms, tonalities, and by different persons at the same time. Invented by Tristan Tzara.



Movement poem is the poem accompanied by primitive movements.

Later developments[edit] Sound poetry evolved into visual poetry and concrete poetry, two forms based in visual arts issues although the sound images are always very compelling in them. Later on, with the development of the magnetic tape recorder, sound poetry evolved thanks to the of the concrete music movement at the end of the 1940s. Some sound poetics were used by later poetry movements like the beat generation in the fifties or the spoken word movement in the 80's, and by other art and music movements that brought up new forms such as text sound art that may be used for sound poems which more closely resemble "fiction or even essays, as traditionally defined, than poetry".[1]

Early examples[edit] Zang Tumb Tumb (1914) is a sound poem and concrete poem by Italian futurist F. T. Marinetti. Hugo Ball performed a piece of sound poetry in a reading at Cabaret Voltaire in 1916: "I created a new species of verse, 'verse without words,' or sound poems....I recited the following: gadji beri bimba glandridi lauli lonni cadori..." (Albright, 2004) Kurt Schwitters' Ursonate (1922–32, "Primal Sonata") is a particularly well known early example: The first movement rondo's principal theme being a word, "fmsbwtözäu" pronounced Fümms bö wö tää zää Uu, from a 1918 poem by Raoul Hausmann, apparently also a sound poem. Schwitters also wrote a less well-known sound poem consisting of the sound of the letter W. (Albright, 2004) Chilean Vicente Huidobro's explores phonetic mutations of words in his book "Altazor"(1931). In his story The Poet at Home, William Saroyan refers to a character who practices a form of pure poetry, composing verse of her own made up words.

Female practitioners[edit] It has been argued that “there is a paucity of information on women's involvement in sound poetry, whether as practitioners, theorists, or even simply as listeners.” [2] Among the earliest female practitioners are Berlin poet Else Lasker-Schüler, who experimented in what she called “Ursprache” (Ur-language), and the New York Dada poet and performerBaroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. The Baroness’s poem “Klink-Hratzvenga (Death-wail)” was published in The Little Review in March 1920 to great controversy. Written in response to her husband Leopold von Freytag-Loringhoven’s suicide, the sound poem was “a mourning song in nonsense sounds that transcended national boundaries”.[3] The Baroness was also known for her sexually charged sound poetry, as seen in “Teke Heart (Beating of Heart),” only recently published.[4]

Other examples of sound poets[edit] Later prominent sound poets include Henri Chopin, Bob Cobbing, Ada Verdun Howell, Allen Ginsberg, bpNichol, William S. Burroughs, Giovanni Fontana,[5] Bernard Heidsieck,Enzo Minarelli, François Dufrene, Mathias Goeritz, Maurizio Nannucci, Andras Petocz, multidisciplinary

artist Jean-Jacques Lebel, Henrik Aeshna ,[6] a Paris-based poet, artist and performer who experiments with Noise, shamanism and visual poetry, and Jaap Blonk, a Dutch sound poet who often works with improvising musicians. The poet Edith Sitwell coined the term Abstract poetry to describe some of her own poems which possessed more aural than literary qualities, rendering them essentially meaningless: "The poems in Façade are abstract poems--that is, they are patterns of sound. They are...virtuoso exercises in technique of extreme difficulty, in the same sense as that in which certain studies by Liszt are studies in transcendental technique in music." (Sitwell, 1949) An early Dutch artist, Theo van Doesburg, was another prominent sound poet in the early 1900s.

Theories of sound poetry[edit] In their essay “Harpsichords Metallic Howl—", Irene Gammel and Suzanne Zelazo review the theories of sound by Charles Bernstein, Gerald Bruns, Min-Quian Ma, Rachel Blau DuPlessis, Jeffrey McCaffery and others to argue that sonic poetry foregrounds its own corporality. Thus “the Baroness's sound poems let her body speak[;] through her expansive use of sound, the Baroness conveys the fluidity of gender as a constantly changing, polysemous signifier.” In this way, somatic art becomes the poet’s own “space-sound.”[7] Of course, for many dadaists, such as Hugo Ball, sound poetry also presented a language of trauma, a cacophony used to protest the sound of the cannons of World War I. It was as T. J. Demos writes, "a telling stutter, a nervous echolalia."[8]

See also[edit] 

Sound art



Bob Cobbing



Angel Exhaust



Jas H. Duke



Tracie Morris



Electroacoustic music



Crosstalk: American Speech Music



Line (poetry)



Line (music)

Sources[edit] 

Albright, Daniel (2004). Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-01267-0.



Sitwell, Edith (1949). The Canticle of the Rose Poems: 1917-1949, p.xii. New York: Vanguard Press.

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Text Sound Art : A Survey 2; Jump up^ Gammel, Irene and Suzanne Zelazo, “Harpsichords Metallic Howl—": The Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven's Sound Poetry.” Modernism/modernity (Johns Hopkins UP), 18.2 (April 2011), 259.

3; Jump up^ Gammel, Irene. Baroness Elsa: Gender, Dada and Everyday Modernity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. 243.

4; Jump up^ Freytag-Loringhoven, Elsa von. Body Sweats: The Uncensored Writings of Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Ed. Irene Gammel and Suzanne Zelazo. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011. 184-85.

5; Jump up^ it:Giovanni Fontana (poeta) 6; Jump up^ http://www.henrikaeshna.com 7; Jump up^ Quoted in Gammel and Zelazo, "Harpsichords Metallic Howl." 259, 261. 8; Jump up^ Quoted in Gammel and Zelazo, "Harpsichords Metallic Howl." 259. 6

External links[edit] 

UbuWeb



Sound Poetry - A Survey by Steve McCaffery



Text Sound Art: A Survey Richard Kostelanetz



[1]



10 + 2 = 12 American Text-Sound Pieces The first major recorded anthology of American sound poetry, edited by Charles Amirkhanian for 1750 Arch Records, released on LP in 1975, rereleased for CD/ by Other Minds in 2003.



Sound poetry--concrete, abstract, and postmodern.



List of sound poets with links to audio files



Sound poetry in french with audio files, Mitocarpe



"AN ART BETWEEN SPEECH AND MUSIC" By PAUL KRESH; New York Times, April 3, 1983,



Sound Poetry



Sound Poetry on 57productions



"Bring Da Noise: A Brief Survey of Sound Art Sound and The Literary Connection" by Kenneth Goldsmith NewMusicBox, March 1, 2004



Poesy Planet, Eight Geese

Symbolism (arts) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Jeunes Filles au Bord de la Mer (Young Girls on the Edge of the Sea), 1879,Musée d'Orsay, Paris

Victor Vasnetsov, The Knight at the Crossroads, 1878

John William Waterhouse, Cecilia, 1895

Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style originates with the 1857 publication of Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal. The works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire ired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stocktropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and 1870s. In the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers. The name "symbolist" itself was first applied by the critic Jean Moréas, who invented the term to distinguish the symbolists from the relateddecadents of literature and of art. Distinct from, but related to, the style of literature, symbolism of art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism. Contents [hide]



1Etymology



2Precursors and origins



3Movement

o 3.1The Symbolist Manifesto o 3.2Techniques o 3.3Paul Verlaine and the poètes maudits o 3.4Philosophy o 3.5Symbolists and decadents o 3.6Periodical literature o 3.7Russian symbolism 

4In other media

o 4.1Visual arts o 4.2Music o 4.3Prose fiction o 4.4Theatre 

5Effect



6Symbolists

o 6.1Precursors o 6.2Authors o 6.3Influence in English literature o 6.4Symbolist visual artists o 6.5Symbolist composers 

7Gallery



8See also



9References



10Further reading



11External links

Etymology[edit] The term "symbolism" is derived from the word "symbol" which derives from the Latin symbolum, a symbol of faith, andsymbolus, a sign of recognition, in turn from classical Greek συμβόλον symbolon, an object cut in half constituting a sign of recognition when the carriers were able to reassemble the two halves. In ancient Greece, the symbolon was a shard of pottery which was inscribed and then broken into two pieces which were given to the ambassadors from two allied city states as a record of the alliance.

Precursors and origins[edit] Symbolism was largely a reaction against naturalism and realism, anti-idealistic styles which were attempts to represent reality in its gritty particularity, and to elevate the humble and the ordinary over the ideal. Symbolism was a reaction in favour of spirituality, the imagination, and dreams.[1] Some writers, such as Joris-Karl Huysmans, began as naturalists before becoming symbolists; for Huysmans, this change represented his increasing interest in religion and spirituality. Certain of the characteristic subjects of thedecadents represent naturalist interest in sexuality and taboo topics, but in their case this was mixed with Byronic romanticism and the world-weariness characteristic of the fin de siècle period. The symbolist poets have a more complex relationship with Parnassianism, a French literary style that immediately preceded it. While being influenced by hermeticism, allowingfreer versification, and rejecting Parnassian clarity and objectivity, it retained Parnassianism's love of word play and concern for the musical qualities of verse. The symbolists continued to ire Théophile Gautier's motto of "art for art's sake", and retained – and modified – Parnassianism's mood of ironic detachment. [2] Many symbolist poets, includingStéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, published early works in Le Parnasse contemporain, the poetry anthologies that gave Parnassianism its name. But Arthur Rimbaudpublicly mocked prominent Parnassians, and published scatological parodies of some of their main authors, including François Coppée – misattributed to Coppée himself – inL'Album zutique.[3] One of Symbolism's most colourful promoters in Paris was art and literary critic (and occultist) Joséphin Péladan, who established the Salon de la Rose + Croix. The Salon hosted a series of six presentations of avant-garde art, writing and music during the 1890s, to give a presentation space for artists embracing spiritualism, mysticism, and idealism in their work. A number of Symbolists were associated with the Salon.

Movement[edit]

Henri Fantin-Latour, By the Table, depicting: seated:Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Léon Valade, Ernest d'Hervilly and Camille Pelletan ; standing : Pierre Elzéar, Emile Blémont and Jean Aicard.

The Symbolist Manifesto[edit] Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly. Thus, they wrote in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. Jean Moréaspublished the Symbolist Manifesto ("Le Symbolisme") in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886 (see 1886 in poetry). TheSymbolist Manifesto names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. Moréas announced that symbolism was hostile to "plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description", and that its goal instead was to "clothe the Ideal in a perceptible form" whose "goal was not in itself, but whose sole purpose was to express the Ideal" Ainsi, dans cet art, les tableaux de la nature, les actions des humains, tous les phénomènes concrets ne sauraient se manifester eux-mêmes ; ce sont là des apparences sensibles destinées à représenter leurs affinités ésotériques avec des Idées primordiales. (In this art, scenes from nature, human activities, and all other real world phenomena will not be described for their own sake; here, they are perceptible surfaces created to represent their esoteric affinities with the primordial Ideals.)[4] In a nutshell, 'to depict not the thing but the effect it produces'.[5]

Techniques[edit]

Portrait of Charles Baudelaire, precursor of the symbolist style, circa 1862

The symbolist poets wished to liberate techniques of versification in order to allow greater room for "fluidity", and as such were sympathetic with the trend toward free verse, as evident in the poems of Gustave Kahn and Ezra Pound. Symbolist poems were attempts to evoke, rather than primarily to describe; symbolic imagery was used to signify the state of the poet's soul. T. S. Eliot was influenced by the poets Jules Laforgue, Paul Valéry and Arthur Rimbaud who used the techniques of the Symbolist school,[6] though it has also been said[by whom?] that 'Imagism' was the style to which both Pound and Eliot subscribed (see Pound's Des Imagistes). Synesthesia was a prized experience[citation needed]; poets sought to identify and confound the separate senses of scent, sound, and colour. In Baudelaire's poem Correspondences, (considered to be the touchstone of French Symbolism [7]) also mentions forêts de symboles – forests of symbols – Il est des parfums frais comme des chairs d'enfants, Doux comme les hautbois, verts comme les prairies, – Et d'autres, corrompus, riches et triomphants, Ayant l'expansion des choses infinies,

Comme l'ambre, le musc, le ben et l'encens, Qui chantent les transports de l'esprit et des sens. (There are perfumes that are fresh like children's flesh, sweet like oboes, green like meadows – And others, corrupt, rich, and triumphant, having the expansiveness of infinite things, like amber, musc, benzoin, and incense, which sing of the raptures of the soul and senses.) and Rimbaud's poem Voyelles: A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu : voyelles. . . (A black, E white, I red, U green, O blue: vowels. . .) – both poets seek to identify one sense experience with another. The earlier Romanticism of poetry used symbols, but these symbols were unique and privileged objects. The symbolists were more extreme, investing all things, even vowels and perfumes, with potential symbolic value. "The physical universe, then, is a kind of language that invites a privileged spectator to decipher it, although this does not yield a single message so much as a superior network of associations."[8] Symbolist symbols are not allegories, intended to represent; they are instead intended to evoke particular states of mind. The nominal subject of Mallarmé's "Le cygne" ("The Swan") is of a swan trapped in a frozen lake. Significantly, in French, cygne is a homophone of signe, a sign. The overall effect is of overwhelming whiteness; and the presentation of the narrative elements of the description is quite indirect: Le vierge, le vivace, et le bel aujourd'hui Va-t-il nous déchirer avec un coup d’aile ivre Ce lac dur oublié que hante sous le givre Le transparent glacier des vols qui n’ont pas fui! Un cygne d’autrefois se souvient que c’est lui Magnifique mais qui sans espoir se délivre... ("The virgin, lively, and beautiful today – will it tear for us this hard forgotten lake that lurks beneath the frost, the transparent glacier of flights not taken with a blow from a drunken wing? A swan of long ago re that it is he, magnificent but without hope, who breaks free..." [9])

Paul Verlaine and the poètes maudits[edit] Of the several attempts at defining the essence of symbolism, perhaps none was more influential than Paul Verlaine's 1884 publication of a series of essays on Tristan Corbière,Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, Gérard de Nerval, and "Pauvre Lelian" ("Poor Lelian", an anagram of Paul Verlaine's own name), each of whom Verlaine numbered among the poètes maudits, "accursed poets." Verlaine argued that in their individual and very different ways, each of these hitherto neglected poets found genius a curse; it isolated them from their contemporaries, and as a result these poets were not at all concerned to avoid hermeticism and idiosyncratic writing styles.[10] They were also portrayed as at odds with society, having tragic lives, and often given to self-destructive tendencies. These traits were not hindrances but consequences of their literary gifts. Verlaine's concept of the poète maudit in turn borrows from Baudelaire, who opened his collection Les fleurs du mal with the poem Bénédiction, which

describes a poet whose internal serenity remains undisturbed by the contempt of the people surrounding him.[11] In this conception of genius and the role of the poet, Verlaine referred indirectly to the aesthetics of Arthur Schopenhauer, the philosopher of pessimism, who maintained that the purpose of art was to provide a temporary refuge from the world of strife of the will.[12]

Philosophy[edit] Schopenhauer's aesthetics represented shared concerns with the symbolist programme; they both tended to consider Art as a contemplative refuge from the world of strife andwill. As a result of this desire for an artistic refuge, the symbolists used characteristic themes of mysticism and otherworldliness, a keen sense of mortality, and a sense of the malign power of sexuality, which Albert Samain termed a "fruit of death upon the tree of life."[13] Mallarmé's poem Les fenêtres[14] expresses all of these themes clearly. A dying man in a hospital bed, seeking escape from the pain and dreariness of his physical surroundings, turns toward his window but then turns away in disgust from

Pornocrates, by Félicien Rops. Etching and aquatint

. . . l'homme à l'âme dure Vautré dans le bonheur, où ses seuls appétits Mangent, et qui s'entête à chercher cette ordure Pour l'offrir à la femme allaitant ses petits, ". . . the hard-souled man, Wallowing in happiness, where only his appetites Feed, and who insists on seeking out this filth To offer to the wife suckling his children," and in contrast, he "turns his back on life" (tourne l’épaule à la vie) and he exclaims: Je me mire et me vois ange! Et je meurs, et j'aime – Que la vitre soit l'art, soit la mysticité – A renaître, portant mon rêve en diadème, Au ciel antérieur où fleurit la Beauté! "I marvel at myself, I seem an angel! and I die, and I love – Whether the glass might be art, or mysticism –

To be reborn, bearing my dream as a diadem, Under that former sky where Beauty once flourished!"[9]

Symbolists and decadents[edit] The symbolist style has frequently been confused with decadence. Several young writers were derisively referred to[by whom?] by the press as "decadent" during the mid1880s. A few of these writers embraced the term while most avoided it. Jean Moréas' manifesto was largely a response to this polemic. By the late 1880s, the "symbolism" and "decadence" were understood to be almost synonymous. [15] Though the aesthetics of the styles can be considered similar in some ways, the two remain distinct. The symbolists were those artists who emphasized dreams and ideals; the Decadents cultivated précieux, ornamented, or hermetic styles, and morbid subject matters.[16] The subject of the decadence of the Roman Empire was a frequent source of literary images and appears in the works of many poets of the period, regardless of which name they chose for their style, as in Verlaine's "Langueur":[17] Je suis l'Empire à la fin de la Décadence, Qui regarde er les grands Barbares blancs En composant des acrostiches indolents D'un style d'or où la langueur du soleil danse. ("I am the Empire at the end of the decadence, who watches the large, white barbarians ing, while composing lazy acrostic poems in a gilded style in which the languor of the sun dances." [9])

Periodical literature[edit] A number of important literary publications were founded by symbolists or became associated with the style. The first was La Vogue initiated in April 1886. In October of that same year, Jean Moréas, Gustave Kahn, and Paul Adam began the periodical Le Symboliste. One of the most important symbolist journals was Mercure de , edited by Alfred Vallette, which succeeded La Pléiade; founded in 1890, this periodical endured until 1965. Pierre Louÿs initiated La conque, a periodical whose symbolist influences were alluded to by Jorge Luis Borges in his story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote. Other symbolist literary magazines included La Revue blanche, La Revue wagnérienne, La Plume andLa Wallonie. Rémy de Gourmont and Félix Fénéon were literary critics associated with symbolism. The symbolist and decadent literary styles were satirized by a book of poetry, Les Déliquescences d'Adoré Floupette, published in 1885 by Henri Beauclair and Gabriel Vicaire.[18]

Russian symbolism[edit]

Mikhail Nesterov's The Vision of the Youth Bartholomew.

Primary influences on the style of Russian Symbolism were the irrationalistic and mystical poetry and philosophy of Fyodor Tyutchevand Vladimir Solovyov, the novels of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the operas of Richard Wagner, the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauerand Friedrich Nietzsche, French symbolist and decadent poets (such as Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine and Charles Baudelaire), and the dramas of Henrik Ibsen. The style was largely inaugurated by Nikolai Minsky's article The Ancient Debate (1884) and Dmitry Merezhkovsky's book On the Causes of the Decline and on the New Trends in Contemporary Russian Literature (1892). Both writers promoted extremeindividualism and the act of creation. Merezhkovsky was known for his poetry as well as a series of novels on god-men, among whom he counted Christ, Joan of Arc, Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, Napoleon, and (later) Hitler. His wife, Zinaida Gippius, also a major poet of early symbolism, opened a salon in St Petersburg, which came to be known as the "headquarters of Russian decadence."

In other media[edit] Visual arts[edit] Symbolism in literature is distinct from symbolism in art although the two were similar in many aspects. In painting, symbolism can be seen as a revival of some mystical tendencies in the Romantic tradition, and was close to the self-consciously morbid and private decadent movement. There were several rather dissimilar groups of Symbolist painters and visual artists, which included Gustave Moreau, Gustav Klimt, Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis, Jacek Malczewski, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-Latour, Gaston Bussière, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop. Symbolism in painting was even more widespread

geographically than symbolism in poetry, affecting Mikhail Vrubel, Nicholas Roerich, Victor Borisov-Musatov, Martiros Saryan, Mikhail Nesterov, Léon Bakst,Elena Gorokhova in Russia, as well as Frida Kahlo in Mexico, Elihu Vedder, Remedios Varo, Morris Graves and David Chetlahe Paladin in the United States. Auguste Rodin is sometimes considered a symbolist sculptor. The symbolist painters used mythological and dream imagery. The symbols used by symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, symbolism in painting influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau style and Les Nabis.[12]

Music[edit]

Symbolism had some influence on music as well. Many symbolist writers and critics were early enthusiasts of the music of Richard Wagner, an avid reader of Schopenhauer. The symbolist aesthetic affected the works of Claude Debussy. His choices of libretti, texts, and themes come almost exclusively from the symbolist canon. Compositions such as his settings of Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire, various art songs on poems by Verlaine, the opera Pelléas et Mélisande with a libretto by Maurice Maeterlinck, and his unfinished sketches that illustrate two Poe stories, The Devil in the Belfry and The Fall of the House of Usher, all indicate that Debussy was profoundly influenced by symbolist themes and tastes. His best known work, the Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, was inspired by Mallarmé's poem, L'après-midi d'un faune. The symbolist aesthetic also influenced Aleksandr Scriabin's compositions. Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire takes its text from German translations of the symbolist poems byAlbert Giraud, showing an association between German expressionism and symbolism. Richard Strauss's 1905 opera Salomé, based on the play by Oscar Wilde, uses a subject frequently depicted by symbolist artists.

Prose fiction[edit] Symbolism's style of the static and hieratic adapted less well to narrative fiction than it did to poetry. Joris-Karl Huysmans' 1884 novel À rebours (English title: Against Nature) explored many themes that became associated with the symbolist aesthetic. This novel, in which very little happens, catalogues the psychology of Des Esseintes, an eccentric, reclusive antihero. Oscar Wilde imitated the novel in several ages of The Picture of Dorian Gray. Paul Adam was the most prolific and most representative author of symbolist novels. Les Demoiselles Goubert (1886), co-written with Jean Moréas, is an important transitional work between naturalism and symbolism. Few symbolists used this form. One exception was Gustave Kahn, who published Le Roi fou in 1896. In 1892, Georges Rodenbachwrote the short novel Bruges-la-morte, set in the Flemish town of Bruges, which Rodenbach described as a dying, medieval city of mourning and quiet contemplation: in a typically symbolist juxtaposition, the dead city contrasts with the diabolical re-awakening of sexual desire.[19] The cynical, misanthropic, misogynistic fiction of Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly is sometimes considered symbolist, as well. Gabriele d'Annunzio wrote his first novels in the symbolist manner.

Theatre[edit]

Alexandre Benois' set forStravinsky's Petrushka in 1911

The characteristic emphasis on an internal life of dreams and fantasies have made symbolist theatre difficult to reconcile with more recent trends. Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's drama Axël (rev. ed. 1890) is a definitive symbolist play. In it, two Rosicrucian aristocrats become enamored of each other while trying to kill each other, only to agree to commit suicide mutually because nothing in life could equal their fantasies. From this play, Edmund Wilson adopted the title Axel's Castle for his influential study of the symbolist literary aftermath. Maurice Maeterlinck, also a symbolist playwright, wrote The Blind (1890), The Intruder (1890), Interior (1891), Pelléas and Mélisande(1892), and The Blue Bird (1908).

Lugné-Poe (1869–1940) was an actor, director, and theatre producer of the late nineteenth century. LugnéPoe "sought to create a unified nonrealistic theatre of poetry and dreams through atmospheric staging and stylized acting".[20] Upon learning about symbolist theatre, he never wanted to practice any other form. After beginning as an actor in the Théâtre Libre and Théâtre d'Art, Lugné-Poe grasped on to the symbolist movement and founded the Théâtre de l'Œuvre where he was manager from 1892 until 1929. Some of his greatest successes include opening his own symbolist theatre, producing the first staging of Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi (1896), and introducing French theatregoers to playwrights such as Ibsen and Strindberg.[20] The later works of the Russian playwright Anton Chekhov have been identified[by whom?] as being much influenced by symbolist pessimism. Both Constantin Stanislavski andVsevolod Meyerhold experimented with symbolist modes of staging in their theatrical endeavors. Drama by symbolist authors formed an important part of the repertoire of the Théâtre de l'Œuvre and the Théâtre d'Art.

Effect[edit] Black night. White snow. The wind, the wind! It will not let you go. The wind, the wind! Through God's whole world it blows The wind is weaving The white snow. Brother ice peeps from below Stumbling and tumbling Folk slip and fall. God pity all!

“ ” From "The Twelve" (1918) Trans. Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky [21] Night, street and streetlight, drug store, The purposeless, half-dim, drab light. For all the use live on a quarter century – Nothing will change. There's no way out. You'll die – and start all over, live twice, Everything repeats itself, just as it was: Night, the canal's rippled icy surface, The drug store, the street, and streetlight.

“

” "Night, street and streetlight, drugstore..." (1912) Trans. by Alex Cigale

Among English-speaking artists, the closest counterpart to symbolism was aestheticism. The preRaphaelites were contemporaries of the earlier symbolists, and have much in common with them. Symbolism had a significant influence on modernism, (Remy de Gourmont considered the Imagists were its descendandants)[22] and its traces can also be detected in the work of many modernist poets, including T. S. Eliot, Wallace Stevens, Conrad Aiken, Hart Crane, and W. B. Yeats in the anglophone tradition and Rubén Darío in Hispanic literature. The early poems of Guillaume Apollinaire have strong affinities with symbolism. Edmund Wilson's 1931 study Axel's Castle focuses on the continuity with symbolism and several important writers of the early twentieth century, with a particular emphasis on Yeats, Eliot, Paul Valéry, Marcel Proust, James Joyce, and Gertrude Stein. Wilson concluded that the symbolists represented a dreaming retreat into things that are dying–the whole belle-lettristic tradition of Renaissance culture perhaps, compelled to specialize more and more, more and more driven in on itself, as industrialism and democratic education have come to press it closer and closer.[23] After the beginning of the 20th century, symbolism had a major effect on Russian poetry even as it became less popular in . Russian symbolism, steeped in the Eastern Orthodoxy and the religious doctrines of Vladimir Solovyov, had little in common with the French style of the same name. It began the careers of several major poets such as Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely, and Marina Tsvetaeva. Bely's novel Petersburg (1912) is considered the greatest example of Russian symbolist prose. In Romania, symbolists directly influenced by French poetry first gained influence during the 1880s, when Alexandru Macedonskireunited a group of young poets associated with his magazine Literatorul. Polemicizing with the established Junimea and overshadowed by the influence of Mihai Eminescu, Romanian symbolism was recovered as an inspiration during and after the 1910s, when it was exampled by the works of Tudor Arghezi, Ion Minulescu, George Bacovia, Mateiu Caragiale, Tristan Tzara and Tudor Vianu, and praised by the modernist magazine Sburătorul. The symbolist painters were an important influence on expressionism and surrealism in painting, two

movements which descend directly from symbolism proper. The harlequins, paupers, and clowns of Pablo Picasso's "Blue Period" show the influence of symbolism, and especially of Puvis de Chavannes. In Belgium, symbolism became so popular that it came to be thought of[by whom?]as a national style: the static strangeness of painters like René Magritte can be considered as a direct continuation of symbolism. The work of some symbolist visual artists, such as Jan Toorop, directly affected the curvilinear forms of art nouveau. Many early motion pictures also employ symbolist visual imagery and themes in their staging, set designs, and imagery. The films ofGerman expressionism owe a great deal to symbolist imagery. The virginal "good girls" seen in the cinema of D. W. Griffith, and thesilent film "bad girls" portrayed by Theda Bara, both show the continuing influence of symbolism, as do the Babylonian scenes from Griffith's Intolerance. Symbolist imagery lived on longest in horror film: as late as 1932, Carl Theodor Dreyer's Vampyr showed the obvious influence of symbolist imagery; parts of the film resemble tableau vivant re-creations of the early paintings of Edvard Munch.[24]

Symbolists[edit]

Salammbô (1907) by Gaston Bussière

Precursors[edit] 

William Blake (1757–1827) English writer (Songs of Innocence)



Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) German painter (Wanderer above the Sea of Fog)



Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837) Russian poet and writer (Eugene Onegin)



Đorđe Marković Koder (1806–1891) Serbian poet (Romoranka)



Gérard de Nerval (1808–55) French poet



Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808–1889) French writer



Edgar Allan Poe (1809–49) American poet and writer (The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket)



Mikhail Lermontov (1814–1841) Russian poet and writer (A Hero of Our Time)



Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) French poet (Les Fleurs du mal)



Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) French writer (Madame Bovary)



Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–82) English poet and painter (Beata Beatrix)



Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) English poet

Authors[edit] (listed by year of birth) French



Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838–89)



Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–98)



Paul Verlaine (1844–96)



Arthur Rimbaud (1854–91)



Albert Samain (1858–1900)



Rémy de Gourmont (1858–1915)



Gustave Kahn (1859–1936)



Jules Laforgue (1860–87)



Rachilde (1860–1953)



Paul Adam (1862–1920)



Francis Vielé-Griffin (1863–1937)



Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)



Albert Aurier (1865–1892)



Marcel Schwob (1867–1905)



Paul Valéry (1871–1945)



Paul Fort (1872–1960)



Alfred Jarry (1873–1907)



Charles Vildrac (1882–1971)



Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)



Alexandre Mercereau (1884–1945)



Jules Romains (1885–1972)

Russian



Innokenty Annensky (1855–1909)



Fyodor Sologub (1863–1927)



Dmitry Merezhkovsky (1865–1941)



Vyacheslav Ivanov (1866–1949)



Konstantin Balmont (1867–1942)



Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945)



Valery Bryusov (1873–1924)



Maximilian Voloshin (1877–1932)



Alexander Blok (1880–1921)



Andrei Bely (1880–1934)

Belgian



Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916)



Georges Rodenbach (1855–98)



Albert Giraud (1860–1929)



Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)



Léon Frédéric (1865–1940)



Albert Mockel (1866–1945)

Influence in English literature[edit] English language authors who influenced or were influenced by symbolism include:



George MacDonald (1824–1905)



Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909)



Oscar Wilde (1854–1900)



Francis Thompson (1859–1907)



Rosamund Marriott Watson (1860–1911)



W. B. Yeats (1865–1939)



Arthur Symons (1865–1945)



John Gray (1866–1934)



Ernest Dowson (1867–1900)



George Sterling (1869–1926)

Symbolist visual artists[edit] See also: Category:Symbolist painters and Category:Symbolist sculptors Russian



Viktor Vasnetsov (1848–1926)



Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910)



Mikhail Nesterov (1862–1942)



Léon Bakst (1866–1924)



Wassily Kandinsky (early works) (1866–1944)



Konstantin Somov (1869–1939)



Alexandre Benois (1870–1960)



Victor Borisov-Musatov (1870–1905)



Konstantin Bogaevsky (1872–1943)



Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947)



Ivan Bilibin (1876–1942)

French



Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (1824–1898)



Gustave Moreau (1826–1898)



Henri Fantin-Latour (1836–1904)



Odilon Redon (1840–1916)



Paul Gauguin (1848–1903)



Gaston Bussière (painter) (1862–1929)



Charles Filiger (1863–1928)



Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer (1865–1953)



Émile Bernard (1868–1941)

Symbolist composers[edit] 

Richard Wagner (1813–1883) German



Gabriel Fauré (1845–1924) French



Charles Loeffler (1861–1935) American



Claude Debussy (1862–1918) French



Erik Satie (1866–1925) French

Gallery[edit] 

Symbolist visual art













See also[edit] 

Visionary art

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Balakian, Anna, The Symbolist Movement: a critical appraisal. Random House, 1967, ch. 2

2; Jump up^ Balakian, supra; see also Houston, introduction

3; Jump up^ L'Album zutique 4; Jump up^ Jean Moreas, Le Manifeste du Symbolisme, Le Figaro, 1886

5; Jump up^ Conway Morris, Roderick The Elusive Symbolist movement article – International Herald Tribune, March 17, 2007.

6; Jump up^ Untermeyer, Louis, Preface to Modern American Poetry Harcourt Brace & Co New York 1950

7; Jump up^ Pratt, William. The Imagist Poem, Modern Poetry in Miniature (Story Line Press, 1963, expanded 2001). ISBN 1-58654-009-2

8; Jump up^ Olds, Marshal C. "Literary Symbolism", originally published (as Chapter 14) in A Companion to Modernist Literature and Culture, edited by David Bradshaw and Kevin J. H. Dettmar. Malden, MA : Blackwell Publishing, 2006. Pages 155–162.

9; ^ Jump up to:

a b c

Translation for Wikipedia

10; Jump up^ Paul Verlaine, Les Poètes maudits 11; Jump up^ Charles Baudelaire, Bénédiction 12; ^ Jump up to: Delvaille, Bernard, La poésie a b

symboliste: anthologie, introduction. ISBN 2-22150161-6

13; Jump up^ Luxure, fruit de mort à l'arbre de la vie... , Albert Samain, "Luxure", in the publicationAu jardin de l'infante (1889)

14; Jump up^ Stéphane Mallarmé, Les fenêtres 15; Jump up^ David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Russian orientalism: Asia in the Russian mind from Peter the Great to the emigration, New Haven: Yale UP, 2010, p. 211 [1]

16; Jump up^ Olds, above, p. 160 17; Jump up^ Langueur, from Jadis et Naguère, 1884

18; Jump up^ Henri Beauclair and Gabriel Vicaire, Les Déliquescences d'Adoré Floupette (1885)

Les Déliquescences – poèmes décadents d'Adoré Floupette, avec sa vie par Marius Tapora by Henri Beauclair and Gabriel Vicaire (French)

19; Jump up^ Alan Hollinghurst, "Bruges of sighs" (The Guardian, 29 Jan. 2005, accessed 26 Apr 2009

20; ^ Jump up to: "Symbolist a b

Movement". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 3 April 2012.

21; Jump up^ Fragment from "The Twelve" reprinted in The Slavonic and East European Review Vol. 8, No. 22 (Jun., 1929), pp. 188–198

22; Jump up^ de Gourmont, Remy. La (1915)

23; Jump up^ Quoted in Brooker, Joseph (2004). Joyce's Critics: Transitions in Reading and Culture. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 73. ISBN 0299196046.

24; Jump up^ Jullian, Philippe, The Symbolists. (Dutton, 1977) ISBN 0-7148-1739-2

Further reading[edit]

Troubador From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



Balakian, Anna, The Symbolist Movement: a critical appraisal. New York: Random House, 1967.



Facos, Michelle, Symbolist Art in Context. Routledge, 2011.



Delvaille, Bernard, La poésie symboliste: anthologie. Paris: Seghers, 1971. ISBN 2-22150161-6.



Houston, John Porter, and Mona Tobin Houston, French Symbolist Poetry: An Anthology. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-253-20250-7.



Jullian, Philippe, The Symbolists. Oxford: Phaidon; New York: E.P. Dutton, 1973. ISBN 0-7148-1739-2.



Lehmann, A.G., The Symbolist Aesthetic in 1885–1895. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1950, 1968.



The Oxford Companion to French Literature, Sir Paul Harvey and J. E. Heseltine, eds., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959. ISBN 0-19-8661045



Praz, Mario, The Romantic Agony London: Oxford University P

For the travelling poet of the middle ages, see Troubadour.

Troubador Origin

Livermore, California

Genres

Garage rock, Folk rock, Alternative rock, Indie rock

Years active

2011-present

Labels

unsigned

Associated acts

Thought Riot, Twain Harte, Silent Film Stars, Sun Kin

Website

http://troubador.bandcamp.com



Matthew Gragg Patrick James Paul Baker

"Troubador!" is an American rock band consisting of songwriters and musicians Matthew Gragg, Patrick James, and Paul Baker, all originating from Livermore and Oakland, California. The band's debut album, Beat Les Troubador, was self-released in late 2012 after a successful Kickstarter.com fundraising campaign. Troubador released their debut album Beat Les Troubador on September 13, 2012.[1]

Discography[edit] 

Beat Les Troubador (2012)

Track List

1; Another Country - 2:40 2; MTV Military Man - 3:04 3; Ramona - 3:16 4; Brainwash: Phase One - 2:25 5; Sunday Morning - 3:57 6; West Texas - 2:27 7; Cities Made Of Gold - 3:10 8; Color Wheels Of Evil - 5:16 9; God's Golden Telephone - 1:43

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Gragg, Matthew. "Troubador!". Bandcamp. www.bandcamp.com. Retrieved 19 September 2013.

External links[edit] 

Troubador's Bandcamp page



Facebook

Trouvère From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Trouvère (French pronunciation: [tʁuvɛʁ]), sometimes spelled trouveur [tʁuvœʁ], is the Northern French (langue d'oïl) form of thelangue d'oc (Occitan) word trobador. It refers to poet-composers who were roughly contemporary with and influenced by thetroubadours (composers and performers of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages) but who composed their works in the northern dialects of . The first known trouvère was Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160s-80s) (Butterfield, 1997) and thetrouvères continued to flourish until about 1300. Some 2130 trouvère poems have survived; of these, at least two-thirds have melodies. The etymology of the word troubadour and its cognates in other languages is disputed, but may be related to trobar “to compose, to discuss, to invent”, cognative with Old French trover “to compose something in verses”. (For a discussion of the etymology of the word troubadour and its cognates, see troubadour: etymology.) The popular image of the troubadour or trouvère is that of the itinerant musician wandering from town to town, lute on his back. Such people existed, but they were called jongleurs and minstrels — poor musicians, male and female, on the fringes of society. The troubadours and trouvères, on the other hand, represent aristocratic music making. They were either poets and composers who were ed by the aristocracy or, just as often, were aristocrats themselves, for whom the creation and performance of music was part of the courtly tradition. Among their number we can count kings, queens, and countesses. The texts of these songs are a natural reflection of the society that created them. They often revolve around idealized treatments of courtly love ("fine amors", see grand chant) and religious devotion, although many can be found that take a more frank, earthy look at love. The performance of this style of music is a matter of conjecture. Some scholars suggest that it should be performed in a free rhythmic style and with limited use of accompanying instruments (especially those songs with more elevated text). Other scholars, as well as many performers, believe that instrumental accompaniment and a more rhythmic interpretation is equally valid. At least one modern ensemble has used the name "Trouvères" to perform music loosely set in the period that historical trouvères performed. [1] Johannes de Grocheio, a Parisian musical theorist of the early 14th century, believed that trouvère songs inspired kings and noblemen to do great things and to be great: "This kind of song is customarily composed by kings and nobles and sung in the presence of kings and princes of the land so that it may move their minds to boldness and fortitude,magnanimity and liberality..." (Page, 1997) There are no trouvère songs attributed to women in the manuscripts. Since the 1980s, however, the existence of women trouvères is generally accepted and an effort has been made to identify anonymous songs composed by women on the basis of lyrics and contextual clues. [2]

List of trouvères[edit] 

Adam de Givenchi

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Adam de la Halle (c.1240–88)

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Adenet Le Roi (c.1240–c.1300)

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Andrieu Contredit d'Arras († c.1248)

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Aubertin d'Airaines

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Aubin de Sézanne

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Audefroi le Bastart (fl. c1200–1230)

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Baudouin des Auteus

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Benoît de Sainte-Maure

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Blondel de Nesle (fl c.1175–1210)

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Carasaus

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Chastelain de Couci (fl. c.1170–1203; †1203)

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Chardon de Croisilles

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Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160s–80s)

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Colart le Boutellier

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Colart le Changeur

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Colin Muset (fl. c.1200–50)

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Conon de Béthune (fl. c.1180–c.1220; †1220)

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Coupart

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Dame de Gosnai

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Dame Margot

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Dame Maroie

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Ernoul Caupain

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Ernoul le Vieux

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Étienne de Meaux

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Eustache le Peintre de Reims

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Gace Brulé (c.1159-after 1212)

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Gaidifer d'Avion

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Gautier de Coincy (1177/8–1236)

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Gautier de Dargies (c.1170–after 1236)

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Gautier d'Espinal († before July 1272)

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Gertrude, Duchess of Lorraine (1205–1225)

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Gillebert de Berneville (fl c.1255)

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Gilles le Vinier

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Gobin de Reims

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Gontier de Soignies (fl. c.1180–1220)

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Guibert Kaukesel

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Guillaume d'Amiens

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Guillaume le Vinier (fl. c1220–45; †1245)

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Guillaume Veau

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Guiot de Dijon (fl c.1200–30)

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Guiot de Provins

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Henry Amion

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Henry le Débonnaire

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Henri de Lacy (1249–1311)

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Hue de la Ferté

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Hugues de Berzé (fl. c.1150–1220)

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Jaque de Dampierre

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Jacques Bretel

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Jacques de Cambrai

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Jacques de Cysoing

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Jacques le Vinier

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Jean Bodel

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Jean Renaut

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Jehan Bretel (c1200–1272)

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Jehan le Cuvelier d'Arras (fl. c1240–70)

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Jehan Erart († c1259)

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Jean le Roux

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Jehan de Braine

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Jehan Fremaux

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Jehan de Grieviler

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Jehan de Nuevile

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Jehan de Trie

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Jocelin de Dijon

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Lambert Ferri

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Lorris Acot

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Mahieu de Gant

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Mahieu le Juif

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Moniot d'Arras (fl c1250–75)

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Moniot de Paris (fl. c.1250–1278)

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Oede de la Couroierie

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Othon de Grandson

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Perrin d'Angicourt (fl. c.1245–50)

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Perrot de Neele

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Philippe de Remy (c.1205–c.1265)

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Pierre de Corbie

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Pierre de Molins

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Pierrekin de la Coupele

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Raoul de Beauvais

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Raoul de Ferier

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Raoul de Soissons (c.1215–1272)

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Richard de Fournival (1201–c.1260)

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Richart de Semilli

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Robert de Blois

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Robert de Castel

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Robert de Reims

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Robert de la Piere

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Simon d'Authie

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Sauvage d'Arraz

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Thibaut de Blazon

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Thibaut le Chansonnier (1201–53)

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Thierri de Soissons

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Thomas de Herier

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Vidame de Chartres

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Vielart de Corbie

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Walter of Bibbesworth

References[edit] Notes

1; Jump up^ http://thetrouveres.com/ 2; Jump up^ Doss-Quinby 1-14. Bibliography 

Akehurst, F. R. P. and Judith M. Davis, eds. A Handbook of the Troubadours. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0-520-07976-0.

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Butterfield, Ardis. "Monophonic song: questions of category", Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music. Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-816540-4.

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Doss-Quinby, Eglal; Joan Tasker Grimbert; Wendy Pfeffer; Elizabeth Aubrey (2001). Songs of the Women Trouvères. New Haven: Yale UP. ISBN 0-300-08413-7.



Goldin, Frederick, translator. Lyrics of the Troubadours and Trouvères: An Anthology and a History. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1983. ISBN 0-8446-5036-6.



Hasenohr, Geneviève and Michel Zink, eds. Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age. Collection: La Pochothèque. Paris: Fayard, 1992. ISBN 2-253-05662-6.



O'Neill, Mary (2006). Courtly Love Songs of Medieval : Transmission and Style in the Trouvère Repertoire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816547-1.



Page, Christopher. "Listening to the trouvères". Early Music. Vol. 25, No. 4, November 1997.

External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related toTroubadours.

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[1]

Welsh poetry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Main articles: Welsh-language literature and Welsh literature in English Welsh poetry may refer to poetry in the Welsh language, Anglo-Welsh poetry, or other poetry written in Wales or by Welsh poets. Contents [hide]

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1History

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2Forms

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3See also

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4External links

History[edit] Main article: Medieval Welsh literature Wales has one of the earliest literary traditions in Northern Europe, stretching back to the days of Aneirin (fl. 550) and Taliesin (second half of the 6th century), and the hauntingStafell Cynddylan, which is the oldest recorded literary work by a woman in northern Europe. Welsh poetry is connected directly to the bardic tradition, and broken into four periods [1]. The first period, occurring before 1100, is known as the period of Y Cynfeirdd ("The earliest poets") or Yr Hengerdd ("The old poetry"). It roughly dates from the birth of the Welsh language from Brythonic to the arrival of the Normans in Wales towards the 1100 CE. The second period, the period of the Poets of the Princes (Beirdd y Tywysogion, also called Y Gogynfeirdd), lasted from about 1100 CE until 1350 CE. The final classical period of Welsh poetry, referred to as the period of the Poets of the Nobility (Beirdd yr Uchelwyr) or simply Cywyddwyr, lasted from 1350 CE to 1600 CE. 1600 CE is generally used to mark the beginning of modern Welsh poetry. The earliest poem in English by a Welsh poet dates from about 1470. More recently Anglo-Welsh poetry has become an important aspect of Welsh literary culture, as well as being influential on English literature. Welsh poets often write under bardic names to conceal their identity in Eisteddfod competitions.

Forms[edit] Since the later Middle Ages, the traditional Welsh poetic metres in strict verse consist of twenty four different metrical forms written in cynghanedd.

An awdl is a form of long poem, similar to the ode. The most popular metrical forms are the Cywydd, of 14th-century origin, and the several versions of the Englyn, a concise and allusive verse form similar to the Greek epigram and the Japanese haiku and as old as Welsh literature itself.

See also[edit] Poetry portal Wales portal

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British literature

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List of Welsh language authors

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List of Welsh language poets

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Oxford Book of Welsh Verse in English

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Welsh literature

External links[edit] 

Welsh Poet

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Welsh Writers

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The Poetry of Wales, by John Jenkins, 1873, from Project Gutenberg

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The Welsh Poetry Competition, launched 2

Accent (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In poetry, accent refers to the stressed syllable of a polysyllabic word, or a monosyllabic word that receives stress because it belongs to an "open class" of words (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) or because of "contrastive" or "rhetorical" stress. In basic analysis of a poem by scansion, accents are represented with a slash ("/").[1] There is generally one accent in each foot of a line, unless the foot is a spondee (//). The mark for an unstressed syllable is sometimes "U", but sometimes "x".

See also[edit] 

Stress (linguistics)

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ St. Edward's University: [1] Accessed December 28, 2007.

External links[edit] 

Fact Monster: accent This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Accentual verse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Accentual verse has a fixed number of stresses per line regardless of the number of syllables that are present.[1] It is common in languages that are stress-timed, such asEnglish, as opposed to syllabic verse which is common in syllable-timed languages, such as French. Contents [hide]

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1Children's poetry

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2History

o 2.1English ;

2.1.1Modern form

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3Special forms

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4See also



5References

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6External links

Children's poetry[edit] Accentual verse is particularly common in children's poetry; nursery rhymes and the less wellknown skipping-rope rhymes are the most common form of accentual verse in the English Language. The following poem, "Baa Baa Black Sheep," has two stresses in each line but a varying number of syllables. Bold represents stressed syllables, and the number of syllables in each line is noted. Baa, baa, black sheep, (4) Have you any wool? (5) Yes sir, yes sir, (4) Three bags full; (3) One for the mas-ter, (5) And one for the dame, (5) And one for the lit-tle boy (7) Who lives down the lane. (5) Accentual verse derives its musical qualities from its flexibility with unstressed syllables and tends to follow the natural speech patterns of English.

History[edit]

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (May 2011)

English[edit] Accentual verse was a traditionally common prosody in , Scandinavia, Iceland and Britain. [2] Accentual verse has been widespread in English poetry since its earliest recording, with Old English poetry written in a special form of accentual verse termed alliterative verse, of which Beowulf is a notable example. Anglo-Saxon poetry generally added two further basic elements to the basic four-beat accentual verse pattern: alliteration of three of the four beats, and a medial pause (caesura).[2] Anglo-Saxon poets

made frequent use of epithets to achieve the desired alliteration, and had various other more complex rules and forms, though these have not been as popular in later poetry. Accentual verse lost its dominant position in English poetry following the Norman conquest of England when French forms, with their syllabic emphasis, gained prominence. Accentual verse continued in common use in all forms of Middle English poetry until the codification of accentual-syllabic verse in Elizabethan poetry; thereafter it largely vanished from literary poetry for three hundred years while remaining popular in folk poetry. A notable example from this period is William Langland's Piers Ploughman, here retaining the alliteration: I loked on my left half || as þe lady me taughte And was war of a woman || worþeli ycloþed. I looked on my left side || as the lady me taught and was aware of a woman || worthily clothed. A well-known source for accentual verse from the post-Elizabethan period is Mother Goose's Melody (1765). Accentual verse experienced a revival in the 19th century with the development ("discovery") of sprung rhythm by Gerard Manley Hopkins. Although Hopkins' example was not widely adopted in literary circles, accentual verse did catch on, with some poets flirting with the form, and later poets more strictly following it. A modern codification was given by Robert Bridges in 1921, in his Bridges' Prosody of Accentual Versesection of Milton's Prosody. Modern literary use includes W. H. Auden, and it has notably been advanced by Dana Gioia.[2] Outside of children's poetry and literary poetry, accentual verse remains popular in verse composed for oral presentation, such as cowboy poetry and rap.[2] Modern form[edit] In modern literary use, in addition to the detailed codification given in Bridges' Prosody of Accentual Verse, three basic rules are followed:[2]

1; Four stresses per line; 2; A medial pause, with two stress on each side; 3; Generally, three of the four stresses alliterate.[citation needed] Some variations and other subtleties are found:[2]



Rather than a triple alliteration in a line, having two pairs of double alliterations on either side of the pause, or only having a single double alliteration, with one alliterating stress on each side of the pause.



Alliteration falls on the (first) stressed syllable of a word, not the first syllable of the word.



Minor stresses are often eliminated to reduce ambiguity.



While individual lines may have a regular syllabic structure, this is not kept constant over the poem – only the stress pattern is consistent – as otherwise the poem becomesaccentualsyllabic verse.[citation needed]

Special forms[edit] A number of stricter forms of accentual verse exist, including:



Accentual-syllabic verse is an extension of accentual verse that also fixes the syllables.



Sprung rhythm, where the stressed syllable begins the foot.

See also[edit] 

Bridges' Prosody of Accentual Verse

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Cuddon, John Anthony (1998). A Dictionary of Literary and Literary Theory. Wiley. p. 7. ISBN 9780631202714.

2; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d e f

"Accentual verse", Dana Gioia

External links[edit] 

A Beginner's Guide to Prosody: Part IV (Anglo-Saxon Accentual Meter), Tina Blue, November 24, 2000

Aleatoricism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Aleatory)

For the legal term, see Aleatory contract.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2010)

Look up aleatory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Aleatoricism is the incorporation of chance into the process of creation, especially the creation of art or media. The word derives from the Latin word alea, the rolling of dice. It should not be confused with either improvisation or indeterminacy.[1] Contents [hide]

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1Literature

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2Art

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3Music

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4Film

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5See also

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6References

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7Further reading

Literature[edit] Bryan Stanley Johnson (1933–1973) wrote an experimental novel The Unfortunates (1969), which was published in separate sections, consisting of a "first" and a "last" section, with the sections in between allowed to be shuffled randomly by a reader. This was an attempt to reproduce the randomness of personal

memory. The overall narrative is about a sports journalist travelling to a city, to cover a football game, and recalling events and people from years earlier when he had lived in the city.[original research?] Poems have been written and published so that each successive line can be chosen randomly from a given set of lines. This process for generating a random poem is similar to the novelty picture books for children where each page is sliced, allowing the book to be opened to display different slices from different pages. For example, the top slice may show the head of a crocodile, the middle slice may show the body of an elephant, and the lowest slice may show the tail of a fish. The resulting "crazy animal" looks like a fishtailed fat-bodied crocodile.[original research?] Charles Hartman discusses several methods of automatic generation of poetry in his book The Virtual Muse.[2]

Art[edit] See also: Automatic drawing, Surrealist automatism, Pareidolia and Apophenia

Music[edit] Main article: Aleatoric music The term aleatory music was first coined by Werner Meyer-Eppler in 1955 to describe a course of sound events that is "determined in general but depends on chance in detail". [3]When his article was published in English, the translator mistakenly rendered his German noun Aleatorik as an adjective, and so inadvertently created a new English word, "aleatoric".[4] Pierre Boulez applied the term in this sense to his own pieces to distinguish them from the indeterminate music of John Cage.[1] While Boulez purposefully composed his pieces to allow the performer certain liberties with regard to the sequencing and repetition of parts, Cage often composed through the application of chance operations without allowing the performer liberties. Another prolific composer of aleatory music was Karlheinz Stockhausen.[1] Aleatoric techniques are sometimes used in contemporary film music. Examples can be found in John Williams's scores as well as, for example, Mark Snow's music for X-Files: Fight the Future.[5]

Film[edit] In film-making, there are several avant-garde examples; one is Andy Voda's Chance Chants[6] which features Allison Knowles' computer poem "House of Dust",[7] Fred Camper's SN (1984, first screening 2002)[8] uses coin-flipping for one section to determine which three of 16 possible reels to screen and what order they should go in (3360 permutations). Film scholar Barry Salt directed the 1971 film Six Reels of Film to Be Shown in Any Order,[9][10] where the projectionist was provided with a customized die to roll to determine the reel order.[citation needed]

See also[edit] 

Constrained writing

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Aleatory variable

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Avant-garde

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Biomusic

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Biomusicology

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Contemporary music

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New-age music

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Stochastic

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20th-century classical music



Zoomusicology

References[edit] 1; ^ Jump up to:

a b c Sabine Feisst, "Losing Control: Indeterminacy and Improvisation in Music Since 1950", New Music Box (1 March 2002): § "Aleatory—Pierre Boulez".

2; Jump up^ Charles Hartman (1996), The Virtual Muse: Experiments in Computer Poetry, Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0-8195-2239-2 (see especially pp. 54–64.)

3; Jump up^ Werner Meyer-Eppler. 1957. "Statistic and Psychologic Problems of Sound", translated by Alexander Goehr, Die Reihe 1 ("Electronic Music", 1957): 55–61; original German edition, 1955, as "Statistische und psychologische Klangprobleme", Die Reihe 1 ("Elektronische Musik", 1955): 22–28; the citation is on pp. 55 and 22, respectively.

4; Jump up^ Arthur Jacobs, "onitoric Note", The Musical Times 107, no. 1479 (May 1966): 414. 5; Jump up^ Fred Karlin and Rayburn Wright, On the Track: A Guide to Contemporary Film Scoring, second edition (New York: Routledge, 2004): 430–36. ISBN 0-415-94135-0 (cloth); ISBN 0-41594136-9 (pbk).

6; Jump up^ Andy Voda's film "Chance Chants" 7; Jump up^ Alison Knowles website 8; Jump up^ Fred Camper, "SN, a film by Fred Camper", 2002. 9; Jump up^ Six Reels of Film to Be Shown in Any Order (1971) at the Internet Movie Database 10;Jump up^ Anon., "Six Reels of Film to Be Shown in Any Order (1971)", BFI Film & TV Database.

Further reading[edit] 

Gignoux, Anne Claire. 2003. La récriture: formes, enjeux, valeurs autour du nouveau roman. Paris: Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne. ISBN 2-84050-260-7.



Rennie, Nicholas. 2005. Speculating on the Moment: The Poetics of Time and Recurrence in Goethe, Leopardi, and Nietzsche. Münchener Universitätsschriften: Münchener komparatistische Studien 8. Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag. ISBN 9783892449683.

Alliteration From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Manners of articulation

Obstruent

o

Stop

o

Affricate

o

Fricative Sibilant

Sonorant

o

Nasal

o

Flap/Tap

o

Approximant Liquid

o

Vowel Semivowel Lateral Trill Airstreams

Pulmonic Ejective Implosive Nonplosive Lingual (clicks) Linguo-pulmonic Linguo-ejective Percussive Related

Alliteration Assonance Consonance

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v t e

Alliteration is a stylistic literary device identified by the repeated sound of the first consonant in a series of multiple words, or the repetition of the same sounds of the same kinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables of a phrase.[1] "Alliteration" from the Latin word “litera”, meaning “letters of the alphabet”, and the first known use of the word to refer to a literary device occurred around 1624. [2] Alliteration narrowly refers to the repetition of a consonant in any syllables that, according to the poem's meter, are stressed,[3][4][5] as in James Thomson's verse "Come…dragging thelazy languid Line along".[6] Another example is, "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers".

Consonance (ex: As the wind will bend) is another 'phonetic agreement' akin to alliteration. It refers to the repetition of consonant sounds. Alliteration is a special case of consonance where the repeated consonant sound is at the stressed syllable.[7] Alliteration may also include the use of different consonants with similar properties[8] such as alliterating z with s, as does the author of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, or as Anglo-Saxon (Old English) poets would alliterate hard/fricative g with soft g (the latter exemplified in some courses as the letter yogh - ȝ - pronounced like the y in yarrow or the j in Jotunheim); this is known as license.[citation needed] There is one specialised form of alliteration called Symmetrical Alliteration. That is, alliteration containing parallelism.[9] In this case, the phrase must have a pair of outside end words both starting with the same sound, and pairs of outside words also starting with matching sounds as one moves progressively closer to the centre. For example, "rust brown blazers rule", "purely and fundamentally for analytical purposes" or "fluoro colour co-ordination forever". Symmetrical alliteration is similar to palindromes in its use of symmetry. Contents [hide]

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1Literature

o 1.1Rhyme o 1.2Historical use o 1.3Poetry 

2Rhetoric

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3Pop culture

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4See also

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5References

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6External links

Literature[edit]

Gilbert and Sullivan's comic opera The Mikado is the source of a well known example of alliterative lyrics: [10] "To sit in solemn silence in a dull, dark dock, In a pestilential prison, with a lifelong lock, Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock, From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big blackblock!"[11]

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The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe has many examples of alliteration including the following line: "And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain".

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Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner has the following lines of alliteration: "For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky." and "the furrow followed free..."

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Robert Frost's poem Acquainted with the Night has the following line of alliteration: "I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet".

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In Walter Abish's novel Alphabetical Africa (1974) the first chapter consists solely of words beginning with "A". Chapter two also permits words beginning with "B" and so on, until at chapter 26, Abish allows himself to use words beginning with any letter at all. For the next 25 chapters, he reverses the process.



Kalevala: The Karelian-Finnish national epoch book Kalevala written by Elias Lönnrot in the 1800s contains alliteration in the Eastern Finnish Karelian dialect, for example "Vaka vanha Väinämöinen", "Steady old Wainamoinen".

Rhyme[edit] 

In "Thank-You for the Thistle" by Dorie Thurston, poetically written with alliteration in a story form: "Great Aunt Nellie and Brent Bernard who watch with wild wonder at the wide window as the beautiful birds begin to bite into the bountiful birdseed".



In the nursery rhyme Three Grey Geese by Mother Goose, use of alliteration can be found in the following lines : "Three grey geese in a green field grazing. Grey were the geese and green was the grazing."



The tongue-twister rhyme Betty Botter by Carolyn Wells is an example of alliterative composition : "Betty Botter bought some butter, but she said, this butter's bitter; if I put it in my batter, it will make my batter bitter, but a bit of better butter will make my bitter batter better..."



Another commonly recited tongue-twister rhyme illustrating alliteration is "Peter Piper". - "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?".

Historical use[edit] Alliteration is used in the alliterative verse of Old English, Old Norse, Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Irish. It was an important ingredient of the Sanskrit shlokas.[12][13] Alliteration was used in Old English given names.[14] This is evidenced by the unbroken series of 9th century kings of Wessex named Æthelwulf, Æthelbald, Æthelberht, and Æthelred. These were followed in the 10th century by their direct descendantsÆthelstan and Æthelred II, who ruled as kings of England. [15] The Anglo-Saxon saints Tancred, Torhtred and Tova provide a similar example, among siblings.[16]

Poetry[edit] This Section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by ing the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2013) In relation to English poetry, poets can call attention to certain words in a line of poetry by using alliteration. They can also use alliteration to create a pleasant, rhythmic effect. In the following poetic lines, notice how alliteration is used to emphasize words and to create rhythm: "Give me the splendid silent sun with all his beams full-dazzling!' Walt Whitman, "Give Me the Splendid Silent Sun" “They all gazed and gazed upon this green stranger,/because everyone wondered what it could mean/ that a rider and his horse could be such a colour-/ green as grass, and greener it seemed/ than green enamel glowing bright against gold". (232-236) Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, translated by Bernard O'Donoghue "Some papers like writers, some like wrappers. Are you a writer or a wrapper?" Carl Sandburg, "Paper I" Alliteration can also add to the mood of a poem. If a poet repeat soft, melodious sounds, a calm or dignified mood can result. If harsh, hard sound are repeated, on the other hand, the mood can become tense or excited. In this poem, alliteration of the s, l, and f sound adds to a hushed, peaceful mood: "Softer be they than slippered sleep the lean lithe deer the fleet flown deer." E. E. Cummings "All in green went my love riding" [17]

Rhetoric[edit] The term "alliteration" has many potential uses in the various spheres of public speaking and rhetoric as far as persuasion is concerned. Additionally the use of alliteration can be considered an artistic constraint that is used by the Rhetor in a rhetorical situation. An artistic constraint is one that the Rhetor creates out of his or her own need to sway the audience to feel some type of urgency, or perhaps even lack of urgency, in regards to a rhetorical situation being presented.[18] Such examples of Alliteration as an artistic constraint

can be seen when it is used to create an emotional effect on the audience. For example: H or E sounds can sooth where as a P or a B sound can be percussive and attention grabbing. S sounds can imply danger or make the audience feel as if they are being deceived[19] Alliteration also serves as a linguistic rhetorical device more commonly used in persuasive public speaking. Rhetoric is broadly defined as the "Art of Persuasion", which has from earliest times been concerned with specific techniques for effective communication.[20] Alliteration serves to "intensify any attitude being signified".[20]:6–7 Its significance as a rhetorical device is that it adds a textural complexity to a speech, making it more engaging, moving, and memorable. The use of alliteration[21] in a speech captivates a person's auditory senses that assists in creating a mood for the speaker. The use of a repeating sound or letter forces an audience’s attention because of their distinct and noticeable nature. The auditory senses, hearing and listening, seem to perk up and pay attention with the constant sounds of alliteration. It also evokes emotion which is key in persuading an audience. The idea of pathos solidifies that playing to a person's emotions is key in persuading them and connecting them to the argument that is being made. For example, the use of a "H" sound can produce a feeling of calmness.[22] Other sounds can create feelings of happiness, discord, or anger, depending on the context of the alliteration. These feelings become memorable to a listener, which have been created by alliteration. The most common example of this is in John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address, where he uses alliteration twenty-one times throughout his speech. The last paragraph of his speech is given as an example here. "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice (ALLITERATION) which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love (ALLITERATION), asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God's work must truly be our own." –JFK[23] Other examples of alliteration in some famous speeches:

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"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character." — Martin Luther King, Jr.[24]

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"We, the people, declare today that the most evident of truths — that all of us are created equal — is the star that guides us still; just as it guided our forebears throughSeneca Falls, and Selma, and Stonewall; just as it guided all those men and women, sung and unsung, who left footprints along this great Mall, to hear a preacher say that we cannot walk alone; to hear a King proclaim that our individual freedom is inextricably bound to the freedom of every soul on Earth". — Barack Obama.[25]

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"And our nation itself is testimony to the love our veterans have had for it and for us. All for which America stands is safe today because brave men and women have been ready to face the fire at freedom's front." — Ronald Reagan, Vietnam Veterans Memorial Address.[26]



"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". — Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address.

Pop culture[edit] Alliteration is commonly used in modern music but is also seen in magazine article titles, ments, business names, comic strips, television shows, video games and in the dialogue and naming of cartoon characters.[27] An example would be Tupac Shakur's "If I Die 2Nite" off his Me Against The World release.

See also[edit] 

Anadiplosis



Assonance



Consonance



Onomatopoeia



Parachesis



Tautogram



Tongue twister

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ "Definition of Alliteration, Literary Devices". Retrieved 2013-09-27. 2; Jump up^ "Alliteration, Merriam-Webster". Retrieved 2014-09-26. 3; Jump up^ "Alliteration, University of Tennessee Knoxville". Retrieved 2013-09-10. 4; Jump up^ "Definition of Alliteration, Literary Devices". Retrieved 2013-09-10. 5; Jump up^ "Definition of Alliteration, Bcs.bedfordstmartins.com". Retrieved 2013-09-10. 6; Jump up^ James Thomson. The Castle of Indolence. ISBN 0-19-812759-6. 7; Jump up^ "alliteration". TheFreeDictionary.com. 8; Jump up^ Stoll, E. E. (May 1940). "Poetic Alliteration". Modern Language Notes 55 (5): 388. 9; Jump up^ Paul Fussell (15 May 2013). The Great War and Modern Memory. Oxford University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-19-997197-8. Retrieved 24 September 2013.

10; Jump up^ Wren, Gayden (2006). A Most Ingenious Paradox: The Art of Gilbert and Sullivan. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 9780195301724. Retrieved 26 October 2014.

11; Jump up^ The Mikado libretto, p. 16, Oliver Ditson Company 12; Jump up^ Langer, Kenneth, "Some Suggestive Uses of Alliteration in Sanskrit Court Poetry",Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1978), pp. 438–45.

13; Jump up^ K.N. Jha, Figurative Poetry In Sanskrit Literature, 1975, ISBN 978-8120826694 14; Jump up^ Gelling, M., Signposts to the Past (2nd edition), Phillimore, 1988, pp. 163–4. 15; Jump up^ Old English "Æthel" translates to modern English "noble". For further examples of alliterative Anglo-Saxon royal names, including the use of only alliterative first letters, see e.g. Yorke, B., Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England, Seaby, 1990, Table 13 (p. 104; Mercia, names beginning with "C", "M", and "P"), and pp. 142–3 (Wessex, names beginning with "C"). For discussion of the origins and purposes of Anglo-Saxon "king lists" (or "regnal lists"), see e.g. Dumville, D.N., 'Kingship, Genealogies and Regnal Lists', in Sawyer, P.H. & Wood, I.N. (eds.), Early Medieval Kingship, University of Leeds, 1977.

16; Jump up^ Rollason, D.W., "Lists of Saints' resting-places in Anglo-Saxon England", in Anglo-Saxon England 7, 1978, p. 91.

17; Jump up^ Techniques Writers Use 18; Jump up^ Bitzer, Lloyd (1968). "The Rhetorical Situation". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 19; Jump up^ "Literary Devices, Author's Craft". Retrieved 2014-09-26. 20; ^ Jump up to: Lanham, Richard (1991). A Handlist of Rhetorical . Los Angeles: University of a b

California Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-520-27368-9.

21; Jump up^ "Alliteration". Alliteration. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2013. 22; Jump up^ "Pathos." Pathos. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2013. 23; Jump up^ "What made JFK's Inaugural Address so effective?". 24; Jump up^ "I Have A Dream Speech Analysis Lesson Plan".

25; Jump up^ "Obama's Alliteration". 26; Jump up^ "Rhetorical Figures in Sound: Alliteration". americanrhetoric.com. 27; Jump up^ Coard, Robert L. "Wide-Ranging Alliteration." Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 37, No. 1. (July 1959) pp. 30–32.

External links[edit] 

A collection of Dutch alliterations and related material (with sound files)



Examples of alliteration in poetry Authority control

GND: 4120868-7

Categories:

Alliterative verse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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The Old English epic poem Beowulfis written in alliterative verse.

In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal ornamental device to help indicate the underlyingmetrical structure, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. The most

commonly studied traditions of alliterative verse are those found in the oldest literature of the Germanic languages, where scholars use the term 'alliterative poetry' rather broadly to indicate a tradition which not only shares alliteration as its primary ornament but also certain metrical characteristics. The Old English epic Beowulf, as well as most other Old English poetry, the Old High German Muspilli, the Old Saxon Heliand, the Old Norse Poetic Edda, and many Middle Englishpoems such as Piers Plowman, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and the Alliterative Morte Arthur all use alliterative verse.[a] Alliterative verse can be found in many other languages as well. The Finnish Kalevala and the Estonian Kalevipoeg both use alliterative forms derived from folk tradition. Traditional Turkic verse, for example that of the Uyghur, is also alliterative. Contents [hide]



1Common Germanic origins and features

o 1.1Metrical form o 1.2Rules for alliteration o 1.3Diction 

2English alliterative verse

o 2.1Old English poetic forms ;

2.1.1Metrical form

;

2.1.2Rules for alliteration

o 2.2The Middle English 'alliterative revival' o 2.3Modern revival



;

2.3.1Tolkien

;

2.3.2Lewis

;

2.3.3Auden

;

2.3.4Wilbur

3Old Norse poetic forms

o 3.1Fornyrðislag o 3.2Ljóðaháttr o 3.3Dróttkvætt o 3.4Hrynhenda o 3.5Post-medieval Scandinavian alliterative verse 

4German and Saxon forms



5Notes



6References



7Bibliography



8External links

Common Germanic origins and features[edit] Further information: Germanic Heroic Age

The copies of the Golden Horns of Gallehus exhibited at the National Museum of Denmark.

The poetic forms found in the various Germanic languages are not identical, but there is sufficient similarity to make it clear that they are closely related traditions, stemming from a common Germanic source. Knowledge about that common tradition, however, is based almost entirely on inference from later poetry. One statement we have about the nature of alliterative verse from a practicing alliterative poet is that of Snorri Sturluson in theProse Edda. He describes metrical patterns and poetic devices used by skaldic poets around the year 1200. Snorri's description has served as the starting point for scholars to reconstruct alliterative meters beyond those of Old Norse. There have been many different metrical theories proposed, all of them attended with controversy. Looked at broadly, however, certain basic features are common from the earliest to the latest poetry. Alliterative verse has been found in some of the earliest monuments of Germanic literature. The Golden horns of Gallehus, discovered in Denmark and likely dating to the 4th century, bear this Runic inscription in Proto-Norse: x / xx x / xx

/ x /xx

ek hlewagastiʀ holtijaʀ || horna tawidō (I, Hlewagastiʀ [son?] of Holt, made the horn.)

This inscription contains four strongly stressed syllables, the first three of which alliterate on /x/ and the last of which does not alliterate, essentially the same pattern found in much later verse. Originally all alliterative poetry was composed and transmitted orally, and much went unrecorded. The degree to which writing may have altered this oral art form remains much in dispute. Nevertheless, there is a broad consensus among scholars that the written verse retains many (and some would argue almost all) of the features of the spoken language.

Metrical form[edit] The core metrical features of traditional Germanic alliterative verse are as follows; they can be seen in the Gallehus inscription above:[1]

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A long line is divided into two half-lines. Half-lines are also known as 'verses', 'hemistichs', or 'distichs'; the first is called the 'a-verse' (or 'on-verse'), the second the 'b-verse' (or 'off-verse'). [b] The rhythm of the b-verse is generally more regular than that of the a-verse, helping listeners to perceive where the end of the line falls.[1]

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A heavy pause, or 'cæsura', separates the verses.[1]

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Each verse usually has two heavily stressed syllables, referred to as 'lifts' or 'beats' (other, less heavily stressed syllables, are called 'dips').[1]

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The first (and, if there is one, sometimes the second) lift in the a-verse alliterates with the first lift in the b-verse.[1]



The second lift in the b-verse does not alliterate with the first lifts. [1]

Some of these fundamental rules varied in certain traditions over time. Unlike in post-medieval English accentual verse, in which a syllable is either stressed or unstressed, Germanic poets were sensitive to degrees of stress. These can be thought of at three levels:[1]

1; most stressed ('stress-words'): root syllables of nouns, adjectives, participles, infinitives[1] 2; less stressed ('particles'): root syllables most finite verbs (i.e. verbs which are not infinitives) and adverbs[1]

3; even less stressed ('proclitics'): most pronouns, weakly stressed adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, parts of the verb to be, word-endings[1] If a half-line contains one or more stress-words, their root syllables will be the lifts. (This is the case in the Gallehus Horn inscription above, where all the lifts are nouns.) If it contains no stress-words, the root syllables of any particles will be the lift. Rarely, even a proclitic can be the lift, either because there are no more heavily stressed syllables or because it is given extra stress for some particular reason. If a lift was occupied by word with a short root vowel followed by only one consonant followed by an unstressed vowel (i.e. '(-)CVCV(-)) these two syllables were in most circumstances counted as only one syllable. This is called resolution.[2] The patterns of unstressed syllables vary significantly in the alliterative traditions of different Germanic languages. The rules for these patterns remain imperfectly understood and subject to debate.

Rules for alliteration[edit] Alliteration fits naturally with the prosodic patterns of early Germanic languages. Alliteration essentially involves matching the left edges of stressed syllables. Early Germanic languages share a left-prominent prosodic pattern. In other words, stress falls on the root syllable of a word, which is normally the initial syllable (except where the root is preceded by an unstressed prefix, as in past participles, for example). This means that the first sound of a word was particularly salient to listeners. Traditional Germanic verse also had two particular rules about alliteration:

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All vowels alliterate with each other.[3]

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The consonant clusters st-, sp- and sc- are treated as separate sounds (so st- only alliterates with st-, not with s- or sp-).[4]

The precise reasons for this are debated. The most common, but not uniformly accepted, theory for vowelalliteration is that words beginning with vowels all actually began with aglottal stop (as is still the case in some Germanic languages).[3]

Diction[edit] The need to find an appropriate alliterating word gave certain other distinctive features to alliterative verse as well. Alliterative poets drew on a specialized vocabulary of poetic synonyms rarely used in prose texts and used standard images and metaphors called kennings.

English alliterative verse[edit] Old English poetic forms[edit] Main article: Old English literature Old English classical poetry, epitomised by Beowulf, follows the rules of traditional Germanic poetry outlined above, and is indeed a major source for reconstructing them. J.R.R. Tolkien's essay "On Translating Beowulf" analyses the rules as used in the poem.[5] Some patterns of classical Old English verse begin to break down at the end of the Old English period; moreover Thomas Bredehoft has argued that an alternative system of non-classical Old English poetry, with looser constraints, existed alongside this classical verse. In Bredehoft's reading, this poetry is epitomised by those of Ælfric of Eynsham's homilies

traditionally described as being in 'rhythmical prose'.[6] This section, however, focuses on the classical form. Metrical form[edit] As described above for the Germanic tradition as a whole, each line of poetry in Old English consists of two half-lines or verses, with a pause or caesura in the middle of the line. Each half-line usually has two accented syllables (though the first may have only one). The following example from the poem The Battle of Maldon, spoken by the warrior Beorhtwold, shows the usual pattern: Hige sceal þe heardra, || heorte þe cēnre, mōd sceal þe māre, || swā ūre mægen lȳtlað ("Will must be the harder, courage the bolder, spirit must be the more, as our might lessens.") For readers unfamiliar with Old English, clear indications of Modern English meanings can be heard in the original, using phonetic approximations of the Old English sound-letter system: [Hige] shall the harder, || heart the keener, mood shall the more, || as our main [might] littleth In addition to the rules outlined above, Old English poetry had constraints limiting the lengths of verses and the number and distribution of lifts and dips. However, there is still no consensus on what precisely the constraints were; these must also have varied slightly from one poem to another. The most widely used system for classifying Old English prosodic patterns is based on that developed by Eduard Sievers and extended by Alan Joseph Bliss.[7] Sievers' system is a method of categorization rather than a full theory of meter. It does not, in other words, purport to describe the system the scops actually used to compose their verse, nor does it explain why certain patterns are favored or avoided. Sievers divided verses into five basic types, labeled A-E. The system is founded upon accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. Another popular system is that of Geoffrey Russom, which is predicated on a theory of metre involving two metrical feet per verse.[8] Another again is that of Thomas Cable, which is based on the idea that each verse contains four syllables, with specific rules for the addition of extra unstressed syllables.[9] Rules for alliteration[edit] Alliteration is the principal ornamental feature of Old English poetry. Two stressed syllables alliterate when they begin with the same sound. In addition to the general rules for alliteration in Germanic poetry listed above, there are some further complications due to sound-changes in Old English:

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Unpalatized c (pronounced /k/) alliterated with palatized c (pronounced /tʃ/ in late Old English), apparently because the sounds were once just one sound (/k/).[10]



Unpalatized g (pronounced /ɡ/) likewise alliterated with palatized g (pronounced like y in yet, /j/, in late Old English) and with the g inherited from Common Germanic /j/. There is not yet a consensus on why these alliterated, but must be partly because the first two gs /ɡ/ were once just one sound.[10]

The first stressed syllable of the off-verse, or second half-line, usually alliterates with one or both of the stressed syllables of the on-verse, or first half-line. The second stressed syllable of the off-verse does not usually alliterate with the others.

The Middle English 'alliterative revival'[edit] Main article: Alliterative Revival Just as rhyme was seen in some Anglo-Saxon poems (e.g. The Rhyming Poem, and, to some degree, The Proverbs of Alfred), the use of alliterative verse continued into Middle English. Layamon's Brut, written in about 1215, uses a loose alliterative scheme. Starting in the mid-14th century, alliterative verse became popular in the English North, the West Midlands, and a little later in Scotland. The Pearl Poet uses a complex scheme of alliteration, rhyme, and iambic metre in his Pearl; a more conventional alliterative metre inCleanness and Patience, and alliterative verse alternating with rhymed quatrains in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. William Langland's Piers Plowman is an important English alliterative poem; it was

written between 1360 and 1399. Though a thousand years have ed between this work and the Golden Horn of Gallehus, the poetic form remains much the same: A feir feld full of folk || fond I þer bitwene, Of alle maner of men, || þe mene and þe riche, Worchinge and wandringe || as þe world askeþ. In modern spelling: A fair field full of folk || found I there between, Of all manner of men || the mean and the rich, Working and wandering || as the world asketh. In modern translation: Among them I found a fair field full of people All manner of men, the poor and the rich Working and wandering as the world requires. Alliteration was sometimes used together with rhyme in Middle English work, as in Pearl and in the densely structured poem The Three Dead Kings. Middle English alliterative poets invented some innovative structures; the Pearl Poet, for instance, often adds a third alliterating word to the first half-line (e.g. Sir Gawain l.2, "the borgh brittened and brent || to brondez and askez"), and the medial pause is not always strictly maintained.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a well-known alliterative poem in Middle English (from original manuscript, artist unknown).

After the fifteenth century, alliterative verse became fairly uncommon; possibly the last major poem in the tradition is William Dunbar's superb Tretis of the Tua Marriit Wemen and the Wedo (c. 1500). by the middle of the sixteenth century, the four-beat alliterative line had completely vanished, at least from the written tradition: the last poem using the form that has survived, Scotish Feilde, was written in or soon after 1515 for the circle of Thomas Stanley, 2nd Earl of Derby in commemoration of the Battle of Flodden.

Modern revival[edit] Tolkien[edit] Main article: List of Tolkien's alliterative verse

J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973), a scholar of Old and Middle English and of Old Norse, used alliterative verse extensively in both translations and original poetry. Most of his alliterative verse is in modern English, in a variety of styles, but he also composed Old English alliterative verses such as The Lay of the Children of Húrin (c. 1918-1925), published in The Lays of Beleriand (1985). Tolkien also wrote alliterative verse based on other traditions, such as the Völsungasaga and Atlakviða, in The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun (2009), and The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son describing the aftermath of the Battle of Maldon(1953). His Gothic Bagme Bloma ("Flower of the Trees") uses a trochaic metre, with irregular end-rhymes and irregular alliteration in each line; it was published in Songs for the Philologists (1936). He wrote a variety of pieces of alliterative verse in Old English, including parts of The Seafarer A version of these appears in The Notion Club Papers. He also made translations including about 600 lines of Beowulf in verse. Lewis[edit] Alliterative verse is occasionally written by other modern authors. C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) wrote a narrative poem of 742 lines called The Nameless Isle, published posthumously in Narrative Poems (1972). Lines 562-567: The marble maid, under mask of stone shook and shuddered. As a shadow streams Over the wheat waving, over the woman's face Life came lingering. Nor was it long after Down its blue pathways, blood returning Moved, and mounted to her maiden cheek. Auden[edit] W. H. Auden (1907–1973) wrote a number of poems, including The Age of Anxiety, in a type of alliterative verse modified for modern English. The noun-laden style of the headlines makes the style of alliterative verse particularly apt for Auden's poem: Now the news. Night raids on Five cities. Fires started. Pressure applied by pincer movement In threatening thrust. Third Division Enlarges beachhead. Lucky charm Saves sniper. Sabotage hinted In steel-mill stoppage. . . . Wilbur[edit] Richard Wilbur's Junk opens with the lines: An axe angles from my neighbor's ashcan; It is hell's handiwork, the wood not hickory. The flow of the grain not faithfully followed. The shivered shaft rises from a shellheap Of plastic playthings, paper plates. Other poets who have experimented with modern alliterative English verse include Ezra Pound in his version of "The Seafarer". Many translations of Beowulf use alliterative techniques. Among recent ones that of Seamus Heaney loosely follows the rules of modern alliterative verse while the translations of Alan Sullivan and Timothy Murphy follow those rules more closely.

Anacrusis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Progressive/Thrash Metal group, see Anacrusis (band). For the family of moths, see Anacrusis (genus).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013)

Beginning of BWV 736, with an anacrusis shown in red.

Anacrusis, in red, beginning Luigi Boccherini's Minuet

Play (help·info)

Play (help·info)

In poetry and music, and by analogy in other fields, an anacrusis (plural anacruses) is a brief introduction. Contents [hide]



1Poetry



2Music

o 2.1Examples 

3Other fields



4See also



5References

Poetry[edit] In poetry, a set of extrametrical syllables at the beginning of a verse is said to stand in anacrusis (Ancient Greek: ἀνάκρουσις "pushing up"). The technique is seen Old Englishpoetry;[1] in lines of iambic pentameter, the technique applies a variation on the typical pentameter line causing it to appear at first glance as trochaic.

Music

Aposiopesis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Aposiopesis (/ˌæpəsaɪ.əˈpiːsɪs/; Classical Greek: ἀποσιώπησις, "becoming silent") is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue.[1] An example would be the threat "Get out, or else—!" This device often portrays its s as overcome with ion (fear, anger, excitement) or modesty. To mark the occurrence of aposiopesis with punctuation, an em dash (—) or an ellipsis (…) may be used. Contents [hide]



1Examples



2Grammatical definition



3See also



4Notes



5References



6Sources

Examples[edit] 

A classical example of aposiopesis in Virgil occurs in Aeneid 2.100.[2] Sinon, the Greek who is posing as a defector to deceive the Trojans into accepting the Trojan Horse within their city wall, tells about how Ulixes

hinc mihi prima malis labes, hinc semper Vlixes criminibus terrere nouis, hinc spargere uoces in uulgum ambiguas et quaerere conscius arma. nec requieuit enim, donec Calchante ministro— This was the time when the first onslaught of ruin began for me. Ulixes kept terrifying me with new accusations, kept spreading ambiguous rumors among the people, and kept looking for quarrel. Nor did he in fact ever stop, until with the help of Calchas—



A biblical example is found in Psalm 27, verse 13.[nb 1] it says: "Unless I had believed I would see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living …" The implication is that the author does not know what he would have done.



King Lear, overcome by anger at his daughters, says:

No, you unnatural hags, I will have such revenges on you both, That all the world shall— I will do such things,— What they are, yet I know not: but they shall be The terrors of the earth. (Shakespeare, King Lear, II.iv)



Aposiopesis also occurs at the agitated climax of Mercutio's "Queen Mab" speech, resulting in a calming intervention by Romeo:

Mercutio. This is the hag, when maids lie on their backs, That presses them and learns them first to bear, Making them women of good carriage: This is she— Romeo. Peace, peace, Mercutio, peace! Thou talk'st of nothing. (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, I.iv)

Grammatical definition[edit] In syntax, an aposiopesis arises when the "if" clause (protasis) of a condition is stated without an ensuing "then" clause, or apodosis. Because an aposiopesis implies a trailing off of thought, it is never directly followed by a period, which would effectively result in four consecutive dots.[4][examples needed]

See also[edit] 

Quos ego



Anapodoton

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Other English translations insert extra words, example "I had fainted, unless" (King James Version). Another example is "Yet I am confident that" (New Living Translation). Only the Hebrew conjunction "unless" appears - translators add the extra words to make the phrase appear as a complete thought, see reference: [3]

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Lanham, Richard A. (1991). A Handlist of Rhetorical . Berkeley / Los Angeles / London: University of California Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-520-07669-9.

2; Jump up^ Justice, Steven (2013). "Chaucer's History-Effect". In Frank Grady. Answerable Style: The Idea of the Literary in Medieval England. Interventions: New Studies in Medieval Culture. Andrew Galloway. Ohio State UP. pp. 169–94. ISBN 9780814212073.

3; Jump up^ http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Psa&c=27&t=YLT#s=t_conc_505013 4; Jump up^ Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. p. 674. ISBN 0-674-36250-0.

Sources[edit] 

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aposiopesis". Encyclopædia Britannica 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. [hide]

v t e

Assonance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences, and together with alliteration and consonance[1] serves as one of the building blocks of verse. Assonance does not have to be a rhyme; the identity of which depends merely on sequence of both vowel and consonant sounds. Thus, assonance is a resemblance of units that are generally less than a syllable. Assonance occurs more often in verse than in prose. It is used in (mainly modern) Englishlanguage poetry, and is particularly important in Old French, Spanish and the Celtic languages.[2] Contents [hide]



1Examples



2Footnotes



3See also



4Sources



5External links



6References

Examples[edit] English poetry is rich with examples of assonance: That solitude which suits abstr musings

— Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Frost at Midnight" on a proud round cloud in white high night

— E. E. Cummings, if a cheerfulest Elephantangelchild should sit It also occurs in prose: Soft language issued from their spitless lips as they swished in low circles round and round the field, winding hither and thither through the weeds.

— James Joyce, "Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" English-language hip hop relies on assonance, which is sometimes hard to distinguish from slant rhyme: Fire at the private eye hired to pry in my business.

— Eminem, Criminal Dead in the middle of little Italy little did we know that we riddled some middleman who didn't do diddly.

— Big Pun, Twinz It is also heard in other forms of popular music: I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless

— Thin Lizzy, "With Love" Assonance is common in proverbs, such as: The squeaky wheel gets the grease. The early bird catches the worm.

These proverbs can be a form of short poetry, as in the following Oromo proverb, which describes someone with a big reputation among those who do not know them well: kan mana baala, aʔlaa gaala (A leaf at home, but a camel elsewhere)

Note the complete assonance in this Amharic proverb: yälämmänä mänämmänä (The one who begs fades away)

Footnotes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Khurana, Ajeet "Assonance and Consonance" Outstanding Writing

2; Jump up^ A concise, tongue in cheek summing up of assonance is given by Rita, the eponymous character of Educating Rita, i.e. assonance is getting the rhyme wrong.

See also[edit] 

Alliteration



Literary consonance

Sources[edit] 

Assonance, American Rhetoric: Rhetorical Figures in Sound



Assonance, Modern & Contemporary American Poetry, University of Pennsylvania



Definition of Assonance, Elements of Poetry, VirtuaLit

External links[edit] 

Examples of assonance in poetry.



Examples and definition of assonance.

Caesura From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) For the Helios album, see Caesura (album).

An example of a caesura in modern western music notation.

Brief caesura used in choral works.

In meter, a caesura (/siːˈʒjʊərə/ or /sɪˈʒʊrə/ ((Latin: caedere /ˈkaɪɪ .de.re/); alternative spellings are cæsura and cesura) is a complete pause in a line of poetry and/or in a musical composition. This can also be referred as a quarter rest with a fermata over it.[1] The plural form of caesura is caesurae. In poetry, a masculine caesura follows a stressed syllable while a feminine caesura follows an unstressed syllable. A caesura is also described by its position in a line of poetry. A caesura close to the beginning of a line is called an initial caesura, one in the middle of a line is medial, and one near the end of a line is terminal.Initial and terminal caesurae are rare in formal, Romance, and Neoclassical verse, which prefer medial caesurae. In scansion, poetry written with signs to indicate the length and stress of syllables, the "double pipe" sign ("||") is used to denote the position of a caesura.

In musical notation, a caesura denotes a brief, silent pause, during which metrical time is not counted. Similar to a silent fermata, caesurae are located between notes or measures (before or over bar lines), rather than on notes or rests (as with a fermata). A fermata may be placed over a caesura to indicate a longer pause. In musical notation, the symbol for a caesura is a pair of parallel lines set at an angle, rather like a pair of forward slashes: //. The symbol is popularly called "tram-lines" in the U.K. and "railroad tracks" in the U.S. Contents [hide]



1Examples

o 1.1Homer o 1.2Latin o 1.3Old English o 1.4Middle English o 1.5Other examples 

2See also



3References

Examples[edit] In the following examples, the symbol for the caesura in scanning poetry, the "double pipes" ("||"), are inserted into the text of the poem to indicate the position of the audible pause.

Homer[edit] Caesurae were widely used in Greek poetry, for example, in the opening line of the Iliad: μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰὰ || Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος ("Sing, o goddess, the rage || of Achilles, the son of Peleus.") This line includes a masculine caesura after θεὰὰ, a natural break that separates the line into two logical parts. Unlike later writers, Homeric lines more commonly employ feminine caesurae.

Latin[edit] Caesurae were widely used in Latin poetry, for example, in the opening line of Virgil's Aeneid: Arma virumque cano || Troiae qui primus ab oris (Of arms and the man, I sing. || Who first from the shores of Troy...) This line uses caesura in the medial position. In dactylic hexameter, a caesura occurs any time the ending of a word does not coincide with the beginning or the end of a metrical foot; in modern prosody, however, it is only called one when the ending also coincides with an audible pause in the line. The ancient elegiac couplet form of the Greeks and Romans contained a line of dactylic hexameter followed by a line of pentameter. The pentameter often displayed a clearer caesura, as in this example from Propertius: Cynthia prima fuit; || Cynthia finis erit. (Cynthia was the first; Cynthia will be the last)

Old English[edit] The caesura was even more important to Old English verse than it was to Latin or Greek poetry.[citation needed] In Latin or Greek poetry, the caesura could be suppressed for effect in any line. In the alliterative verse that is shared by most of the oldest Germanic languages, the caesura is an ever-present and necessary part of the verse form itself. The opening line of Beowulf reads: Hwæt! We Gardena || in gear-dagum, þeodcyninga, || þrym gefrunon, hu ða æþelingas || ellen fremedon. (So! The Spear-Danes in days gone by) (and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness.) (We have heard of these princes' heroic campaigns.) The basic form is accentual verse, with four stresses per line separated by a caesura. Old English poetry added alliteration and other devices to this basic pattern.

Middle English[edit] William Langland's Piers Ploughman: I loked on my left half || as þe lady me taughte And was war of a woman || worþeli ycloþed. (I looked on my left side / as the lady me taught) (and was aware of a woman / worthily clothed.)

Other examples[edit] Caesurae can occur in later forms of verse, where they are usually optional. The socalled ballad meter, or the common meter of the hymnodists (see also hymn), is usually thought of as a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of trimeter, but it can also be considered a line of heptameter with a fixed caesura at the fourth foot. Considering the break as a caesura in these verse forms, rather than a beginning of a new line, explains how sometimes multiple caesurae can be found in this verse form (from the ballad Tom o' Bedlam): From the hag and hungry goblin || that into rags would rend ye, And the spirits that stand || by the naked man || in the Book of Moons, defend ye! In later and freer verse forms, the caesura is optional. It can, however, be used for

rhetorical effect, as in Alexander Pope's line: To err is human; || to forgive, divine.

See also[edit]



Haiku



Meter (poetry)



Old English poetry



Prosody (Latin)



Regulated verse



Saturnian (poetry)

References

Chain rhyme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2007) Chain rhyme is the linking together of stanzas by carrying a rhyme over from one stanza to the next. A number of verse forms use chain rhyme as an integral part of their structures. One example is terza rima, which is written in tercets with a rhyming pattern a-b-a, b-c-b, c-d-c. Another is the virelai ancien, which rhymes a-a-b-a-a-b, b-b-c-b-b-c, c-c-d-c-c-d. Other verse forms may also use chain rhyme. For instance, quatrains can be written to the following pattern: a-a-b-a, b-b-c-b, c-c-d-c. There are a few well-known examples of chain rhyme in world literature. In the Persian language, chain rhyme is almost exclusively devoted to the poetic form of the Rubaiyat: apoem that makes use of quatrains with the rhyme scheme AABA. Though not necessarily chain rhyme, the Rubiyat form has been mimicked throughout the world. Robert Frostmade use of Rubaiyat in chain rhyme form in his poem, "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening." Chain rhyme also known as “chain verse or interlocking rhyme" is a type of poetic technique where the poet uses the last syllable of a line and repeats it as the first syllable of the line following. Although the syllable is repeated, it carries a different meaning. The word “chain” is defined as a series of things connected or following in succession. The repetition of a word from a verse of stanza following the next creates a chain like connection between the lines.

Rhymes are pleasing to the ears and help to distinguish similarities and differences. It helps the poet to shape the poem and the reader to understand it; creating a link between sound and thought. Examples Two examples of chained verse from William T. Dobson Poetical ingenuities and eccentricities, London, 1882 (see text here for the sources of these examples) Truth Nerve thy soul with doctrines noble, Noble in the walks of time, Time that leads to an eternal, An eternal life sublime. Life sublime in moral beauty, Beauty that shall never be; Ever be to lure thee onward, Onward to the fountain free. Free to every earnest seeker, Seeker for the fount of youth; Youth exultant in its beauty, Beauty of the living truth. This is also quoted as an example of chained verse in George Lansing Raymond’s Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music, where it is described as an example taken from "the excellent manual on English Versification of J. C. Parsons" which is probably James C. Parsons English versification for the use of students, Boston, 1891, which also quotes this example. (in the web page Poetry through the ages (Webexhibits) this poem is erroneously described as a translation of an anonymous French poem and Raymond's book is erroneously described as "a major anthology in America’s colleges and universities in the 1890s and 1900s") An untitled poem by John Byrom: My spirit longeth for thee Within my troubled breast, Although I be unworthy Of so divine a guest. Of so divine a guest, Unworthy though I be Yet has my heart no rest, Unless it comes from thee. Unless it comes from thee In vain I look around, In all that I can see, No rest is to be found. No rest is to be found But in thy blessed love, Oh let my wish be crowned, And send it from above. This example is also cited in the books by George Lansing Raymond and James C. Parsons. The form is also used in other languages. For instance, the popular French song Trois petits chats consists of chain verse.

References[edit] Bradley, A. (2009). Book of rhymes: The poetics of hip hop. New York: Basic civitas books pp 75–78. Preminger, A. & Warnke, F.J. & Hardison, O.B. (1965). Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. George Lansing Raymond (2008). Rhythm and harmony in poetry and music. Dyson Press.

William T. Dobson Poetical ingenuities and eccentricities, London, 1882 James C. Parsons English versification for t

Consonance and dissonance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Consonance)

For other uses, see Dissonance. For other uses, see Literary consonance and North/South Consonance Ensemble.

The perfect octave, a consonant interval

The minor second, a dissonance

Play (help·info)

Play (help·info)

In music, consonance and dissonance form a structural dichotomy in which the define each other by mutual exclusion: a consonance is what is not dissonant, and reciprocally. However, a finer consideration shows that the distinction forms a gradation, from the most consonant to the most dissonant. Consonance and dissonance define a level of sweetness / harshness, pleasantness / unpleasantness, acceptability / unacceptability, of the sounds or intervals under consideration. As Hindemith stressed, "The two concepts have never been completely explained, and for a thousand years the definitions have varied" (Hindemith 1942, p. 85). The opposition can be made in different contexts:



In acoustics or psychophysiology, the distinction may be objective. In modern times, it usually is based on the perception of harmonic partials of the sounds considered, to such an extent that the distinction really holds only in the case of harmonic sounds (i.e. sounds with harmonic partials).



In music, even if the opposition often is founded on the preceding, objective distinction, it more often is subjective, conventional, cultural, and style-dependent. Dissonance can then be defined as a combination of sounds that does not belong to the style under consideration; in recent music, what is considered stylistically dissonant may even correspond to what is said to be consonant in the context of acoustics (e.g. a major triad in atonal music).

In both cases, the distinction mainly concerns simultaneous sounds

Dissonance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up dissonance ordissonances in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Dissonance has several meanings, all related to conflict or incongruity:



Consonance and dissonance in music are properties of an interval or chord (the quality of a discord)



Cognitive dissonance is a state of mental conflict



Dissonance in poetry is the deliberate avoidance of assonance, i.e. patterns of repeated vowel sounds. Dissonance in poetry is similar to cacophony and the opposite ofeuphony.



Dissonance (album), a 2009 album by Enuff Z'Nuff



Cultural dissonance is an uncomfortable sense experienced by people in the midst of change in their cultural environment.

See also[edit] 

Dissonants (album) This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dissonance. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories:

Enjambment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Enjambement)

In poetry, enjambment or enjambement (/ɛnˈdʒæmbmənt/; from the French enjambement)[1] is incomplete syntax at the end of a line;[2] the meaning runs over from one poetic line to the next, without terminal punctuation. Lines without enjambment are end-stopped. In reading, the delay of meaning creates a tension that is released when the word or phrase that completes the syntax is encountered (called the rejet);[1] the tension arises from the "mixed message" produced both by the pause of the line-end, and the suggestion to continue provided by the incomplete meaning. [3] In spite of the apparent contradiction between rhyme, which heightens closure, and enjambment, which delays it, the technique is compatible with rhymed verse.[3] Even in couplets, the closed or heroic couplet was a late development; older is the open couplet, where rhyme and enjambed lines co-exist. [3] Enjambment has a long history in poetry. Homer used the technique, and it is the norm for alliterative verse where rhyme is unknown.[3] In the 32nd Psalm of the Hebrew Bible enjambment is unusually conspicuous.[4] It was used extensively in England by Elizabethan poets for dramatic and narrative verse, before giving way to closed couplets. The example of John Milton in Paradise Lost laid the foundation for its subsequent use by the English Romantic poets; in its preface he identified it as one of the chief features of his verse: "sense variously drawn out from one verse into another". [3] Contents [hide]



1Examples



2See also



3Notes



4References



5Further reading

Examples[edit] 

The start of The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot, with only lines 4 and 7 end-stopped: April is the cruellest month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirring Dull roots with spring rain. Winter kept us warm, covering Earth in forgetful snow, feeding A little life with dried tubers."



These lines from Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale (c. 1611) are heavily enjambed: I am not prone to weeping, as our sex Commonly are; the want of which vain dew Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have That honourable grief lodged here which burns Worse than tears drown. Meaning flows as the lines progress, and the reader's eye is forced to go on to the next sentence. It can also make the reader feel uncomfortable or the poem feel like "flow-of-thought" with a sensation of urgency or disorder. In contrast, the following lines from Romeo and Juliet (c. 1595) are completely end-stopped: A glooming peace this morning with it brings. The sun for sorrow will not show his head. Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things. Some shall be pardon'd, and some punishèd. Each line is formally correspondent with a unit of thought—in this case, a clause of a sentence. End-stopping is more frequent in early Shakespeare: as his style developed, the proportion of enjambment in his plays increased. Scholars such as Goswin König and A. C. Bradley have estimated approximate dates of undated works of Shakespeare by studying the frequency of enjambment.



Endymion by John Keats, lines 2-4:

Its loveliness increases; it will never into nothingness; but still will keep A bower quiet for us…



Enjambment may be used in light verse, such as to form a word that rhymes with "orange", as in this example by Willard Espy, in his poem The Unrhymable Word: Orange:

The four engineers Wore orange brassieres.[5]



T h e cl a p pi n g g a m e M is s S u si e, w hi c h u s e s th e b re a k

". .. H el l/ o o p er at o r" to al lu d e to th e ta b o o w o r d " H el l" , th e n re pl a c e s it w it h th e in n o c u o u s

" H el lo ".

S e e a l s o [ e di t]



B la n k v er s e



C a e s u ra



C o n cr et e p o et r y



F re e

v er s e



L in e b re a k ( p o et r y )

N o t e s [ e di t] 1; ^ J um p up to: a b

Gr ov es, Pe ter Le wi s. "R un on Li ne, En ja m b me nt"

. Th e Lit er ar y En cy cl op ed ia. Re tri ev ed 1 De ce m be r2 01 3.

2; Ju m p up ^ Ch ris Ba ldi ck (3 0 Oc to be r 20 08 ). Th e Ox for d di cti on ar y of lit er ar y ter

ms . Ox for d U ni ve rsi ty Pr es s. pp .1 08 –. IS B N 97 8019 92 08 27 -2. Re tri ev ed 16 M ay 20 13 .

3; ^ J um p up to: a b c d e

Pr em ing er 35 9

4; Ju m p up ^ Wi llia

m R. Ta ylo r, Th e Bo ok of Ps al ms , Th e Int erp ret ers ' Bi ble , vol um e VI , 19 55, Ab ing do n Pr ess , Na sh vil le, p. 16 9

5; Ju m p up ^ Le de rer , Ri ch ar d (2 00

3). A M an of my W or ds : Re fle cti on s on th e En gli sh La ng ua ge. Ne w Yo rk: M ac mi lla n. IS B N 031 231 78 59.

R e f e r e n c e s [ e di t] 

P r e m i n g e r, A l e x ; e t a l. ( 1 9 9 3 ). T h e N e w P ri n c e t o

n E n c y c l o p e d i a o f P o e tr y a n d P o e ti c s. U S : P ri n c e t o n U n i v e r si t y P r e s s. I S B

N 0 6 9 1 0 2 1 2 3 6 .

F u r t h e r r e a d i n g [ e di t] 

J o h n H ol la n d er , V is i o

n a n d R e s o n a n c e, O x f o r d U . P re ss , 1 9 7 5 (e s p e ci al ly c h a pt er 5 ).



F re e o nl in e e x pl a n at

io n w it h e x a m pl e s

Foot (prosody) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Foot (poetry))

The foot is the basic metrical unit that forms part of a line of verse in most Western traditions of poetry, including English accentual-syllabic verse and the quantitative meter ofclassical ancient Greek and Latin poetry. The unit is composed of syllables, the number of which is limited, with a few variations, by the sound pattern the foot represents. The most common feet in English are the iamb, trochee, dactyl, and anapest.[1] Contrasting with stress-timed languages such as English, in syllable-timed languages such as French, a foot is a single syllable. The lines of verse are classified according to the number of feet they contain, e.g. pentameter. However some lines of verse are not considered to be made up of feet, e.g.hendecasyllable. The English word "foot" is a translation of the Latin term pes, plural pedes. The foot might be compared to a measure in musical notation. The foot is a purely metrical unit; there is no inherent relation to a word or phrase as a unit of meaning or syntax, though the interplay between these is an aspect of the poet's skill and artistry. Contents [hide]



1Classical meter

o 1.1Disyllables o 1.2Trisyllables o 1.3Tetrasyllables 

2See also



3References



4External links

Classical meter[edit] Below are listed the names given to the poetic feet by classical metrics. The feet are classified first by the number of syllables in the foot (disyllables have two, trisyllables three, and tetrasyllables four) and secondarily by the pattern of vowel lengths (in classical languages) or syllable stresses (in English poetry) which they comprise.

The following lists describe the feet in of vowel length (as in classical languages). Translated into syllable stresses (as in English poetry), 'long' becomes 'stressed' ('accented'), and 'short' becomes 'unstressed' ('unaccented'). For example, an iamb, which is short-long in classical meter, becomes unstressed-stressed, as in the English word "betray". [2]

Disyllables[edit] Macron and breve notation: ¯ = stressed/long syllable, ˘ = unstressed/short syllable ˘ ˘ pyrrhus, dibrach

˘ ¯ iamb (or iambus or jambus)

¯ ˘ trochee, choree (or choreus)

¯ ¯ spondee

Trisyllables[edit] ˘ ˘ ˘ tribrach

¯ ˘ ˘ dactyl

˘ ¯ ˘ amphibrach

˘ ˘ ¯ anapest, antidactylus

˘ ¯ ¯ bacchius

¯ ¯ ˘ antibacchius

¯ ˘ ¯ cretic, amphimacer

¯ ¯ ¯ molossus

Tetrasyllables[edit] ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ tetrabrach, proceleusmatic

¯ ˘ ˘ ˘ primus paeon

˘ ¯ ˘ ˘ secundus paeon

˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ tertius paeon

˘ ˘ ˘ ¯ quartus paeon

¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ major ionic, double trochee

˘ ˘ ¯ ¯ minor ionic, double iamb

¯ ˘ ¯ ˘ ditrochee

˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ diiamb

¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ choriamb

˘ ¯ ¯ ˘ antispast

˘ ¯ ¯ ¯ first epitrite

¯ ˘ ¯ ¯ second epitrite

¯ ¯ ˘ ¯ third epitrite

¯ ¯ ¯ ˘ fourth epitrite

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ dispondee

See also[edit] 

Accent (poetry)



Syllable weight

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Baldick, Chris (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Literary . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923891-0.

2; Jump up^ Howatson, M. C., ed. (1976). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866121-5.

External links[edit] 

Comprehensive list of feet and colas up to 12 syllables long



Prosody Tutorial by H.T. Kirby-Smith [hide]

v t e

Suprasegmentals

Timing

Syllable Mora

Metrical foot Vowel reduction

Tone contour Pitch accent Downstep Tone

Upstep Downdrift Tone terracing Floating tone Tone sandhi Tone letter

Secondary stress Stress

Vowel reduction Accent

Chroneme Length

Gemination Vowel length Extra-short

Intonation (pitch) Pitch contour Pitch reset Prosody

Stress Rhythm Loudness Prosodic unit Pausa

Categories:

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Poetic rhythm

 Metrical feet

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Half rhyme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Half rhyme or slant rhyme, sometimes called near-rhyme or lazy rhyme, is a type of rhyme formed by words with similar but not identical sounds. In most instances, either the vowel segments are different while the consonants are identical, or vice versa. This type of rhyme is also called approximate rhyme, inexact rhyme, imperfect rhyme (in contrast toperfect rhyme), off rhyme, analyzed rhyme, or suspended rhyme.[1][2] Contents [hide]



1Use in hip hop/rap



2Unconventional exceptions



3See also



4References

Use in hip hop/rap[edit] See also: Rapping § Rhyme Half rhyme is often used, along with assonance, in rap music. This can be used to avoid rhyming clichés (e.g. rhyming "knowledge" with "college") or obvious rhymes, and gives the writer greater freedom and flexibility in forming lines of verse. Additionally, some words have no perfect rhyme in English, necessitating the use of slant rhyme.[3] The use of half rhyme may also enable the construction of longer multisyllabic rhymes than otherwise possible. In the following lines from the song "N.Y. State of Mind" by rapper Nas, the author uses half rhyme in a complex cross rhyme pattern: And be prosperous, though we live dangerous Cops could just arrest me, blamin’ us, we’re held like hostages

Unconventional exceptions[edit] Children's nursery rhyme This Little Piggy displays an unconventional case of slant rhyme. The author rhymes "home" with "none". This little piggy stayed home...this little piggy had none (re: roast beef). In The Hives's Dead Quote Olympics, singer Howlin' Pelle Almqvist rhymes "idea" with "library":[4][5] This time you really got something, it’s such a clever idea But it doesn’t mean it’s good because you found it at the libra-ri-a

See also[edit] 

Perfect rhyme

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Internal rhyme

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Rhyme

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Ian Ousby (23 February 1996). The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Literature in English. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-521-43627-4. Retrieved 20 May 2013.

2; Jump up^ "Literary and Definitions S". Web.cn.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-20. 3; Jump up^ "Exploring Modern

Eye rhyme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An eye rhyme, also called a visual rhyme or a sight rhyme, is a rhyme in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently and have come into general use through "poetic license" also known as artistic license.[1] An example is the pair cough and bough; although they look similar, and should rhyme based on the visual aspect, when they are spoken there is no rhyming quality. Many older English poems, particularly those written in Middle English or written in the Renaissance, contain rhymes that were originally true or full rhymes, but as read by modern readers, they are now eye

rhymes because of shifts in pronunciation, especially the Great Vowel Shift. They are called historic rhymes.

See also[edit] 

spelling pronunciation



eye dialect

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ "Rhyme". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6th Edition (2011): 1. MAS Ultra – School Edition ed.). 2012. p. 23.

This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Categories:

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Poetry stubs

Kenning From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Kennings)

Not to be confused with kerning. For other uses, see Kenning (disambiguation). A kenning (Modern Icelandic pronunciation: [cʰɛnːiŋk]; derived from Old Norse) is a type of circumlocution, in the form of a compound that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun. Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse and later Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon poetry. They usually consist of two words, and are often hyphenated. For example, Old Norse poets might replace sverð, the regular word for “sword”, with a more abstract compound such as “wound-hoe” (Egill Skallagrímsson: Höfuðlausn 8), or a genitive phrase such as randa íss “ice of shields” (Einarr Skúlason: ‘Øxarflokkr’ 9). Modern scholars have also applied the term kenning to similar figures of speech in other languages, especially Old English. Contents [hide]

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1Etymology

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2Structure

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3Complex kennings

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4Word order and comprehension

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5Definitions

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6Semantics

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7Ellipsis

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8Old Norse kennings in context

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9Old English and other kennings

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10Modern usage

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11Colloquial usage

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12See also

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13Notes

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14References

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15External links

Etymology[edit] The word was adopted into English in the nineteenth century [1] from medieval Icelandic treatises on poetics, in particular the Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson, and derives ultimately from the Old Norse verb kenna “know, recognise; perceive, feel; show; teach; etc.”, as used in the expression kenna við “to name after; to express [one thing] in of [another]”,[2] “name after; refer to in of”,[3] and kenna til “qualify by, make into a kenning by adding”.[3] The corresponding modern verb to ken survives only in Scots and highly remote English dialects, other than the derivative existing in the standard language in the set expressionbeyond one’s ken, “beyond the scope of one’s knowledge” and in the phonologically altered forms uncanny, “surreal” or “supernatural”, and canny, "shrewd", "prudent". ModernScots retains (with slight differences between dialects) tae ken "to know", kent "knew" or "known". Old Norse kenna (Modern Icelandic kenna, Swedish känna, Danish kende, Norwegian kjenne or kjenna) is cognate with Old English cennan, Old Frisian kenna, kanna, Old Saxon (ant)kennian (Middle Dutch and Dutch kennen), Old High German (ir-, in-,pi-) chennan (Middle High German and German kennen), Gothic kannjan < ProtoGermanic *kannjanan, originally causative of *kunnanan “to know (how to)”, whence Modern English can 'to be able' (from the same Proto-Indo-European root as Modern English know and Latinderived cognition).[2]

Structure[edit] Old Norse kennings take the form of a genitive phrase (báru fákr "wave’s horse" = “ship” (Þorbjörn hornklofi: Glymdrápa 3)) or a compound word (gjálfr-marr "sea-steed" = “ship” (Anon.: Hervararkviða 27)). The simplest kennings consist of a base-word (Icelandic stofnorð, German Grundwort) and a determinant (Icelandic kenniorð, German Bestimmung) which qualifies, or modifies, the meaning of the base-word. The determinant may be a noun used uninflected as the first element in a compound word, with the base-word constituting the second element of the compound word. Alternatively the determinant may be a noun in the genitive case, placed before or after the base-word, either directly or separated from the base-word by intervening words.[4] Thus the base-words in these examples are fákr "horse" and marr “steed”, the determinants báru “wave’s” and gjálfr “sea”. The unstated noun which the kenning refers to is called its referent, in this case: skip “ship”. In Old Norse poetry, either component of a kenning (base-word, determinant or both) could consist of an ordinary noun or a heiti “poetic synonym”. In the above examples, fákrand marr are distinctively poetic lexemes; the normal word for “horse” in Old Norse prose is hestr.

Complex kennings[edit] The skalds also employed complex kennings in which the determinant, or sometimes the base-word, is itself made up of a further kenning: grennir gunn-más “feeder of war-gull” = “feeder of raven” = “warrior” (Þorbjörn hornklofi: Glymdrápa 6); eyðendr arnar hungrs “destroyers of eagle’s hunger” = “feeders of eagle” = “warrior” (Þorbjörn Þakkaskáld: Erlingsdrápa 1) (referring to carnivorous birds scavenging after a

battle). Where one kenning is embedded in another like this, the whole figure is said to be tvíkent “doubly determined, twice modified”.[5] Frequently, where the determinant is itself a kenning, the base-word of the kenning that makes up the determinant is attached uninflected to the front of the base-word of the whole kenning to form a compound word: mög-fellandi mellu “son-slayer of giantess” = “slayer of sons of giantess” = “slayer of giants” = “the god Thor” (Steinunn Refsdóttir:Lausavísa 2). If the figure comprises more than three elements, it is said to be rekit “extended”.[5] Kennings of up to seven elements are recorded in skaldic verse.[6] Snorri himself characterises five-element kennings as an acceptable license but cautions against more extreme constructions: Níunda er þat at reka til hinnar fimtu kenningar, er ór ættum er ef lengra er rekit; en þótt þat finnisk í fornskálda verka, þá látum vér þat nú ónýtt. “The ninth [license] is extending a kenning to the fifth determinant, but it is out of proportion if it is extended further. Even if it can be found in the works of ancient poets, we no longer tolerate it.” [7] The longest kenning found in skaldic poetry occurs in Hafgerðingadrápa byÞórður Sjáreksson and reads nausta blakks hlé-mána gífrs drífu gim-slöngvir “fire-brandisher of blizzard of ogress of protectionmoon of steed of boat-shed”, which simply means "warrior".

Word order and comprehension[edit] Word order in Old Norse was generally much freer than in Modern English because Old Norse and Old English are synthetic languages, where added prefixes and suffixes to the root word (the core noun, verb, adjective or adverb) carry grammatical meanings, whereas Middle English and Modern English use word order to carry grammatical information, so-called analytic languages. In Modern English of the headlines "Dog Bites Man" and "Man Bites Dog", only the latter makes for an interesting news story. This freedom is exploited to the full in skaldic verse and taken to extremes far beyond what would be natural in prose. Other words can intervene between a base-word and its genitive determinant, and occasionally between the elements of a compound word (tmesis). Kennings, and even whole clauses, can be interwoven. Ambiguity is usually less than it would be if an English text were subjected to the same contortions, thanks to the more elaborate morphology of Old Norse. Another factor aiding comprehension is that Old Norse kennings tend to be highly conventional. Most refer to the same small set of topics, and do so using a relatively small set of traditional metaphors. Thus a leader or important man will be characterised as generous, according to one common convention, and called an "enemy of gold", "attacker of treasure", "destroyer of arm-rings", etc. and a friend of his people. Nevertheless, there are many instances of ambiguity in the corpus, some of which may be intentional, [8] and some evidence that, rather than merely accepting it from expediency, skalds favoured contorted word order for its own sake.[9]

Definitions[edit] Some scholars take the term kenning broadly to include any noun-substitute consisting of two or more elements, including merely descriptive epithets (such as Old Norse grand viðar “bane of wood” = “fire” (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)),[10] while others would restrict it to metaphorical instances (such as Old Norse sól húsanna “sun of the houses” = “fire” (Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36)), [11] specifically those where “[t]he base-word identifies the referent with something which it is not, except in a specially conceived relation which the poet imagines between it and the sense of the limiting element'” (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Some even exclude naturalistic metaphors such as Old English forstes bend “bond of frost” = “ice” or winter-ġewǣde “winter-raiment” = “snow”: “A metaphor is a kenning only if it contains an incongruity between the referent and the meaning of the base-word; in the kenning the limiting word is essential to the figure because without it the incongruity would make any identification impossible” (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Descriptive epithets are a common literary device in many parts of the world, whereas kennings in this restricted sense are a distinctive feature of Old Norse and, to a lesser extent, Old English poetry.[12] Snorri’s own usage, however, seems to fit the looser sense: “Snorri uses the term "kenning" to refer to a structural device, whereby a person or object is indicated by a periphrastic description containing two or more (which can be a noun with one or more dependent genitives or a compound noun or a combination of these two structures)” (Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv). The term is certainly applied to non-

metaphorical phrases in Skáldskaparmál: En sú kenning er áðr var ritat, at kalla Krist konung manna, þá kenning má eiga hverr konungr. “And that kenning which was written before, calling Christ the king of men, any king can have that kenning.[13] Likewise in Háttatal: Þat er kenning at kalla fleinbrak orrostu [...] “It is a kenning to call battle ‘spear-crash’ [...]”.[14] Snorri’s expression kend heiti "qualified " appears to be synonymous with kenningar,[15][16] although Brodeur applies this more specifically to those periphrastic epithets which don’t come under his strict definition of kenning.[17] Sverdlov approaches the question from a morphological standpoint. Noting that the modifying component in Germanic compound words can take the form of a genitive or a bare root, he points to behavioural similarities between genitive determinants and the modifying element in regular Old Norse compound words, such as the fact that neither can be modified by a free-standing (declined) adjective. [18] According to this view, all kennings are formally compounds, notwithstanding widespread tmesis.

Semantics[edit] Kennings could be developed into extended, and sometimes vivid, metaphors: tröddusk törgur fyr [...] hjalta harðfótum “shields were trodden under the hard feet of the hilt (sword blades)” (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 6); svarraði sárgymir á sverða nesi “wound-sea (=blood) sprayed on headland of swords (=shield)” (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir: Hákonarmál 7).[19] Snorri calls such examples nýgervingar and exemplifies them in verse 6 of his Háttatal. The effect here seems to depend on an interplay of more or less naturalistic imagery and jarring artifice. But the skalds weren’t averse either to arbitrary, purely decorative, use of kennings: “That is, a ruler will be a distributor of gold even when he is fighting a battle and gold will be called the fire of the sea even when it is in the form of a man’s arm-ring on his arm. If the man wearing a gold ring is fighting a battle on land the mention of the sea will have no relevance to his situation at all and does not contribute to the picture of the battle being described” (Faulkes (1997), pp. 8– 9). Snorri draws the line at mixed metaphor, which he nykrat “made monstrous” (Snorri Sturluson: Háttatal 6), and his nephew called the practice löstr “a fault” (Óláfr hvítaskáld: Third Grammatical Treatise 80).[20] In spite of this, it seems that “many poets did not object to and some must have preferred baroque juxtapositions of unlike kennings and neutral or incongruous verbs in their verses” (Foote & Wilson (1970), p. 332). E.g. heyr jarl Kvasis dreyra “listen, earl, to Kvasir’s blood (=poetry)” (Einarr skálaglamm: Vellekla 1). Sometimes there is a kind of redundancy whereby the referent of the whole kenning, or a kenning for it, is embedded: barmi dólg-svölu “brother of hostility-swallow” = “brother of raven” = “raven” (Oddr breiðfirðingr: Illugadrápa 1); blik-meiðendr bauga láðs “gleam-harmers of the land of rings” = “harmers of gleam of arm” = “harmers of ring” = “leaders, nobles, men of social standing (conceived of as generously destroying gold, i.e. giving it away freely)” (Anon.: Líknarbraut 42). While some Old Norse kennings are relatively transparent, many depend on a knowledge of specific myths or legends. Thus the sky might be called naturalistically él-ker “squall-vat” (Markús Skeggjason: Eiríksdrápa 3) or described in mythical as Ymis haus “Ymir’s skull” (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 19), referring to the idea that the sky was made out of the skull of the primeval giant Ymir. Still others name mythical entities according to certain conventions without reference to a specific story: rimmu Yggr “Odin of battle” = “warrior” (Arnórr jarlaskáld: Magnúsdrápa 5). Poets in medieval Iceland even treated Christian themes using the traditional repertoire of kennings complete with allusions to heathen myths and aristocratic epithets for saints:Þrúðr falda “goddess of headdresses” = “Saint Catherine” (Kálfr Hallsson: Kátrínardrápa 4).[4] Kennings of the type AB, where B routinely has the characteristic A and thus this AB is tautological, tend to mean "like B in that it has the characteristic A", e.g. "shield-Njörðr", tautological because the god Njörðr by nature has his own shield, means "like Njörðr in that he has a shield", i.e. "warrior". A modern English example is "painted Jezebel" as a disapproving expression for a woman too fond of using cosmetics. Sometimes a name given to one well-known member of a species, is used to mean any member of that species. For example, Old Norse valr means "falcon", but Old Norse mythology mentions a horse named Valr, and thus in Old Norse poetry valr is sometimes used to mean "horse". A modern example of this is

an ad hoc usage by a helicopter ambulance pilot: "the Heathrow of hang gliders" for the hills behind Hawes in Yorkshire in England, when he found the air over the emergency site crowded with hanggliders.[21]

Ellipsis[edit] A term may be omitted from a well-known kenning: val-teigs Hildr “hawk-ground’s valkyrie/goddess” (Haraldr Harðráði: Lausavísa 19). The full expression implied here is “goddess of gleam/fire/adornment of ground/land/seat/perch of hawk” = “goddess of gleam of arm” = “goddess of gold” = “lady” (characterised according to convention as wearing golden jewellery, the arm-kenning being a reference to falconry). The poet relies on listeners’ familiarity with such conventions to carry the meaning. [22]

Old Norse kennings in context[edit] In the following dróttkvætt stanza, the Norwegian skald Eyvind Finnson skáldaspillir (d. ca 990) compares the greed of king Harald Gråfell to the generosity of his predecessorHaakon the Good: Bárum, Ullr, of alla, ímunlauks, á hauka fjöllum Fýrisvalla fræ Hákonar ævi; nú hefr fólkstríðir Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr í móður holdi mellu dolgs of folginn Eyvindr skáldaspillir: Lausavísa 8 A literal translation reveals several kennings: "Ullr of the warleek! We carried the seed of Fýrisvellir on our hawkmountains during all of Hakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden the flour of Fróði's hapless slaves in the flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess." This could be paraphrased as "O warrior, we carried gold on our arms during all of King Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden gold in the earth." The kennings are: Ullr ... ímunlauks, "warrior", from Ullr, the name of a god, and ímun-laukr, "sword" (literally "war-leek"). By convention, the name of any god can be associated with another word to produce a kenning for a certain type of man; here "Ullr of the sword" means "warrior." "War-leek" is a kenning for "sword" that likens the shape of the sword to that of a leek. The warrior referred to may be King Harald. Hauka fjöllum, "arms", from hauka "hawk" and fjöll mountain. This is a reference to the sport of falconry, where a bird of prey is perched on the arm of the falconer. By convention, "hawk" combined with a term for a geographic feature forms a kenning for "arm." Fýrisvalla fræ, "gold", from "Fýrisvellir", the plains of the river Fýri, and fræ, "seed." This is an allusion to a legend retold in Skáldskaparmál and Hrólf Kraki's saga in which King Hrolf and his men scattered gold on the plains (vellir) of the river Fýri south of Gamla Uppsala to delay their pursuers.

Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr, "flour of Fróði's hapless slaves", is another kenning for "gold." It alludes to the Grottasöng legend. móður hold mellu dolgs, "flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess." "earth." Here the earth, (Jörd), is personified as a goddess who was the mother of Thor, the enemy of the Jotuns.

Old English and other kennings[edit] The practice of forming kennings has traditionally been seen as a common Germanic inheritance, but this has been disputed since, among the early Germanic languages, their use is largely restricted to Old Norse and Old English poetry.[11][23] A possible early kenning for "gold" (walha-kurna "Roman/Gallic grain") is attested in the Ancient Nordic runic inscription on the Tjurkö (I)C bracteate.[24][25] Kennings are virtually absent from the surviving corpus of continental West Germanic verse; the Old Saxon Heliand contains only one example: lîk-hamo “bodyraiment” = “body” (Heliand 3453 b),[26] a compound which, in any case, is normal in West Germanic and North Germanic prose (Old English līchama,Old High German lîchamo, lîchinamo, Dutch lichaam, Old Icelandic líkamr, líkami, Old Swedish līkhamber, Swedish lekamen, Danish and Norwegian Bokmål legeme, Norwegian Nynorsk lekam). Old English kennings are all of the simple type, possessing just two elements, e.g. for “sea”: seġl-rād “sail-road” (Beowulf 1429 b), swan-rād “swan-road” (Beowulf 200 a), bæð-weġ “bath-way” (Andreas 513 a), hron-rād “whale-road” (Beowulf 10), hwælweġ “whale-way” (The Seafarer 63 a). Most Old English examples take the form of compound words in which the first element is uninflected: "heofon-candel" “sky-candle” = “the sun” (Exodus 115 b). Kennings consisting of a genitive phrase occur too, but rarely: heofones ġim “sky’s jewel” = “the sun” (The Phoenix 183). Old English poets often place a series of synonyms in apposition, and these may include kennings (loosely or strictly defined) as well as the literal referent: Hrōðgar maþelode, helm Scyldinga [...] “Hrothgar, helm (=protector, lord) of the Scyldings, said [...]” (Beowulf 456).

Modern usage[edit] John Steinbeck used an approximation of kennings in his 1950 novella Burning Bright, which was adapted into a Broadway play that same year.[27] According to Steinbeck biographer Jay Parini, The experiment is well-intentioned, but it remains idiosyncratic to the point of absurdity. Steinbeck invented compound phrases (similar to the Old English use of kennings), such as "wife-loss" and "friend-right" and "laughter-starving," that simply seem eccentric.[28] Kennings remain somewhat common in German (Drahtesel "wire-donkey" for bike, Feuerstuhl "firechair" for motorcycle, and so on).

Colloquial usage[edit] Kennings are still used in colloquial or street usage, often as insults or with sexual connotations so that it is more easily possible to use them in front of the victims or in other company without being picked up for it.

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Salad Dodger

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Iron Wristed

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Shirt-lifter

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Bikini Whale

See also[edit] 

Elegant variation

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Heiti

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List of kennings

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Metonymy

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Synecdoche

Notes

Onomatopoeia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about a category of words. It is not to be confused with the comic character, called Onomatopoeia.

[hide]This article has multiple issue

This article includes a list of reference

This article needs additional citation

A sign in a shop window in Italy proclaims "No Tic Tac", in imitation of the sound of a clock.

An onomatopoeia ( /ˌɒnoʊˌmætəˈpiːə, -ˌmɑː-/,[1][2] or chiefly NZ /-ˈpeɪə/; from the Greek ὀνομὰτοποιίὰ; [3] ὄνομὰ for "name"[4] and ποιέω for "I make",[5] adjectival form: "onomatopoeic" or "onomatopoetic") is a word that phonetically imitates, resembles or suggests the source of the sound that it describes. Onomatopoeia (as an uncountable noun) refers to the property of such words. Common occurrences of onomatopoeias include animal noises such as "oink", "miaow" (or "meow"), "roar" or "chirp". Onomatopoeias are not the same across all languages; they conform to some extent to the broader linguistic system they are part of;[6][7] hence the sound of a clock may be tick tock in English, dī dā in Mandarin, or katchin katchin in Japanese, or "tik-tik" (टटक-टटक) in Hindi. i

Although in the English language the term onomatopoeia means the imitation of a sound, in the Greek language the compound word onomatopoeia (ονομὰτοποιίὰ) means "making or creating names". For words that imitate sounds, the term Ηχομιμητικό (echomimetico orechomimetic) is used. Ηχομιμητικό (echomimetico) derives from Ηχώ, meaning "echo or sound", and μιμητικό, meaning "mimetic or imitation". Contents [hide]

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1Uses of onomatopoeia

o 1.1Cross-cultural differences o 1.2Onomatopoeic effect without onomatopoeia words 

2Comics and advertising

o 2.1Manner imitation 

3Examples in media

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4Cross-linguistic examples

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5See also

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6References

o 6.1Notes o 6.2General references 

7External links

Uses of onomatopoeia In the case of a frog croaking, the spelling may vary because different frog species around the world make different sounds: Ancient Greek brekekekex koax koax (only in Aristophanes' comic play The Frogs) for probably marsh frogs; English ribbit for species of frog found in North America; English verb croak for the common frog.[8] Some other very common English-language examples include hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, moo, and splash. Machines and their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia, as in honk or beepbeep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom or brum for the engine. When someone speaks of a mishap involving an audible arcing of electricity, the word "zap" is often used (and has subsequently been expanded and used to describe non-auditory effects generally connoting the same sort of localized but thorough interference or destruction similar to that produced in short-circuit sparking). For animal sounds, words like quack (duck), moo (cow), bark or woof (dog), roar (lion), meow/miaow or purr (cat), cluck (chicken) and baa (sheep) are typically used in English. Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs. Some languages flexibly integrate onomatopoeic words into their structure. This may evolve into a new word, up to the point that it is no longer recognized as onomatopoeia. One example is English "bleat" for the sheep noise: in medieval times it was pronounced approximately as "blairt" (but without an R-

component), or "blet" with the vowel drawled, which is much more accurate as onomatopoeia than the modern pronunciation. An example of the opposite case is "cuckoo", which, due to continuous familiarity with the bird noise down the centuries, has kept approximately the same pronunciation as inAnglo-Saxon times and its vowels have not changed as they have in the word "furrow". Verba dicendi are a method of integrating onomatopoeia and ideophones into grammar. Sometimes things are named from the sounds they make. In English, for example, there is the universal fastener which is named for the onomatopoeic of the sound it makes: thezip (in the UK) or zipper (in the U.S.). Many birds are named after their calls, such as the bobwhite quail, the weero, the morepork, the killdeer, chickadee, the cuckoo, thechiffchaff, the whooping crane, the whip-poor-will, and the kookaburra. In Tamil and Malayalam, the word for crow is kaakaa. This practice is especially common in certain languages such as Māori and, therefore, in names of animals borrowed from these languages.

Cross-cultural differences Although a particular sound is heard similarly by people of different cultures, it is often expressed through the use of different consonant strings in different languages. For example, the "snip" of a pair of scissors is su-su in Chinese [citation needed], cri-cri in Italian, riqui-riqui in Spanish, terre-terre or treque-treque in Portuguese, krits-krits in modern Greek and katr-katr in Hindi.[9] Similarly, the "honk" of a car's horn is baba (Han: 叭叭) in Mandarin, tut-tut in French, pu-pu in Japanese, bbang-bbang in Korean, bærtbært inNorwegian, fom-fom in Portuguese and bim-bim in Vietnamese.

Onomatopoeic effect without onomatopoeia words Onomatopoeic effect can also be produced in a phrase or word string with the help of alliteration and consonance alone, without using any onomatopoeic words. The most famous example is the phrase "furrow followed free" in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. It may be noted that the words "followed" and "free" are not onomatopoeic in themselves, but in conjunction with "furrow", they reproduce the sound of ripples following in the wake of a speeding ship. Similarly, alliteration has been used in the line "as the surf surged up the sun swept shore...", to recreate the sound of breaking waves, in the poem "I, She and the Sea".

Comics and advertising Comic strips and comic books made extensive use of onomatopoeia. Popular culture historian Tim DeForest noted the impact of writer-artist Roy Crane (1901–1977), the creator of Captain Easy and Buz Sawyer: It was Crane who pioneered the use of onomatopoeic sound effects in comics, adding "bam," "pow" and "wham" to what had previously been an almost entirely visual vocabulary. Crane had fun with this, tossing in an occasional "ker-splash" or "lickety-wop" along with what would become the more standard effects. Words as well as images became vehicles for carrying along his increasingly fast-paced storylines.[10] In 2002, DC Comics introduced a villain named Onomatopoeia, an athlete, martial artist and weapons expert who often speaks sounds. Advertising uses onomatopoeia as a mnemonic, so consumers will their products, as in Alka-Seltzer's "Plop, plop, fizz, fizz. Oh, what a relief it is!" jingle, recorded in two different versions (big band and rock) by Sammy Davis, Jr. Rice Krispies (US and UK) and Rice Bubbles (AU) make a "snap, crackle, pop" when one pours on milk. During the 1930s, the illustrator Vernon Grant developed Snap, Crackle and Pop as gnome-like mascots for the Kellogg Company. Sounds surface in road safety ments: "clunk click, every trip" (click the seatbelt on after clunking the car door closed; UK campaign) or "click, clack, front and back" (click, clack of connecting the seatbelts; AU campaign) or "click it or ticket" (click of the connecting seatbelt; US DOT campaign).

Manner imitation Main article: Ideophone In many of the world's languages, onomatopoeia-like words are used to describe phenomena apart from the purely auditive. Japanese often utilizes such words to describe feelings or figurative expressions about objects or concepts. For instance, Japanese barabara is used to reflect an object's state of disarray or separation, and shiiin is the onomatopoetic form of absolute silence (used at the time an English speaker might expect to hear the sound of crickets chirping or a pin dropping in a silent room, or someone coughing). It is used in English as well with like bling, which describes the glinting of light on things like gold, chrome or precious stones. In Japanese, kirakira is used for glittery things.

Examples in media 

James Joyce in Ulysses (1922) coined the onomatopoeic tattarrattat for a knock on the door.[11] It is listed as the longest palindromic word in The Oxford English Dictionary.[12]



Whaam! (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein is an early example of pop art, featuring a reproduction of comic book art that depicts a fighter aircraft striking another with rockets with dazzling red and yellow explosions.



In the 1960s TV series Batman, comic book style onomatopoeias such as wham!, pow!, biff!, crunch! and zounds! appear onscreen during fight scenes.



Ubisoft's XIII employed the use of comic book onomatopoeias such as bam!, boom! and noooo! during gameplay for gunshots, explosions and kills, respectively. The comic-book style is apparent throughout the game and is a core theme, and the game is an adaptation of a comic book of the same name.



The chorus of American popular songwriter John Prine's song "Onomatopoeia" cleverly incorporates onomatopoeic words (though as discussed, 'ouch!' is not the sound of pain): "Bang! went the pistol. | Crash! went the window. | Ouch! went the son of a gun. | Onomatopoeia | I don't wanna see ya | Speaking in a foreign tongue."



The marble game KerPlunk is an onomatopoeia for the sound of the marbles dropping when one too many sticks has been removed.



The Nickelodeon cartoon Kablam is implied to be onomotapoeic to a crash.



Each episode of the TV series Harper's Island is given an onomatopoeic name which imitates the sound made in that episode when a character dies. For example, in the episode titled "Bang" a character is shot and fatally wounded, with the "Bang" mimicking the sound of the gunshot.

Cross-linguistic examples Main article: Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias

See also 

Anguish Languish



List of animal sounds



List of onomatopoeias



Sound symbolism

 

Japanese sound symbolism

Vocal learning



Sound mimesis in various cultures

References Notes 1; Jump up^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180

2; Jump up^ Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521152532

3; Jump up^ ὀνομὰτοποιίὰ, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

4; Jump up^ ὄνομὰ, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus 5; Jump up^ ποιέω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus 6; Jump up^ Onomatopoeia as a Figure and a Linguistic Principle, Hugh Bredin, The Johns Hopkins University, Retrieved November 14, 2013

7; Jump up^ Definition of Onomatopoeia, Retriev

Rhyme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the property of words. For the mobile phone, see HTC Rhyme. For the surname, see Rhymes (surname). A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (or the same sound) in two or more words, most often in the final syllables of lines in poems and songs.[1] The word rhyme is also a pars pro toto ("a part (taken) for the whole") that means a short poem, such as a rhyming couplet or other brief rhyming poem such as nursery rhymes. Contents [hide]



1Function of rhyming words



2Types of rhyme

o 2.1Perfect rhymes o 2.2General rhymes o 2.3Identical rhymes o 2.4Eye rhyme o 2.5Mind rhyme o 2.6Classification by position 

3History

o 3.1Etymology 

4Rhyme in various languages

o 4.1Celtic languages

o 4.2Chinese o 4.3English o 4.4French o 4.5Greek o 4.6Hebrew o 4.7Latin o 4.8Portuguese o 4.9Russian o 4.10Sanskrit o 4.11Tamil 

5See also



6Notes



7External links

Function of rhyming words[edit] Rhyme partly seems to be enjoyed simply as a repeating pattern that is pleasant to hear. It also serves as a powerful mnemonic device, facilitating memorization. The regular use of tail rhyme helps to mark off the ends of lines, thus clarifying the metrical structure for the listener. As with other poetic techniques, poets use it to suit their own purposes; for example William Shakespeare often used a rhyming couplet to mark off the end of a scene in a play.

Types of rhyme[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) The word rhyme can be used in a specific and a general sense. In the specific sense, two words rhyme if their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical; two lines of poetry rhyme if their final strong positions are filled with rhyming words. A rhyme in the strict sense is also called a perfect rhyme. Examples are sight and flight, deign and gain,madness and sadness.

Perfect rhymes[edit] Main article: Perfect rhyme Perfect rhymes can be classified according to the number of syllables included in the rhyme, which is dictated by the location of the final stressed syllable.



single: a rhyme in which the stress is on the final syllable of the words (rhyme, sublime)



double: a rhyme in which the stress is on the penultimate (second from last) syllable of the words (picky, tricky)



dactylic: a rhyme in which the stress is on the antepenultimate (third from last) syllable (cacophonies, Aristophanes)

General rhymes[edit] In the general sense, general rhyme can refer to various kinds of phonetic similarity between words, and to the use of such similar-sounding words in organizing verse. Rhymes in this general sense are classified according to the degree and manner of the phonetic similarity:



syllabic: a rhyme in which the last syllable of each word sounds the same but does not necessarily contain stressed vowels. (cleaver, silver, or pitter, patter; the final syllable of the words bottle and fiddle are /l/, a liquid consonant.)



imperfect (or near): a rhyme between a stressed and an unstressed syllable. (wing, caring)



weak (or unaccented): a rhyme between two sets of one or more unstressed syllables. (hammer, carpenter)



semirhyme: a rhyme with an extra syllable on one word. (bend, ending)



forced (or oblique): a rhyme with an imperfect match in sound. (green, fiend; one, thumb)



assonance: matching vowels. (shake, hate) Assonance is sometimes referred to as slant rhymes, along with consonance.



consonance: matching consonants. (rabies, robbers)



half rhyme (or slant rhyme): matching final consonants. (Roxie', Lexie)



pararhyme: all consonants match. (tell, tall)



alliteration (or head rhyme): matching initial consonants. (ship, short)

Identical rhymes[edit] Identical rhymes are considered less than perfect in English poetry; but are valued more highly in other literatures such as, for example, rime riche in French poetry. Though homophones and homonyms satisfy the first condition for rhyming—that is, that the stressed vowel sound is the same—they do not satisfy the second: that the preceding consonant be different. As stated above, in a perfect rhyme the last stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical in both words. If the sound preceding the stressed vowel is also identical, the rhyme is sometimes considered to be inferior and not a perfect rhyme after all.[2][3] An example of such a super-rhyme or "more than perfect rhyme" is the identical rhyme, in which not only the vowels but also the onsets of the rhyming syllables are identical, as in gun and begun. Punning rhymes, such are bare and bear are also identical rhymes. The rhyme may extend even farther back than the last stressed vowel. If it extends all the way to the beginning of the line, so that there are two lines that sound identical, it is called a holorhyme ("For I scream/For ice cream"). In poetics these would be considered identity, rather than rhyme.

Eye rhyme[edit] Main article: Eye rhyme Eye rhymes or sight rhymes or spelling rhymes refer to similarity in spelling but not in sound where the final sounds are spelled identically but pronounced differently.[4] Examples in English are cough, bough, and love, move. Some early written poetry appears to contain these, but in many cases the words used rhymed at the time of writing, and subsequent changes in pronunciation have meant that the rhyme is now lost.

Mind rhyme[edit] Main article: Mind rhyme

Mind rhyme is a kind of substitution rhyme similar to rhyming slang, but it is less generally codified and is “heard” only when generated by a specific verse context. For instance, “this sugar is neat / and tastes so sour.” If a reader or listener thinks of the word “sweet” instead of “sour,” a mind rhyme has occurred.

Classification by position[edit] Rhymes may be classified according to their position in the verse:



Tail rhyme (also called end rhyme or rime couée) is a rhyme in the final syllable(s) of a verse (the most common kind).



Internal rhyme occurs when a word or phrase in the interior of a line rhymes with a word or phrase at the end of a line, or within a different line.



Off-centered rhyme is a type of internal rhyme occurring in unexpected places in a given line. This is sometimes called a misplaced-rhyme scheme or a spoken word rhyme style.



Holorime, mentioned above, occurs when two entire lines have the same sound.



Broken rhyme is a type of enjambement producing a rhyme by dividing a word at the line break of a poem to make a rhyme with the end word of another line.



Cross rhyme matches a sound or sounds at the end of a line with the same sound or sounds in the middle of the following (or preceding) line.[4]

A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming lines in a poem.

History[edit] In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnetsand rhyming couplets. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. The earliest surviving evidence of rhyming is the Chinese Shi Jing (ca. 10th century BC). Rhyme is also occasionally used in the Bible.[5] Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not usually rhyme,[6] but rhyme was used very occasionally. For instance, Catullus includes partial rhymes in the poem Cui dono lepidum novum libellum.[7] The ancient Greeks knew rhyme, and rhymes in The Wasps by Aristophanes are noted by a translator.[8] According to some archaic sources, Irish literature introduced the rhyme to Early Medieval Europe, but that is a disputed claim.[9] In the 7th century, the Irish had brought the art of rhyming verses to a high pitch of perfection. Also in the 7th cwntury, rhyme was used in the Qur'an. The leonine verse is notable for introducing rhyme into High Medieval literature in the 12th century. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain).[10] Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas.[11] Since languages change over time, lines that rhymed in the past may no longer rhyme in today's language, and it may not be clear how one would pronounce the words so that they rhyme: Rejoice, O Judah, and in songs divine With cherubim and seraphim harmonious . from Handel's Judas Maccabaeus (libretto by Thomas Morell) "Should we really sing 'harmonious jine' [or 'songs divoin']?"[12]

Etymology[edit] The word derives from Old French rime or ryme, which may be derived from Old Frankish *rīm, a Germanic term meaning "series, sequence" attested in Old English (Old Englishrīm meaning

"enumeration, series, numeral") and Old High German rīm, ultimately cognate to Old Irish rím, Greek ἀριθμός arithmos "number". Alternatively, the Old French words may derive from Latin rhythmus, from Greek ῥυθμός (rhythmos, rhythm).[13][14] The spelling rhyme (from original rime) was introduced at the beginning of the Modern English period from a learned (but perhaps etymologically incorrect) association with Latinrhythmus. [13] The older spelling rime survives in Modern English as a rare alternative spelling. A distinction between the spellings is also sometimes made in the study oflinguistics and phonology for which rime/rhyme is used to refer to the nucleus and coda of a syllable. Some prefer to spell it rime to separate it from the poetic rhyme covered by this article (see syllable rime).

Rhyme in various languages[edit] Celtic languages[edit] For Welsh, see cynghanedd Rhyming in the Celtic Languages takes a drastically different course from most other Western rhyming schemes despite strong with the Romance and English patterns. Even today, despite extensive interaction with English and French culture, Celtic rhyme continues to demonstrate native characteristics. Brian Ó Cuív sets out the rules of rhyme in Irish poetry of the classical period: the last stressed vowel and any subsequent long vowels must be identical in order for two words to rhyme. Consonants are grouped into six classes for the purpose of rhyme: they need not be identical, but must belong to the same class. Thus 'b' and 'd' can rhyme (both being 'voiced plosives'), as can 'bh' and 'l' (which are both 'voiced continuants') but 'l', a 'voiced continuant', cannot rhyme with 'ph', a 'voiceless continuant'. Furthermore, "for perfect rhyme a palatalized consonant may be balanced only by a palatalized consonant and a velarized consonant by a velarized one."[15] In the post-Classical period, these rules fell into desuetude, and in popular verse simple assonance often suffices, as can be seen in an example of Irish Gaelic rhyme from the traditional song Bríd Óg Ní Mháille: Is a Bhríd Óg Ní Mháille / 'S tú d'fhág mo chroí cráite [is ə vrʲiːdʲ oːɡ nʲiː wɒːlʲə / stuː dɒːɡ mə xriː krɒːtʲə] Translation: Oh young Bridget O'Malley / You have left my heart breaking Here the vowels are the same, but the consonants, although both palatalized, do not fall into the same class in the bardic rhyming scheme.

Chinese[edit] Further information: Rime dictionary Besides the vowel/consonant aspect of rhyming, Chinese rhymes often include tone quality (that is, tonal contour) as an integral linguistic factor in determining rhyme. Use of rhyme in Classical Chinese poetry typically but not always appears in the form of paired couplets, with end-rhyming in the final syllable of each couplet. Another important aspect of rhyme in regard to Chinese language studies is the study or reconstruction of past varieties of Chinese, such as Middle Chinese.

English[edit] See also: English poetry Old English poetry is mostly alliterative verse. One of the earliest rhyming poems in English is The Rhyming Poem. As stress is important in English, lexical stress is one of the factors that affects the similarity of sounds for the perception of rhyme. Perfect rhyme can be defined as

the case when two words rhyme if their final stressed vowel and all following sounds are identical.[4] Some words in English, such as "orange" and "silver", are commonly regarded as having no rhyme. Although a clever writer can get around this (for example, by obliquely rhyming "orange" with combinations of words like "door hinge" or with lesser-known words like "Blorenge" – a hill in Wales – or the surname Gorringe), it is generally easier to move the word out of rhyming position or replace it with a synonym ("orange" could become "amber")("Silver" could become a combination of "bright and argent"). One view of rhyme in English is from John Milton's preface to Paradise Lost: The Measure is English Heroic Verse without Rime, as that of Homer in Greek, and of Virgil in Latin; Rime being no necessary Adjunct or true Ornament of Poem or good Verse, in longer Works especially, but the Invention of a barbarous Age, to set off wretched matter and lame Meeter; grac't indeed since by the use of some famous modern Poets, carried away by Custom... A more tempered view is taken by W. H. Auden in The Dyer's Hand: Rhymes, meters, stanza forms, etc., are like servants. If the master is fair enough to win their affection and firm enough to command their respect, the result is an orderly happy household. If he is too tyrannical, they give notice; if he lacks authority, they become slovenly, impertinent, drunk and dishonest. Forced or clumsy rhyme is often a key ingredient of doggerel.

French[edit] In French poetry, unlike in English, it is common to have identical rhymes, in which not only the vowels of the final syllables of the lines rhyme, but their onset consonants ("consonnes d'appui") as well. To the ear of someone accustomed to English verse, this often sounds like a very weak rhyme. For example, an English perfect rhyme of homophones, flour and flower, would seem weak, whereas a French rhyme of homophones doigt and doit is not only acceptable but quite common. Rhymes are sometimes classified into the categories "rime pauvre" ("poor rhyme"), "rime suffisante" ("sufficient rhyme"), "rime riche" ("rich rhyme") and "rime richissime" ("very rich rhyme"), according to the number of rhyming sounds in the two words or in the parts of the two verses. For example, to rhyme "parla" with "sauta" would be a poor rhyme (the words have only the vowel in common), to rhyme "pas" with "bras" a sufficient rhyme (with the vowel and the silent consonant in common), and "tante" with "attente" a rich rhyme (with the vowel, the onset consonant, and the coda consonant with its mute "e" in common). Authorities disagree, however, on exactly where to place the boundaries between the categories. Holorime is an extreme example of rime richissime spanning an entire verse. Alphonse Allais was a notable exponent of holorime. Here is an example of a holorime couplet fromMarc Monnier: Gall, amant de la Reine, alla (tour magnanime) Galamment de l'Arène à la Tour Magne, à Nîmes. Gallus, the Queen's lover, went (a magnanimous gesture) Gallantly from the Arena to the Great Tower, at Nîmes. Classical French rhyme not only differs from English rhyme in its different treatment of onset consonants. It also treats coda consonants in a distinctive way.

French spelling includes several final letters that are no longer pronounced, and that in many cases have never been pronounced. Such final unpronounced letters continue to affect rhyme according to the rules of Classical French versification. They are encountered in almost all of the pre-20th-century French verse texts, but these rhyming rules are almost never taken into from the 20th century. The most important "silent" letter is the "mute e". In spoken French today, final "e" is, in some regional accents (in Paris for example), omitted after consonants; but in Classical French prosody, it was considered an integral part of the rhyme even when following the vowel. "Joue" could rhyme with "boue", but not with "trou". Rhyming words ending with this silent "e" were said to make up a "double rhyme", while words not ending with this silent "e" made up a "single rhyme". It was a principle of stanza-formation that single and double rhymes had to alternate in the stanza. All 17thcentury French plays in verse alternate single and double alexandrine couplets. The "silent" final consonants present a more complex case. They, too, were considered an integral part of the rhyme, so that "pont" could rhyme only with "vont" and not with "long"; but this cannot be reduced to a simple rule about the spelling, since "pont" would also rhyme with "rond" even though one word ends in "t" and the other in "d". This is because the correctness of the rhyme depends not on the spelling on the final consonant, but on how it would have been pronounced. There are a few simple rules that govern word-final consonants in French prosody:



The consonants must "rhyme" give or take their voicing. So "d" and "t" rhyme because they differ only in voicing. So too with "g" and "c", and "p" and "b", and also "s" and "z" (and "x"). (Rhyming words ending with a silent "s" "x" or "z" are called "plural rhymes".)



Nasal vowels rhyme no matter what their spelling. ("Essaim" can rhyme with "sain", but not with "saint" because the final "t" counts in "saint".)



If the word ends in a consonant cluster, only the final consonant counts. ("Temps" rhymes with "lents" because both end in "s".)

In fact, only the "silent" final consonants that can be pronounced the same way if followed by a vowel, are able to rhyme together.

Greek[edit] See Homoioteleuton rhyme

Hebrew[edit] Ancient Hebrew verse rarely employed rhyme, e.g. in Exodus 29 35: ‫ ככל אשר‬,‫ועשית לאהרן ולבניו כככה‬ ‫אתכה‬ ‫( צויתי א כ‬the identical part in both rhyming words being / 'axa/ ). However, many Jewish liturgical poems rhyme today, because they were written in medieval Europe, where rhymes were in vogue.

Latin[edit] In Latin rhetoric and poetry homeoteleuton and alliteration were frequently used devices. Tail rhyme was occasionally used, as in this piece of poetry by Cicero: O Fortunatam natam me consule Romam. (O fortunate Rome, to be born with me consul) But tail rhyme was not used as a prominent structural feature of Latin poetry until it was introduced under the influence of local vernacular traditions in the early Middle Ages. This is the Latin hymn Dies Irae: Dies irae, dies illa Solvet saeclum in favilla Teste David cum Sybilla (The day of wrath, that day which will reduce the world to ashes, as foretold by David and the Sybil.) Medieval poetry may mix Latin and vernacular languages. Mixing languages in verse or rhyming words in different languages is termed macaro nic.

Portugues e[edit] Portuguese clas sifies rhymes in the following manner:



rima pobre (poo r rhyme):

rhyme between words of the same gram matical category (e .g. noun with noun) or between very common endings (ão, -ar);



rima rica (rich rhyme): rhyme between words of different grammatic al classes or with uncommon endings;



rima preciosa ( precious rhyme): rhyme between words with a different m orphology, for example es trela (star) with vê-la (to see her);



rima esdrúxula (odd rhyme): rhyme between pr oparoxyton ic words (example: última, "last", and vítima, "victim").

Russian[edi t] Rhyme was introduced into Russian po etry in the 18th century. Folk poetry had generally been unrhymed, relying more on dactylic line endings for effect. Rhyme depends on a vowel and adjacent consonant (which may include the semivowel Short I). Vowel pairs rhyme even though non-Russian speakers may not perceive them as the same sound. Consonant pairs rhyme if both are devoiced. Early 18th century poetry demanded perfect rhymes that were also grammatical rhymes— namely that noun endings rhymed with noun endings, verb endings with verb endings, and so on. Such rhymes relying on morphological endings become much rarer in modern Russian poetry, and greater use

is made of approximate rhymes.[16]

Sanskrit[ed it] Patterns of rich rhyme (prāsa) play a role in modern Sanskrit poetry, but only to a minor extent in historical Sanskrit texts. They are classified according to their position within thepada (metric al foot): ādiprāsa (first syllable), dvitīy āksara ṣ prāsa (second syllable), antya prāsa (final syllable) etc.

Tamil[edit] There are some unique rhyming schemes in Dravidian languages like Tamil. Specifically, the rhyme called etukai (a naphora) occurs on the second consonant of each line. The other rhyme and related patterns are called mōnai (a lliteration), totaṣ i (epiphora) and irattai ṣṣ kilavi ṣ (paralleli sm).

Some classical Tamil poetry forms, such as ven ṣpā, have rigid grammars for rhyme to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar.

See also[edit] 

Alliteratio n



Assonance



Glossary of poetry



An Introductio n to Rhyme



List of English words without rhymes



Consonanc e



Multisylla bic rhymes



Rhyme in rap



Rhyming recipe



Rhyming spiritual



Rime dictionary - ancient type of Chinese dictionary



Rime table syllable

chart of the Chinese language

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ " Rhyme ". Oxf ord Dictio naries. Oxford Univer sity Press. 2013.

2; Jump up^ " Rhyme , which cites Whitfi eld's Univer sity Rhymi ng Dictio nary, 1951". myclas ses.net . Retrie ved 20 15-0825.

3; Jump up^ " Rhymi ng and Songw riting" . micha elthoma s.com. Retrie ved 20 15-0825.

4; ^ Jump up to:a b c

Stillm an, Franc es (1966) . The Poet's Manu al and Rhymi ng Dictio nary. Thame s and Hudso n. ISB N 050 02703 09.

5; Jump up^ " Old Testam ent survey : the messa ge, form, and backgr ound of the Old Testam ent pg. 236"

6; Jump up^ W esling, Donal d (1980) . The chanc es of rhyme. Univer sity of Califo rnia Press. pp. x– xi, 38– 42. IS BN 97 8-0520-

03861 -5.

7; Jump up^ " Berna rd of Morlai xMETR E AND RHYM E". prosen tient.c om.au. Retrie ved20 15-0825.

8; Jump up^ A ristop hanes; Slavitt , D.R.; Bovie, S.P. (1999) . Arist ophan es, 2: Wasps, Lysistr ata, Frogs, The Sexual Congr ess. Univer sity of Penns ylvani a Press, Incorp orated . p. 4.IS BN 97 80812 21684 4. Retrie ved 20 15-0825.

9; Jump up^ " Article about early Irish literatu re by Prof. Dougl as Hyde in The Cathol ic Encycl opedia "

10; Jump up^ M enocal , Maria Rosa (2003) . The Arabic Role in Medie val Litera ry Histor y. Univer sity of Penns ylvani a. p. 88. ISBN 0812213246.

11; Jump up^ S perl, Stefan, ed. (1996) . Qasi da poetry in Islami c Asia and

Africa. Brill. p. 49.I SBN 9 78-900410387 -0.

12; Jump up^ K elly, Thoma s Forest (2011). Early Music: A Very Short Introd uction, p.83. I SBN 978-01997307 6-6.

13; ^ Jump up to:a b r hyme, n. OE D Online (Oxfor d Univer sity Press). March 2013. Retrie ved20 13-0415.

14; Jump up^ H arper, Dougl as (2000 – 2012). "Onlin e Etymo logy Dictio

nary". Retrie ved 20 13-0415.

15; Jump up^ Ó Cuív, Brian (1967) . 'The Phonet ic Basis of Classic al Moder n Irish Rhyme '. Ériu 20, pp. 96-97

16; Jump up^ W achtel, Micha el (2006) . The Cambr idge Introd uction to Russia n Poetry . Cambr idge: Cambr idge Univer sity Press. ISBN 97805 11206 986.

External links[edit]



Directory of rhyming dictionarie s at the Open Directory Project



Querying rhyming words in WolframAl pha

Categories:



Rhyme

 

Stanzaic form Word play

Rhyme scheme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes at the end of each line of a poem or song. It is usually referred to by using letters to indicate which lines rhyme; lines designated with the same letter all rhyme with each other. Bid me to weep, and I will weep While I have eyes to see; And having none, yet I will keep A heart to weep for thee.

A B A B Contents [hide]

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1Function in writing



2Example rhyme schemes



3Rhyme schemes in hip-hop music



4The number of rhyme schemes



5References

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6External links

Function in writing[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) Rhyme scheme is as integral to the structure of a text as rhythm, meter and length of phrase. Yet the way this happens seems more ambiguous than the way rhythm shapes a text, for example. Even some seasoned writers have difficulty understanding precisely how the organization of rhyme contributes to the architecture of a poem or a song. Basically, like the other elements of writing, rhyme scheme is used to manage flow, create and relieve tension & balance, and to highlight important ideas. Writers may choose rhyme schemes in order to:



Control the speed & flow of the structure



Take control of the audience's expectations



Communicate an idea in the most effective way

Instead of choosing rhyme schemes haphazardly, writers can deliberately design the structure of rhyme to their ideas. Rhymes accelerate a text. The more times a line rhymes, the smoother the flow, and the faster it goes. Take the most basic "AAAA" rhyme scheme for example: There was a cat, his name was Pat, outside, he sat, and boy oh boy was he fat! When each line ends the same way, it's smooth, and we read it fast. Because every line rhymes, we don't slow down anywhere when we read it. If the last line was supposed to be the punchline of the poem, so to speak, then it didn't really work, because the AAAA pattern kept us reading too fast to stop at the end. A basic distinction is between rhyme schemes that apply to a single stanza, and those that continue their pattern throughout an entire poem (see chain rhyme). There are also more elaborate related forms, like the sestina - which requires repetition of exact words in a complex pattern. In English, highly repetitive rhyme schemes are unusual.[citation needed] English has more vowel sounds than Italian, for example, meaning that such a scheme would be far more restrictive for an English writer than an Italian one - there are fewer suitable words to match a given pattern. Even such schemes as the terza rima ("aba bcb cdc ded..."), used byDante Alighieri in The Divine Comedy, have been considered too difficult for English.

Example rhyme schemes[edit] 

Alternate rhyme: ABAB CDCD EFEF GHGH...



Ballade: Three stanzas of "ABABBCBC" followed by "BCBC".

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Boy Named Sue: A,A,B,C,C,(B, or infrequently D).

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Chant royal: Five stanzas of "ababccddedE" followed by either "ddedE" or "ccddedE". (The capital letters indicate a line repeated verbatim.)



Cinquain: "A,B,A,B,B"



Clerihew: "A,A,B,B"

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Couplet: "A,A", but usually occurs as "A,A, B,B C,C D,D ..."



McCarron Couplet: "AABBABCCDDCDEEFFEF" a contemporary take on a classic rhyming pattern, introduced by the academic James McCarron.



Enclosed rhyme (or enclosing rhyme): "ABBA"



"Fire and Ice" stanza: "ABAABCBCB" as used in Robert Frost's poem "Fire and Ice"



Keatsian Ode: "ABABCDECDE" used in Keat's Ode on Indolence, Ode on a Grecian Urn, and Ode to a Nightingale.



Limerick: "AABBA"



Monorhyme: "A,A,A,A,A...", an identical rhyme on every line, common in Latin and Arabic



Ottava rima: "A,B,A,B,A,B,C,C"



The Raven stanza: "ABCBBB", or "AA,B,CC,CB,B,B" when ing for internal rhyme, as used by Edgar Allan Poe in "The Raven"



Rhyme royal: "ABABBCC"

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Rondeau: "ABaAabAB"

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Rondelet: "AbAabbA"

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Rubaiyat: "AABA"

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Scottish stanza: "AAABAB", as used by Robert Burns in works such as "To a Mouse"



Simple 4-line: "ABCB"

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Sonnet ABAB CDCD EFEF GG



Petrarchan sonnet: "ABBA ABBA CDE CDE" or "ABBA ABBA CDC DCD"

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Shakespearean sonnet: "ABAB CDCD EFEF GG"

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Spenserian sonnet: "ABAB BCBC CDCD EE"



Onegin stanzas: "aBaBccDDeFFeGG" with the lowercase letters representing feminine rhymes and the uppercase representing masculine rhymes, written in iambic tetrameter



Sestina: ABCDEF FAEBDC CFDABE ECBFAD DEACFB BDFECA, the seventh stanza is a tercet where line 1 has A in it but ends with D, line 2 has B in it but ends with E, line 3 has C in it but ends with F



Spenserian stanza: "ABABBCBCCDCDEE"



Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening form: "AABA BBCB CCDC DDDD" a modified Ruba'i stanza used by Robert Frost for the eponymous poem.



Tanaga: traditional Tagalog tanaga is "AAAA"



Terza rima: "ABA BCB CDC ...", ending on "YZY Z", "YZY ZZ", or "YZY ZYZ".



Triplet: "AAA", often repeating like the couplet.



The Road Not Taken stanza: "ABAAB" as used in Robert Frost's The Road Not Taken, and in Glæde over Danmark by Poul Martin Møller (English translation here).



Villanelle: A1bA2 abA1 abA2 abA1 abA2 abA1A2, where A1 and A2 are lines repeated exactly which rhyme with the a lines.

Rhyme schemes in hip-hop music[edit] Hip-hop music and rapping’s rhyme schemes include traditional schemes such as couplets, as well as forms specific to the genre,[1] which are broken down extensively in the books How to Rap and Book of Rhymes. Rhyme schemes used in hip-hop music include –



Couplets[2]



Single-liners[3]



Multi-liners[4]



Combinations of schemes[5]



Whole verse[6]

Couplets are the most common type of rhyme scheme in old school rap[7] and are still regularly used, [2] though complex rhyme schemes have progressively become more frequent.[8][9] Rather than relying on end rhymes, rap’s rhyme schemes can have rhymes placed anywhere in the bars of music to create a structure. [10] There can also be numerous rhythmic elements which all work together in the same scheme [11] - this is called internal rhyme in traditional poetry,[12] though as rap's rhymes schemes can be anywhere in the bar, they could all be internal, so the term is not always used.[11] Rap verses can also employ 'extra rhymes', which do not structure the verse like the main rhyme schemes, but which add to the overall sound of the verse.[13]

The number of rhyme schemes[edit]

Tale of Genji chapter symbols, including diagrams of the first 52 set partitions

The number of different possible rhyme schemes for an n-line poem is given by the Bell numbers,[14] which for n = 1, 2, 3, ... are 1, 2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140, 21147, 115975, … (sequence A000110 in OEIS).

For instance, there are five different rhyme schemes for a three-line poem: AAA, AAB, ABA, ABB, and ABC. Historically, the first exhaustive listing of rhyme schemes appears to be in the Tale of Genji, an 11th-century Japanese novel whose chapters are headed by diagrams representing the 52 rhyme schemes of a five-line poem.[14] The number of rhyme schemes in which all lines rhyme with at least one other line is given by the numbers 0, 1, 1, 4, 11, 41, 162, 715, 3425, 17722, ... (sequence A000296 in OEIS). For instance the four such rhyme schemes for a four-line poem are AABB, ABAB, ABBA, and AAAA. Both sequences of numbers may be found on either side of an augmented version of the Bell triangle.

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 95-110.

2; ^ Jump up to: Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, a b

Chicago Review Press, p. 99.

3; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 100.

4; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 101.

5; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 101-102.

6; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 102-103.

7; Jump up^ Bradley, Adam, 2009, Book of Rhymes: The Poetics of Hip-Hop, Basic Civitas Books, p. 50.

8; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap Like A Star: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 97.

9; Jump up^ Bradley, Adam, 2009, Book of Rhymes: The Poetics of Hip-Hop, Basic Civitas Books, p. 73.

10; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 107.

11; ^ Jump up to: Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, a b

Chicago Review Press, p. 104.

12; Jump up^ Bradley, Adam, 2009, Book of Rhymes: The Poetics of Hip-Hop, Basic Civitas Books, p. 74.

13; Jump up^ Edwards, Paul, 2009, How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC, Chicago Review Press, p. 103.

14; ^ Jump up to: Gardner, Martin (1978), "The Bells: versatile numbers that can count a b

partitions of a set, primes and even rhymes", Scientific American 238: 24– 30, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0578-24. Reprinted with an addendum as "The Tinkly Temple Bells", Chapter 2 of Fractal Music, Hypercards, and more ... Mathematical Recreations from Scientific American, W. H. Freeman, 1992, pp. 24–38.

External links[edit]  

Lingua::Rhyme::FindScheme — Perl module to find the rhyme scheme of a given text. Rhyme schemes by set partition

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Rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Rhythm (disambiguation).

Simple [quadr]duple drum pattern, against which duration is measured in much popular music:

Compound triple drum pattern: divides three beats into three.

Play (help·info).

Play (help·info) Contains repetition on three levels.

Rhythm, a sequence in time repeated, featured in dance: an early moving picture demonstrates the waltz.

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός, rhythmos, "any regular recurring motion, symmetry" (Liddell and Scott 1996)) generally means a "movementmarked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions" (Anon. 1971, 2537). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time can apply to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity orfrequency of anything from microseconds to millions of years. In the performance arts rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale; of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as "timed movement through space" (Jirousek 1995,[page needed]) and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston (Yeston 1976), Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty (Hasty 1997), Godfried Toussaint (Toussaint 2005), William Rothstein, and Joel Lester (Lester 1986). In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words Percival 1946, 1006. Contents [hide]



1Anthropology



2Terminology

o 2.1Pulse, beat and measure o 2.2Unit and gesture o 2.3Alternation and repetition o 2.4Tempo and duration o 2.5Metric structure 

3Composite rhythm



4Rhythm notation

o 4.1African music o 4.2Indian music o 4.3Western music 

5Linguistics



6See also



7Sources



8Further reading



9External links

Anthropology[edit]

Percussion instruments have clearly defined dynamics that aid the creation and perception of complex rhythms

In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat (Goodall 2006,[page needed]). Other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that since certain features of human music are widespread, it is reasonable to suspect that beat-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots (Patel 2014, [page needed] ). Justin London writes that musical metre "involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time" (London 2004, 4). The "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into "tick-tock-ticktock" (Scholes 1977b; Scholes 1977c). Some types of parrots can know rhythm (Anon. 2009). Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so that a person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost (e.g. by stroke). "There is not a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or move in synchrony with an auditory beat" (Patel 2006, cited in Sacks 2007, 239–40, who adds, "No doubt many pet lovers will dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them.") Human rhythmic arts are possibly to some extent rooted in courtship ritual (Mithen 2005,[page needed]). The establishment of a basic beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of distinct short-duration pulses and, as subjective perception of loudness is relative to background noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before the next occurs if it is to be really distinct. For this reason the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan. For information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.

Terminology[edit] Pulse, beat and measure[edit] (See main articles; Pulse (music), Beat (music))

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels above and multiple levels below.

Most music, dance and oral poetry establishes and maintains an underlying "metric level", a basic unit of time that may be audible or implied, the pulse or tactus of the mensural level (Berry 1976/1986, 349; Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983; Fitch and Rosenfeld 2007, 44), or beat level, sometimes simply called the beat. This consists of a (repeating) series of identical yet distinct periodic shortduration stimuli perceived as points in time (Winold 1975, 213). The "beat" pulse is not necessarily the fastest or the slowest component of the rhythm but the one that is perceived as fundamental: it has a tempo to which listeners entrain as they tap their foot or dance to a piece of music (Handel 1989). It is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation (see time signature). Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels (Winold 1975, 213). "Rhythms of recurrence" arise from the interaction of two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups (Yeston 1976, 50–52). "Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long as minimal evidence is present" (Lester 1986, 77).

Unit and gesture[edit]

Rhythmic units: division level shown above and rhythmic units shown below

Play (help·info).

A durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. These may be classified as; metric—even patterns, such as steady eighth notes or pulses— intrametric—confirming patterns, such as dottedeighth-sixteenth note and swing patterns—contrametric— non-confirming, or syncopated patterns and extrametric—irregular patterns, such as tuplets. A rhythmic gesture is any durational pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit, does not occupy a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described according to its beginning and ending or by the rhythmic units it contains. Beginnings on a strong pulse are thetic, a weak pulse, anacrustic and those beginning after a rest or tied-over note are called initial rest. Endings on a strong pulse are strong, a weak pulse, weak and those that end on a strong or weak upbeat are upbeat (Winold 1975, 239).

Alternation and repetition[edit] Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements, the dynamics of the strong and weak beat, the played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, the long and short note. As well as perceiving rhythm we must be able to anticipate it. This depends upon repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize. The alternation of the strong and weak beat is fundamental to the ancient language of poetry, dance and music. The common poetic term "foot" refers, as in dance, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a similar way musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the "on" and "off" beat. These contrasts

naturally facilitate a dual hierarchy of rhythm and depend upon repeating patterns of duration, accent and rest forming a "pulse-group" that corresponds to the poetic foot. Normally such pulse-groups are defined by taking the most accented beat as the first and counting the pulses until the next accent (Maherson 1930, 5; Scholes 1977b). A rhythm that accents another beat and de-emphasises the down beat as established or assumed from the melody or from a preceding rhythm is called syncopated rhythm. Normally, even the most complex of meters may be broken down into a chain of duple and triple pulses (Maherson 1930, 5; Scholes 1977b) either by addition or division. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four, in western music, are "simply not natural" (Slatkin n.d., at 5:05).

Tempo and duration[edit] (See main articles; Duration (music), Tempo) The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a measure of how quickly the beat flows. This is often measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm): 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second, a frequency of 1 Hz. A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a period equivalent to a pulse or several pulses (Winold 1975, 237). The duration of any such unit is inversely related to its tempo. Musical sound may be analyzed on five different time scales, which Moravscik has arranged in order of increasing duration (Moravcsik 2001, 114).



Supershort: a single cycle of an audible wave, approximately 1/30–1/10,000 second (30–10,000 Hz or more than 1,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived as separate events but as continuous musical pitch.



Short: of the order of one second (1 Hz, 60bpm, 10–100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is generally specified in the range 40 to 240 beats per minute. A continuous pulse cannot be perceived as a musical beat if it is faster than 8–10 per second (8–10 Hz, 480–600 bpm) or slower than 1 per 1.5–2 seconds (0.6–0.5 Hz, 40–30 bpm). Too fast a beat becomes a drone, too slow a succession of sounds seems unconnected (Fraisse 1956[page needed]; Woodrow 1951[page needed], both quoted in Covaciu-Pogorilowski n.d.). This time-frame roughly corresponds to the human heart rate and to the duration of a single step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.



Medium: ≥ few seconds, This median durational level "defines rhythm in music" (Moravcsik 2001, 114) as it allows the definition of a rhythmic unit, the arrangement of an entire sequence of accented, unaccented and silent or "rest" pulses into the cells of a measure that may give rise to the "briefest intelligible and self-existent musical unit" (Scholes 1977c), a motif or figure. This may be further organized, by repetition and variation, into a definite phrase that may characterise an entire genre of music, dance or poetry and that may be regarded as the fundamental formal unit of music (Maherson 1930,[page needed]).



Long: ≥ many seconds or a minute, corresponding to a durational unit that "consists of musical phrases" (Moravcsik 2001, 114)—which may make up a melody, a formal section, a poetic stanza or a characteristic sequence of dance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most elementary levels ofmusical form (Maherson 1930, 3).



Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.

Curtis Roads (Roads 2001) takes a wider view by distinguishing nine time scales, this time in order of decreasing duration. The first two, the infinite and the supramusical, encom natural periodicities of months, years, decades, centuries, and greater, while the last three, the sample and subsample, which take of digital and electronic rates "too brief to be properly recorded or perceived", measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally the infinitesimal or infinitely brief, are again in the extramusical domain. Roads' Macro level, encoming "overall musical architecture or form" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik's "very long" division while his Meso level, the level of "divisions of form" including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is likewise similar to Moravcsik's "long" category. Roads' Sound object (Schaeffer 1959;Schaeffer 1977): "a basic unit of musical structure" and a generalization of note (Xenakis' ministructural time scale); fraction of a second to several seconds, and his Microsound(see granular synthesis) down to the threshold of audible perception; thousands to millionths of seconds, are similarly comparable to Moravcsik's "short" and "supershort" levels of duration.

Metric structure[edit] (See main articles; Metre (music), Bar (music), Metre (poetry))

Notation of a clave rhythm pattern? Each cell of the grid corresponds to a fixed duration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern, which may be counted as two bars of four beats in divisive (metrical or symmetrical) rhythm, each beat divided into two cells. The first bar of the pattern may also usefully be counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm) as 3 + 3 + 2

The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody: it is a topic in linguistics and poetics, where it means the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, accented or unaccented. Music inherited the term "meter or metre" from the terminology of poetry (Scholes 1977b; Scholes 1977c; Latham 2002). The metric structure of music includes meter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected (Winold 1975,[page needed]). The terminology of western music is notoriously imprecise in this area (Scholes 1977b). Maherson 1930, 3 preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmic shape", Imogen Holst (Holst 1963, 17) of "measured rhythm". Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a characteristic tempo and measure. The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for example, as to be danced in 2/4 time at approximately 66 beats per minute. The basic slow step forwards or backwards, lasting for one beat, is called a "slow", so that a full "right-left" step is equal to one 2/4 measure (Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing 1977,[page needed]).

Notation of three measures of a clave pattern preceded by one measure of steady quarter notes. This pattern is noted in double time relative to the one above, in one instead of two four-beat measures

Four beats followed by three Clave

patterns (help·info).

The general classifications of metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm may be distinguished (Cooper 1973, 30). Metrical or divisive rhythm, by far the most common in Western music calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of the beat. Normal accents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured rhythm (additive rhythm) also calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but the accents do not recur regularly within the cycle. Free rhythm is where there is neither (Cooper 1973, 30), such as in Christian chant, which has a basic pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse (Scholes 1977c). See Free time (music). Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyokurepertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric (Karpinski 2000, 19). Senza misura is an Italian musical term for "without meter", meaning to play without a beat, using time to measure how long it will take to play the bar (Forney and Machlis 2007[page needed]).

Composite rhythm[edit]

Bach's Sinfonia in F minor BWV 795, mm. 1-3

Play original (help·info)

Play with composite (help·info).

A composite rhythm is the durations and patterns (rhythm) produced by amalgamating all sounding parts of a musicaltexture. In music of the common practice period, the composite rhythm usually confirms the meter, often in metric or even-note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level. White defines composite rhythm as, "the resultant overall rhythmic articulation among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture" (White 1976, 136.).

Rhythm notation[edit] Worldwide there are many different approaches to ing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation.

African music[edit] In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been ed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji (1927–2003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the United States, developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly by Djembe players.[citation needed] It is noteworthy that the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a subject of particular interest to outsiders, not insiders. African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the most part, accepted the conventions—and limitations—of staff notation, and gone on to produce transcriptions in order to inform and make possible a higher level of discussion and debate (Agawu 2003, 52) John Miller Chernoff 1979 has argued that West African music is based on tension between rhythms. This tension between rhythms is called polyrhythms and is created by the simultaneous sounding of two or more different rhythms. Often there is a dominant rhythm interacting with an independent competing rhythm, or rhythms. These often oppose or complement each other, and combine freely with the dominant rhythm creating a rich rhythmic texture not limited to any one set meter or tempo. A set of moral values underpins a full musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that meet at distant cross-rhythmic intervals and call and answer schemes. Values also show up in collective utterances such as proverbs or lineages appear either in phrases that translate as drum talk or in the words of songs. People expect musicians to stimulate participation of all present, notably by reacting to people dancing the music. Appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community values (Chernoff 1979)[page needed].

Indian music[edit] Indian music has also been ed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian Classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured.

Western music[edit] In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such asphasing and additive rhythm.

At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of John Cage's where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, 257). LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Léon Thérémin to invent the Rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the player piano. Use of polyrhythms in American music is generally traced to the influence of black culture through Dixieland and Jazz styles. The effect of multiple soloing in these forms, often utilizing crossrhythms comes directly from the underlying aesthetics of sub-Saharan African music. These complex rhythmic structures have been widely adopted in many current forms of western popular music. [citation needed]

Linguistics[edit] Main article: Isochrony In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation. Languages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed, mora-timed, or stress-timed. Speakers of syllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in contrast, speakers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adjusted to accommodate the stress timing. Narmour 1977 (cited in Winold1975,[page needed]) describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation (Middleton 1990,[page needed]).

See also[edit] 

Meter (music)



Drumming



Polyrhythm



Cross-beat

Sources[edit] 

Agawu, Kofi. 2003. Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York: Routledge.



Anon. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary II. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.



April 30, 2009. "Parrots have got rhythm, studies find", World-Science.net.



Berry, Wallace (1976/1986). Structural Functions in Music. ISBN 0-486-25384-8.[full citation needed]



Chernoff, John Miller (1979). African Rhythm and African Sensibility: Aesthetic and Social Action in African Musical Idioms. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.



Cooper, Paul (1973). Perspectives in Music Theory: An Historical-Analytical Approach. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0-396-06752-2.



Covaciu-Pogorilowski, Andrei. n.d. "Musical Time Theory and A Manifesto". Self-published online (accessed 1 August 2014).



Fitch, W. Tecumseh, and Andrew J. Rosenfeld (2007). "Perception and Production of Syncopated Rhythms". Music Perception, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp. 43–58. ISSN 0730-7829.



Fraisse, P. Les Structures Rhythmiques, Erasme. Paris, 1956.[full citation needed]



Forney, Kristine, and Joseph Machlis. 2007. The Enjoyment of Music, tenth edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-17423-6.



Goodall, Howard (presenter). 2006. How Music Works with Howard Goodall, produced by David Jeffcock. Television series, 4 episodes. Episode 2: "Rhythm" (Saturday 25 November, 6:20–7:20pm). Tiger Aspect Productions for Channel 4 Television Corporation.



Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510066-2.



Holst, Imogen. An ABC of Music: A Short Practical Guide to the Basic Essentials of Rudiments, Harmony, and Form. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1963.



The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (1977). Ballroom Dancing. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton; New York: David McKay Co.



Jirousek, Charlotte. 1995. "Rhythm". In An Interactive Textbook, Ithaca: Cornell University website (accessed 24 July 2014).



Karpinski, Gary S. Aural Skills Acquisition: The Development of Listening, Reading, and Performing Skills in College-Level Musicians. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780-19-511785-1.



Latham, Alison. 2002. "Metre", The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.



Lerdahl, Fred, and Ray Jackendoff. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. The MIT Press Series on Cognitive Theory and Mental Representation. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-120944; ISBN 978-0-262-62107-6; ISBN 978-0-262-62049-9.



Lester, Joel. The Rhythms of Tonal Music. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-80931282-5.



Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. "ῥυθμός", in A Greek-English Lexicon, revised edition, combining the text of the ninth edition with an extensively revised and expanded Supplement. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Online, Perseus Project



London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516081-9.



Maherson, Stewart, Form in Music, London: Joseph Williams, 1930.



Middleton, Richard (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335-15275-9.



Mithen, Steven (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body. (PDF). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64317-7.



Moravcsik, Michael J. (2001). Musical Sound: An Introduction to the Physics of Music. ISBN 978-0306-46710-3.[full citation needed]



Narmour, Eugene. Beyond Schenkerism: The Need for Alternatives in Music Analysis. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Phoenix paperback edition 1980. ISBN 978-0-22656847-8 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-226-56848-5 (paperback).



Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006). "Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Human Evolution". Music Perception (Berkeley, California: University of California Press) 1 (24): 99–104.ISSN 0730-7829.



Patel, Aniruddh D. (25 March 2014). "The Evolutionary Biology of Musical Rhythm: Was Darwin Wrong?". PLoS Biol 12 (3). doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001821. Retrieved28 March 2014.



Percival, Harold W. (1946). Thinking and De

Sprung rhythm From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Sprung Rhythm)

Sprung rhythm is a poetic rhythm designed to imitate the rhythm of natural speech. It is constructed from feet in which the first syllable is stressed and may be followed by a variable number of unstressed syllables.[1] The British poet Gerard Manley Hopkins claimed to have discovered this previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns ofEnglish in folk songs, spoken poetry, Shakespeare, Milton, et al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave, e.g., è). Some critics believe he merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular feet, like free verse. However, while sprung rhythm allows for an indeterminate number of syllables to a foot, Hopkins was very careful to keep the number of feet he had per line consistent across each individual work, a trait that free verse does not share. Sprung rhythm may be classed as a form of accentual verse, due to its being stress-timed, rather than syllable-timed,[2] and while sprung rhythm did not become a popular literary form, Hopkins's advocacy did assist in a revival of accentual verse more generally.[3] Contents [hide]



1Example



2See also



3Notes



4References

Example[edit] Pied Beauty Glory be to God for dappled things— For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings; Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough; And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim. All things counter, original, spare, strange; Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?) With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim;

He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change: Praise him. —Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889)

See also[edit] 

Grail Psalms

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ "Sprung Rhythm in Hopkins", Britannica Online 2; Jump up^ In the classic mode: the achievement of Robert Bridges, by Donald Elwin Stanford, 1978, pp. 81–92; see p. 81 for "Sprung rhythm … is a special kind of accentual verse"

3; Jump up^ "Accentual verse", Dana Gioia

References[edit] 

Schneider, E. W. (June 1965). "Sprung Rhythm: A Chapter in the Evolution of Nineteenth-Century Verse". PMLA 80 (3): 237–253. doi:10.2307/461271.

Categories:



Poetic rhythm

 Sonnet studies

Stichomythia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Stichomythia (Greek: Στιχομυθίὰ) is a technique in verse drama in which sequences of single alternating lines, or half-lines (hemistichomythia[1]) or two-line speeches (distichomythia[2]) are given to alternating characters. It typically features repetition and antithesis.[3] The term originated in the theatre of Ancient Greece, though many dramatists since have used the technique. Etymologically it derives from the Greek stikhos ("row, line of verse") + muthos ("speech, talk").[4] Stichomythia is particularly well suited to sections of dramatic dialogue where two characters are in violent dispute. The rhythmic intensity of the alternating lines combined with quick, biting ripostes in the dialogue can create a powerful effect. Contents [hide]



1In Ancient Greek drama



2In Seneca



3In more recent theatre



4General trends



5Examples

o 5.1Sophocles o 5.2Shakespeare

o 5.3Corneille o 5.4Musical drama o 5.5Film 

6Notes



7References

In Ancient Greek drama[edit] Stichomythia originated in Greek drama.[4] Adolf Gross concludes that stichomythia developed from choral response.[2] J. Leonard Hancock differs in this regard, not finding overwhelming evidence for any particular origin theory, but itting that the role of musical symmetry must have been significant. Instead he finds that the trends, within Ancient Greek aesthetics, toward agonistic expression, subtly in language, and love of symmetry, helped to give rise to stichomythia as a popular dialogue device.[5]

In Seneca[edit] Senecan stichomythia, while ultimately derived from Athenian stichomythia (as Roman theatre is derived from Greek theatre generally[6]) differs in several respects. First, Seneca uses the technique less than all but the earliest extant pieces of classical Greek tragedy. Secondly, the stichomythic form found in Seneca is less rigid. Finally, and most substantially, Seneca's tragedies are much more prone to revolve around literary quibbles, even leaving aside the plot of the play for entire sections while the characters engage in an essentially linguistic tangent.[5]

In more recent theatre[edit] Renaissance Italian and French drama developed in many respects as an imitation of the classic drama of the Greeks and Romans.[7] Stichomythic elements, however, were often absent. Where they did occur, they tended to follow the lead of Seneca in using “catchwords” as launching points for each subsequent line. [5] Modern theatre rarely uses verse,[8] so any construct that depends on verse, such as stichomythia, is also rare. Where a form of stichomythia has been used, the characters involved are typically building subsequent lines on the ideas or metaphors of previous lines, rather than words. [5]

General trends[edit] In of character relationships, stichomythia can represent interactions as mundane as question-andanswer exchanges, or as tense as heated rapid-fire arguments.[2] While the equal line lengths can create a sense of equality of voice between the characters, stichomythia can also feature one character silencing another with a vociferous rebuff, especially where one character's line interrupts the other's. [1] In of how stichomythia moves forward as a section of dialogue, the Ancient Greeks tended to favor subtle flavorings and reflavorings of grammatical particles, whereas Senecan (and by extension Renaissance) stichomythic ages often turned on verbal minutiae or “catchwords”. Modern theatre, on the other hand, uses the technique in such a manner that the characters use each line to add depth to a shared idea or metaphor.[5]

Examples[edit] Sophocles[edit] A short example from R. C. Jebb's translation of Antigone: the scene is an argument between Ismene and her sister Antigone. For further examples from Antigone, consult the text at the Internet Classics Archive [6]. ISMENE: And what life is dear to me, bereft of thee? ANTIGONE: Ask Creon; all thy care is for him.

ISMENE: Why vex me thus, when it avails thee nought? ANTIGONE: Indeed, if I mock, 'tis with pain that I mock thee. ISMENE: Tell me,—how can I serve thee, even now? ANTIGONE: Save thyself: I grudge not thy escape. ISMENE: Ah, woe is me! And shall I have no share in thy fate? ANTIGONE: Thy choice was to live; mine, to die. ISMENE: At least thy choice was not made without my protest. ANTIGONE: One world approved thy wisdom; another, mine.

Shakespeare[edit] Richard III, Act I, scene ii. Richard Plantagenet, Earl of Gloucester (later Richard III of England) threatens to kill himself unless Lady Anne, widow of Prince Edward (of Lancaster), agrees to marry him. [9] LADY ANNE: I would I knew thy heart. GLOUCESTER: 'Tis figured in my tongue. LADY ANNE: I fear me both are false. GLOUCESTER: Then never man was true. LADY ANNE: Well, well, put up your sword. GLOUCESTER: Say, then, my peace is made. LADY ANNE: That shall you know hereafter. GLOUCESTER: But shall I live in hope? LADY ANNE: All men, I hope, live so. GLOUCESTER: Vouchsafe to wear this ring. LADY ANNE: To take is not to give. GLOUCESTER: Sweet saint, for charity, be not so curst. LADY ANNE: Foul devil, for God's sake, hence, and trouble us not, In Hamlet, Act III, Scene iv (the Closet scene), Hamlet is confronted by his mother, the queen, about the play (III, ii) which Hamlet rigged to expose his murderous step-uncle.[10] QUEEN: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. HAMLET: Mother, you have my father much offended. QUEEN: Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue. HAMLET: Go, go, you question with a wicked tongue. In "The Merchant of Venice", Shylock and Bassanio enter into an argument using stichomythia at 4.1.65-9, which "catches the dramatic tension of a quasi-forensic interrogation": SHYLOCK: I am not bound to please thee with my answers. BASSANIO: Do all men kill the things they do not love? SHYLOCK: Hates any man the thing he would not kill? BASSANIO: Every offence is not a hate at first. SHYLOCK: What, wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? A further intensification is often achieved by antilabe, in which a single verse line is distributed on alternating speakers.

Corneille[edit] An exchange in Le Cid (1.3.215–226), by Pierre Corneille, has been called "an excellent instance of Corneille's skilful handling of 'stichomythia'".[11] Don Diègue (an old man, the hero's father) has been appointed the prince's tutor, a post that the Count (le Comte) wanted. LE COMTE: Ce que je méritois, vous avez emporté. DON DIÈGUE: Que l'a gagné sur vous l'avoit mieux merité. LE COMTE: Qui peut mieux l'exercer en est bien le plus digne. DON DIÈGUE: En être refusė n'est pas un bon signe. LE COMTE: Vous l'avez eu par brigue, ėtant vieux courtisan. DON DIÈGUE: L'éclat de mes hauts faits fut mon seul partisan. LE COMTE: Parlons-en mieux, le Roi fait honneur a votre âge.

DON DIÈGUE: Le Roi, quand il en fait, le mesure au courage. LE COMTE: Et par là cet honneur n'était dû qu'à mon bras. DON DIÈGUE: Qui n'a pu l'obtenir ne le méritoit pas. LE COMTE: Ne le méritoit pas! Moi? DON DIÈGUE: Vous. LE COMTE: Ton impudence, Téméraire viellard, aura son récompense. [Il lui donne un soufflet [12]:translation

Musical drama[edit] In the scene in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera The Marriage of Figaro, libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte, where Susanna learns that Marcellina is Figaro's mother, she repeats her disbelief (Sua madre?, that is, "his mother?") to each character and is reassured in the same words. A critic has called that "the merriest and most congenial form imaginable" of stichomythia.[13] For another example from opera, the following age from the libretto by Andrea Maffei for Giuseppe Verdi's I masnadieri has been called "musical stichomythia",[14] though it does not contain repetition or antithesis: AMALIA: Qual mare, qual terra da me t'ha diviso? CARLO: Deh! cessa, infelice, l'inchiesta crudel! AMALIA: Mendaci novelle ti dissero ucciso. CARLO: Beato se chiuso m'avesse l'avel! AMALIA: Tu pure, o mio Carlo, provasti gli affanni? CARLO: Li possa il tuo core per sempre ignorar! AMALIA: Anch'io, derelitta, ti piansi lung'anni. CARLO: E un angelo osava per me lagrimar?[15]:translation Examples from musicals are "I it Well" (lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner, first version in the Broadway musical Love Life, second in the film Gigi) and "Anything You Can Do" (by Irving Berlin, from Annie Get Your Gun). Another is from "The Last Supper" in Jesus Christ Superstar. When Judas says Jesus knows who will betray him, a age of stichomythia (with a two-line interruption) follows: Jesus: Why don't you go do it? Judas: You want me to do it! Jesus: Hurry, they're waiting Judas: If you knew why I do it... Jesus: I don't care why you do it Judas: To think I ired you, for now I despise you Jesus: You liar—you Judas

Film[edit] In the prose context of most film, stichomythia has been defined as a "witty exchange of one-liners" and associated with the film noir characters Jeff Bailey in Out of the Past, Sam Spade, and Philip Marlowe. [16] Another film-noir example is in Double Indemnity (dialog by Billy Wilder and Raymond Chandler). Walter Neff flirts with Phyllis Dietrichson; she resists him. Dietrichson: You were anxious to talk to [my husband] weren't you? Neff: Yeah, I was, but I'm sort of getting over the idea, if you know what I mean. Dietrichson: There's a speed limit in this state, Mr. Neff, 45 miles an hour. Neff: How fast was I going officer? Dietrichson: I'd say around 90. Neff: Suppose you get down off your motorcycle and give me a ticket? Dietrichson: Suppose I let you off with a warning this time? Neff: Suppose it doesn't take? Dietrichson: Suppose I have to whack you over the knuckles? Neff: Suppose I bust out crying and put my head on your shoulder? Dietrichson: Suppose you try putting it on my husband's shoulder? Neff: That tears it!

Notes[edit] 1; ^ Jump up to: [1], Antilabe Rebuilt by Robert Hogan. a b

2; ^ Jump up to:

[2], Die stichomythie in der griechischen tragödie und komödie: ihre anwendung und ihr ursprung by Adolf Gross (German). a b c

3; Jump up^ Brown, Lesley, ed. (1993). New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 3056. ISBN 0-19-861271-0.

4; ^ Jump up to: Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition Revised a b

5; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d e

[3], Studies in stichomythia by J. Leonard Hancock

6; Jump up^ [4] 7; Jump up^ [5] 8; Jump up^ Blankenhorn, Raymond (2011-11-11). "Plays in verse were all the rage, but why are they missing from the stage?". The Guardian.

9; Jump up^ Kermode (2000, p 31) 10; Jump up^ Kermode (2000, p 121) 11; Jump up^ Marks (1918, p. 103) 12; Jump up^ COUNT: What I deserved, you c

Syllabic verse From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Syllabic verse is a poetic form having a fixed or constrained number of syllables per line, while stress, quantity, or tone play a distinctly secondary role — or no role at all — in the verse structure. It is common in languages that are syllable-timed, such as Japanese or modern French or Finnish — as opposed to stresstimed languages such as English, in which accentual verse and accentual-syllabic verse are more common. Contents [hide]



1Overview

o 1.1Perception of syllable count 

2Syllabic verse in English

o 2.1Examples 

3Syllabic verse in French



4See also



5Notes



6References

Overview[edit] Many European languages have significant syllabic verse traditions, notably Italian, Spanish, French, and the Baltic and Slavic languages. These traditions often permeate both folk and literary verse, and have evolved gradually over hundreds or thousands of years; in a sense the metrical tradition is older than the languages themselves, since it (like the languages) descended from Proto-Indo-European.[1]

It is often implied[2] — but it is not true — that word stress plays no part in the syllabic prosody of these languages. Indeed in most of these languages word stress is much less prominent than it is in, say, English or German; nonetheless it is present both in the language and in the meter. Very broadly speaking, syllabic meters in these languages follow the same pattern:

1; Line length: The line is defined by the number of syllables it contains. 2; Hemistich length: All but the shortest lines are divided into part-lines (hemistichs); each hemistich also contains a specific number of syllables, and ends with a word-boundary (this means that the hemistich cannot end in the middle of a word).

3; Hemistich markers: The ends of the hemistichs are marked and contrasted by an obligatory stress: a specific syllable position near the end of each hemistich must be filled by a stressed syllable, and this position typically differs between the first and second hemistich, so that they are audibly distinct.

4; Marker reinforcement: Often the syllables immediately before or after the obligatory stresses are obligatorily unstressed to further emphasize the stress.

5; Other structure: Further rules may be imposed, such as additional word-boundary constraints on certain syllabic positions, or allowances for extrametrical syllables; and further interlinear structure may be present (such as rhyme and stanza). Linguistically, the most significant exceptions to this pattern are in Latvian, Lithuanian, and Serbian verse which, instead of stress, retain the older quantitative markers; that is, they use long and short syllables at the ends of hemistichs, rather than stressed and unstressed. Because all of these variables — line length, number and length of hemistichs, obligatory stress positions, etc. — differ in detail among various verse traditions; and because the individual languages supply words with different rhythmic characteristics; this basic metrical template is realized with great variety by the languages that use it, and a sequence of syllables that is metrical in one verse tradition will typically not fit in another.

Perception of syllable count[edit] Humans can perceive the number of in a small set without actually counting them or mentally breaking them into subsets; the upper limit of this ability is estimated at between 5 and 9 units, and this seems to hold true in sequences of audible stimuli (e.g. syllables in a line of verse); [3] so it is no surprise that syllabic hemistichs tend to be very short (typically 4 to 8 syllables), and to be grouped — and therefore separated from their neighbors — by markers such as stress, word boundary, and rhyme.

Syllabic verse in English[edit] Syllabic verse in English is quite distinct from that in most other languages, historically, structurally, and perceptually. Historically, English syllabics have not evolved over time from native practice, but rather are the inventions of literate poets, primarily in the 20th century. Structurally, syllable counts are not bound by tradition, even very long lines are not divided into hemistichs, and the verse exhibits none of the markers usually found in other syllabic meters (with the occasional exception of end-rhyme), relying for their measure solely on total count of syllables in the line. Perceptually "it is very doubtful that verse lines regulated by nothing more than identity of numbers of syllables would be perceived by auditors as verse . . . Further, absent the whole notion of meter as pattern, one may question whether syllabic verse is 'metrical' at all."[4] In English, the difficulty of perceiving even brief isosyllabic lines as rhythmically equivalent is aggravated by the inordinate power of stressed syllables. In English, unstressed syllables are much weaker and shorter than stressed syllables, and their vowels are often phonetically reduced (pronounced as the rather indistinct schwa — "uh" — rather than fully sounded). Moreover auditors tend to perceive word stresses to fall at equal intervals in time, making English a perceptually "stress-timed" language; itseems that the same amount of time occurs between stresses.[5] So the conventional patterns of accentual and accentual-syllabic English verse are perceived as regularly rhythmic, whereas to the listener, syllabic verse generally is not distinguishable from free verse.

Thus syllabic technique does not — in English — convey a metrical rhythm; rather it is a compositional device: primarily of importance to the author, perhaps noticed by the alert reader, and imperceptible to the hearer. A number of English-language poets in the Modernist tradition experimented with syllabic verse. These include Marianne Moore, Dylan Thomas, Louis Zukofsky, Kenneth Rexrothand Thom Gunn. Some more traditional poets have also used syllabics, including Elizabeth Daryush and Robert Bridges whose Testament of Beauty is the longest syllabic poem in English.[4]

Examples[edit] Dylan Thomas's "In my Craft or Sullen Art" is an example of syllabic verse in English: it has seven syllables in each line (except the last), but no consistent stress pattern. In my craft or sullen art Exercised in the still night When only the moon rages And the lovers lie abed With all their griefs in their arms, I labour by singing light Not for ambition or bread Or the strut and trade of charms On the ivory stages But for the common wages Of their most secret heart. Because of its consistent short lines marked with end-rhyme, these lines could conceivably be heard as 7syllable groups by a listener; however, they would be more likely to be perceived as (usually) 3-stress lines. Syllabic poetry can also take a stanzaic form, as in Marianne Moore's poem "No Swan So Fine", in which the corresponding lines of each stanza have the same number of syllables. This poem comprises 2 stanzas, each with lines of 7, 8, 6, 8, 8, 5, and 9 syllables respectively. The indented lines rhyme. As in accentualsyllabic verse, there is some flexibility in how one counts syllables. For example, syllables with y- or wglides may count as one or two syllables depending on the poet's preference. Moore counts "Dahlias" (a yglide) as 2 syllables, and "flowers" (a w-glide) as 1. "No water so still as the dead fountains of Versailles." No swan, with swart blind look askance and gondoliering legs, so fine as the chintz china one with fawnbrown eyes and toothed gold collar on to show whose bird it was. Lodged in the Louis Fifteenth Candelabrum-tree of cockscombtinted buttons, dahlias, sea urchins, and everlastings, it perches on the branching foam of polished sculptured flowers — at ease and tall. The king is dead. Because these lines are longer, irregular, and frequently enjambed ("as the / dead fountains"), it is quite clear that the symmetry of syllables is not meant to be audible. Moore's use of end-rhyme is telling. Only 2 lines in each stanza are rhymed: these are emphasized for the reader by indentation, but hidden from the listener by radical enjambment ("fawn- / brown" and "coxcomb- / tinted").

Syllabic verse in French[edit] See French poetry

The modern French language does not have a significant stress accent (as English does) or long and short syllables (as Latin does). This means that the French metric line is generally determined by the number of syllables. The most common metric lengths are the ten-syllable line ("décasyllabe"), the eight-syllable line ("octosyllabe") and the twelve-syllable line (the so-called "alexandrine"). Special syllable counting rules apply to French poetry. A silent or mute 'e' counts as a syllable before a consonant, but not before a vowel (where "h aspiré" counts as a consonant). When it falls at the end of a line, the mute "e" is hypermetrical (outside the count of syllables).

See also[edit] 

Haiku



Tanaga - a Tagalog syllabic verse form of four lines of seven syllables

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ Gasparov 1996, chapters 1, 2, 7, and 9; which also serves as the primary source for the following discussion.

2; Jump up^ e.g. Saintsbury, George: Historical Manual of English Prosody, 1910, rpt New York: Schocken Books, 1966, p 14; Fussell, Paul: Poetic Meter and Poetic Form, New York: Random House, 1965, p 7; Turco, Lewis: The New Book of Forms, Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1986, p 12.

3; Jump up^ Scott 1993; Gasparov 1996, p 8. 4; ^ Jump up to: Brogan 1993. a b

5; Jump up^ Chatman 1965, p 21-22.

References[edit] 

Beum, Robert (1957), “Syllabic Verse in English,” Prairie Schooner Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 259-275



Brogan, T.V.F. (1993), "Syllabic Verse", in Preminger, Alex; Brogan, T.V.F., The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, New York: MJF Books, p. 1249, ISBN 1-56731-152-0



Chatman, Seymour (1965), A Theory of Meter, The Hauge: Mouton



Scott, Clive (1993), "French Prosody", in Preminger, Alex; Brogan, T.V.F., The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, New York: MJF Books, pp. 440–443,ISBN 1-56731-152-0

Metaphor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the figure of speech. For other uses, see Metaphor (disambiguation).

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve thi article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2015)

A political cartoon from an 1894Puck magazine by illustrator S.D. Ehrhart, shows a farm woman labeled "Democratic Party" sheltering from a tornado of political change.

A metaphor is a figure of speech that identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. While a simile compares two items, a metaphor directly equates them, and does not use "like" or "as" as does a simile. One of the most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature is the "All the world's a stage" monologue from As You Like It: All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances[...] —William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7[1] This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is not literally a stage. By figuratively asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses the points of comparison between the world and a stage to convey an understanding about the mechanics of the world and the behavior of the people within it. The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1937) by I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed. In the previous example, "the world" is compared to a stage, describing it with the attributes of "the stage"; "the world" is the tenor, and "a stage" is the vehicle; "men and women" is the secondary tenor, and "players" is the secondary vehicle. Other writers employ the general ground and figure to denote the tenor and the vehicle. Cognitive linguistics uses the target and source respectively. Contents [hide]



1Etymology



2Comparison with other types of analogy



3Common types



4Aristotle on Rhetoric



5Larger applications of metaphor

o 5.1Conceptual metaphors

o 5.2Nonlinguistic metaphors 

6In historical linguistics



7Historical theories of metaphor

o 7.1Metaphor as style in speech and writing o 7.2Metaphor as foundational to our conceptual system 

8See also



9Notes



10References



11External links

Etymology[edit] The English metaphor derived from the 16th-century Old French word métaphore, which comes from the Latin metaphora, "carrying over", in turn from the Greek μετὰφορά (metaphorá), "transfer",[2] from μετὰφέρω (metapherō), "to carry over", "to transfer"[3] and that from μετά (meta), "after, with, across"[4] + φέρω (pherō), "to bear", "to carry".[5]

Comparison with other types of analogy[edit] Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th edition) explains the difference as: a simile states that A is like B, a metaphor states that A is B or substitutes B for A. Where a metaphor asserts the two objects in the comparison are identical on the point of comparison, a simile merely asserts a similarity. For this reason a metaphor is generally considered more forceful than a simile. The metaphor category also contains these specialised types:



Allegory: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an important attribute of the subject.



Catachresis: A mixed metaphor used by design and accident (a rhetorical fault).



Parable: An extended metaphor narrated as an anecdote illustrating and teaching such as in Aesop's fables, or Jesus' teaching method as told in the Bible.



Pun: Similar to a metaphor, a pun alludes to another term. However the main difference is that a pun is a frivolous allusion between two different things whereas a metaphor is a purposeful allusion between two different things.[6]

Metaphor, like other types of analogy, can usefully be distinguished from metonymy as one of two fundamental modes of thought. Metaphor and analogy both work by bringing together two concepts from different conceptual domains, whereas metonymy works by using one element from a given domain to refer to another closely related element. Thus, a metaphor creates new links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on the existing links within them.

Common types[edit] A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is absent. Examples: "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" use physical action as a metaphor for understanding. The audience does not need to visualize the action; dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some people distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché. Others use "dead metaphor" to denote both.

A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification inconsistent with the first, e.g.: I smell a rat [...] but I'll nip him in the bud"-Irish politician Boyle Roche This form is often used as a parody of metaphor itself: If we can hit that bull's-eye then the rest of the dominoes will fall like a house of cards... Checkmate. — Futurama character Zapp Brannigan.[7]

Aristotle on Rhetoric[edit] 

Aristotle said in his work, The Rhetoric, that metaphors make learning pleasant; "To learn easily is naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, so whatever words create knowledge in us are the pleasantest."[8] When discussing The Rhetoric, Jan Garret quoted how "Metaphor most brings about learning; for when [Homer] calls old age "stubble," he creates understanding and knowledge through the genus, since both old age and stubble are [species of the genus of] things that have lost their bloom." [9]Metaphors, according to Aristotle, have "qualities of the exotic and the fascinating; but at the same time we recognize that strangers do not have the same rights as our fellow citizens."[10]

Larger applications of metaphor[edit]

A metaphorical visualization of the word anger.

The term metaphor is also used to describe more basic or general aspects of experience and cognition:



A cognitive metaphor is the association of object to an experience outside the object's environment



A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought



A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an individual's understanding of a situation



A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between two nonlinguistic realms of experience



A visual metaphor uses an image to create the link between different ideas

Metaphors can also be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature.

Conceptual metaphors[edit] Main article: Conceptual metaphor Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common

definition of a metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in of another. The authors call this concept a "conduit metaphor". By this they meant that a speaker can put ideas or objects into words or containers, and then send them along a channel, or conduit, to a listener who takes that idea or object out of the container and makes meaning of it. In other words, communication is something that ideas go into. The container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors we use, such as "argument is war" and "time is money". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors also suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: "Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself." (Johnson, Lakoff, 1980).[11]

Nonlinguistic metaphors[edit] Metaphors can also map experience between two nonlinguistic realms. In The Dream Frontier, Mark Blechner describes musical metaphors, in which a piece of music can "map" to the personality and emotional life of a person.[12] Musicologist Leonard Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.[13] Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we "feel ourselves into it" by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For example, the painting "The Solitary Tree" by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.[14] [15] In looking at that painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, and that creates a feeling in us of strain and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual, musical,[16] dance,[17] and other art forms.

In historical linguistics[edit] In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic change based on a similarity in form or function between the original concept named by a word and the target concept named by this word.[18] For example, mouse: small, gray rodent → small, gray, mouse-shaped computer device. Some recent linguistic theories view language as by its nature all metaphorical; or that language in essence is metaphorical.[19]

Historical theories of metaphor[edit] Friedrich Nietzsche's On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense[20] makes metaphor the conceptual centre of his early theory of society. Some sociologists have found this an essay useful for thinking about metaphors at use in society, as well as for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion, for example, note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, but also that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor[21]

Metaphor as style in speech and writing[edit]

Tombstone of a Jewish woman depicting broken candles, a visual metaphor of the end of life.

Viewed as an aspect of speech and writing, metaphor qualifies as style, in particular, style characterized by a type of analogy. An expression (word, phrase) that by implication suggests the likeness of one entity to another entity gives style to an item of speech or writing, whether the entities consist of objects, events, ideas, activities, attributes, or almost anything expressible in language. For example, in the first sentence of this paragraph, the word "viewed" serves as a metaphor for "thought of", implying analogy of the process of seeing and the thought process. The phrase, "viewed as an aspect of", projects the properties of seeing (vision) something from a particular perspective onto thinking about something from a particular perspective, that "something" in this case referring to "metaphor" and that "perspective" in this case referring to the characteristics of speech and writing. As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination, allowing Sylvia Plath, in her poem "Cut", to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a million soldiers, "redcoats, every one";[22][23] and enabling Robert Frost, in "The Road Not Taken", to compare a life to a journey.[24] Viewed also as an aspect of speech, metaphor can serve as a device for persuading the listener or reader of the speaker or writer's argument or thesis, the so-called rhetorical metaphor.

Metaphor as foundational to our conceptual system[edit] Cognitive linguists emphasize that metaphors serve to facilitate the understanding of one conceptual domain, typically an abstract one like "life" or "theories" or "ideas", through expressions that relate to another, more familiar conceptual domain, typically a more concrete one like "journey" or "buildings" or "food".[25][26] Food for thought: we devour a book of raw facts, try to digest them, stew over them, let them simmer on the back-burner, regurgitate them in discussions, cook up explanations, hoping they do not seem half-baked. Theories as buildings: we establish a foundation for them, a framework, them with strong arguments, buttressing them with facts, hoping they will stand. Life as journey: some of us travel hopefully, others seem to have no direction, many lose their way. A convenient short-hand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called aconceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in of another. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience. Thus, for example, we have coherently organized knowledge about journeys that we rely on in understanding life.[26] Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999) greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language. In recent years many[quantify]scholars have investigated the original ways in which writers use novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking implicit in conceptual metaphors. When considering the role conceptual metaphor plays in the worldview of the community, the problem becomes twofold. From a sociological,[27] cultural, or philosophical perspective, the question becomes, to what extent ideologies maintain and impose conceptual patterns of thought by introducing, ing, and adapting fundamental patterns of thinking metaphorically. To what extent does the ideology fashion and refashion the idea of the nation as a container with borders? How are enemies and outsiders represented? As diseases? As attackers? How are the metaphoric paths of fate, destiny, history, and progress represented? As the opening of an eternal monumental moment (German fascism)? Or as the path to communism (in Russian or Czech for example)? Though cognitive scholars have made some attempts to take on board the idea that different languages have evolved radically different concepts and conceptual metaphors, they have on the whole remained tied up in the somewhat reductive concept of worldview which derives from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The true source of ethnolinguistics and the thinker who contributed most to the debate on the relationship between culture, language, and linguistic communities was the German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt(1767–1835). Humboldt remains, however, little known in English-speaking nations. Andrew Goatly, in "Washing the Brain" (John Benjamins 2007) does take on board the dual problem of conceptual metaphor as a framework implicit in the language as a system, and the way individuals and ideologies negotiate conceptual metaphors. James W. Underhill, in Creating Worldviews: Ideology, Metaphor & Language (Edinburgh UP), considers the way individual speech adopts and reinforces certain metaphoric paradigms. This involves a critique of both communist and fascist discourse. But Underhill's studies are situated in

Czech and German, which allows him to demonstrate the ways individuals are both thinking "within", and resisting the modes by which ideologies seek to appropriate key concepts such as "the people", "the state", "history", and "struggle". Though metaphors can be considered to be "in" language, Underhill's chapter on French, English and ethnolinguistics demonstrates that we cannot conceive of language or languages in anything other than metaphoric . French is a treasure, for example. English is a "tool" for liberating minorities engaging in debate in the global world. Underhill continues his investigation of the relationship between worldview and language in Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: Truth, Love, Hate & War (Cambridge UP 2012).

See also[edit] 

Alliteration



Camel's nose



Colemanballs



Conceptual blending



Description



Hypocatastasis



Ideasthesia



List of English-language metaphors



Metaphor in philosophy



Origin of language



Origin of speech



Pataphor



Personification



Reification (fallacy)



Simile



Tertium comparationis



World Hypotheses



Sarcasm

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ "As You Like It: Entire Play". Shakespeare.mit.edu. Retrieved 4 March 2012. 2; Jump up^ μετὰφορά, Henry George Liddell, Rob

Simile From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Simile (disambiguation).

[hide]This article has multiple issue

This article needs additional citation

This article contains embedded lists th A simile (/ˈsɪməli/) is a figure of speech that directly compares two things through the explicit use of connecting words (such as like, as, so, than, or various verbs such asresemble). Although similes and metaphors are sometimes considered to be interchangeable, similes acknowledge the imperfections and limitations of the comparative relationship to a greater extent than metaphors. Metaphors are subtler and therefore rhetorically stronger in that metaphors equate two things rather than simply compare them. Similes also safeguard the author against outrageous, incomplete, or unfair comparison. Generally, metaphor is the stronger and more encoming of the two forms of rhetorical analogies. While similes are mainly used in forms of poetry that compare the inanimate and the living, there are also in which similes and personifications are used for humorous purposes and comparison. Contents [hide]



1Uses

o 1.1In literature o 1.2In comedy o 1.3Using "like" o 1.4Using "as" o 1.5Without 'like' or 'as' 

2See also



3References



4External links

Uses[edit] In literature[edit] 

"Curley was flopping like a fish on a line."[1] Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck



"The very mist on the Essex marshes was like a gauzy and radiant fabric." [2]



"Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus."[3]

In comedy[edit] Similes are used extensively in British comedy, notably in the slapstick era of the 1960s and 70s. In comedy, the simile is often used in negative style, e.g. he was as daft as a brush. They are also used in comedic context where a sensitive subject is broached, and the comedian will test the audience with response to a subtle implicit simile before going deeper.[4]

Using "like"[edit] A simile can explicitly provide the basis of a comparison or leave this basis implicit. In the implicit case the simile leaves the audience to determine for themselves which features of the target are being predicated. It may be a type of sentence that uses "as" or "like" to connect the words being compared.



"For hope grew round me, like the twining vine" (Coleridge - Dejection)



"And the executioner went off like an arrow."[5] Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll

Using "as"[edit] The use of "as" makes the simile more explicit



He runs as fast as lightning.

The song Everything at Once by Lenka is also notable for the use of 18 similes with "as" in every verse.[6]

Without 'like' or 'as'[edit] Sometimes similes do not have any connecting words ('like' or 'as'). [7]



"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? / Thou art more lovely and more temperate:" William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18



"I'm happier than a tornado in a trailer park!" Mater, Cars



"How this Herculean Roman does become / The carriage of his chafe." William Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra' Act I, sc. 3.

See also[edit] 

Alliteration



Analogy



Description



Homeric simile



Hyperbole



Hypocatastasis



Metaphor



Metonymy



Personification

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Steinbeck, John (1937), Of Mice and Men, Sprangler, ISBN 0-14-017739-6. 2; Jump up^ Heart of Darknes = Conrad, Blackwood's Magazine, 1902. 3; Jump up^ {{citation|title = [[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar] Act I Scene II]|first = William|last == William Shakespeare|year = 1623}}.

4; Jump up^ Funnysimiles.com - A List of Funny Similes 5; Jump up^ Carroll, Lewis (1865), Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Macmillan. 6; Jump up^ http://www.metrolyrics.com/everything-

Irony From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Ironic" redirects here. For the song, see Ironic (song). For other uses, see Irony (disambiguation).

A stop sign ironically defaced with a plea not to deface stop signs.

Irony (from Ancient Greek εἰρωνείὰ (eirōneía), meaning "dissimulation, feigned ignorance"[1]), in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event in which what appears, on the surface, to be the case, differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony may be divided into categories such as verbal, dramatic, and situational. Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some forms of litotes can emphasize one's meaning by the deliberate use of language which states the opposite of the truth, denies the contrary of the truth, or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection.[2] Other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony.[3] Contents [hide]



1Definitions



2Origin of the term



3Types

o 3.1Verbal irony ;

3.1.1Verbal irony and sarcasm

o 3.2Dramatic irony ;

3.2.1Tragic irony

o 3.3Situational irony



;

3.3.1Cosmic irony (irony of fate)

;

3.3.2Historical irony

4Use

o 4.1Comic irony o 4.2Romantic irony and metafiction

o 4.3Socratic irony o 4.4Irony as infinite, absolute negativity o 4.5Irony and awkwardness 

5Misuse



6Punctuation



7See also



8Notes



9Bibliography



10External links

Definitions Henry Watson Fowler, in The King's English, says "any definition of irony—though hundreds might be given, and very few of them would be accepted—must include this, that the surface meaning and the underlying meaning of what is said are not the same." Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage, writes that "Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant." The use of irony may require the concept of a double audience. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage says: Irony is a form of utterance that postulates a double audience, consisting of one party that hearing shall hear & shall not understand, & another party that, when more is meant than meets the ear, is aware both of that more & of the outsiders' incomprehension.[4] The term is sometimes used as a synonym for incongruous and applied to "every trivial oddity" in situations where there is no double audience.[4] An example of such usage is: Sullivan, whose real interest was, ironically, serious music, which he composed with varying degrees of success, achieved fame for his comic opera scores rather than for his more earnest efforts. [5] The American Heritage Dictionary's secondary meaning for irony: "incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs".[6] This sense, however, is not synonymous with "incongruous" but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony. It is often included in definitions of irony not only that incongruity is present but also that the incongruity must reveal some aspect of human vanity or folly. Thus the majority of American Heritage Dictionary's usage found it unacceptable to use the word ironic to describe mere unfortunate coincidences or surprising disappointments that "suggest no particular lessons about human vanity or folly."[7] On this aspect, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) has also: A condition of affairs or events of a character opposite to what was, or might naturally be, expected; a contradictory outcome of events as if in mockery of the promise and fitness of things. (In French ironie du sort.)[8]

Origin of the term According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin.[9] According to Richard Whately: Aristotle mentions Eironeia, which in his time was commonly employed to signify, not according to the modern use of 'Irony, saying the contrary to what is meant', but, what later writers usually express by Litotes, i.e. 'saying less than is meant'.[10]

The word came into English as a figure of speech in the 16th century as similar to the French ironie. It derives from the Latin ironia and ultimately from the Greek εἰρωνείαeirōneía, meaning dissimulation, ignorance purposely affected.[11]

Types

A "No smoking" sign surrounded by images of a smoking Sherlock Holmesat Baker Street tube station

The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics distinguishes between the following types of irony:[3]



Classical irony: Referring to the origins of irony in Ancient Greek comedy, and the way classical and medieval rhetoricians delineated the term.



Romantic irony: A self-aware and self-critical form of fiction.



Cosmic irony: A contrast between the absolute and the relative, the general and the individual, which Hegel expressed by the phrase, "general [irony] of the world."[3]



Verbal irony: A contradiction between a statement's stated and intended meaning



Situational irony: The disparity of intention and result; when the result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected effect.



Dramatic irony and tragic irony: A disparity of awareness between actor and observer: when words and actions possess significance that the listener or audience understands, but the speaker or character does not; for example when a character says to another "I'll see you tomorrow!" when the audience (but not the character) knows that the character will die before morning. It is most often used when the author causes a character to speak or act erroneously, out of ignorance of some portion of the truth of which the audience is aware. In tragic irony, the audience knows the character is making a mistake, even as the character is making it.

Verbal irony According to A glossary of literary by Abrams and Hartman, Verbal irony is a statement in which the meaning that a speaker employs is sharply different from the meaning that is ostensibly expressed. The ironic statement usually involves the explicit expression of one attitude or evaluation, but with indications in the overall speech-situation that the speaker intends a very different, and often opposite, attitude or evaluation.[12] Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a man exclaims, "I'm not upset!" but reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim he's not upset, it would not be verbal

irony by virtue of its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony—speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. There are, however, examples of verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist and the utterance is not ironic. In a clear example from literature, in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Mark Antony's speech after the assassination of Caesar appears to praise the assassins, particularly Brutus ("But Brutus says he was ambitious; / And Brutus is an honourable man"), while actually condemning them. "We're left in no doubt as to who's ambitious and who's honourable. The literal truth of what's written clashes with the perceived truth of what's meant to revealing effect, which is irony in a nutshell". [13] Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean. For instance, the following explicit similes begin with the deceptive formation of a statement that means A but that eventually conveys the meaning not A:



as soft as concrete



as clear as mud



as pleasant as a root canal



"as pleasant and relaxed as a coiled rattlesnake" (Kurt Vonnegut from Breakfast of Champions)

The irony is recognizable in each case only by using knowledge of the source concepts (e.g., that mud is opaque, that root canal surgery is painful) to detect an incongruity. Verbal irony and sarcasm A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue regarding the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states: Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm. This suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. The OED entry for sarcasm does not mention irony, but the irony entry reads: A figure of speech in which the intended meaning is the opposite of that expressed by the words used; usually taking the form of sarcasm or ridicule in which laudatory expressions are used to imply condemnation or contempt. The Encyclopædia Britannica has "Non-literary irony is often called sarcasm"; while the Webster's Dictionary entry is: Sarcasm: 1 : a sharp and often satirical or ironic utterance designed to cut or give pain. 2 a : a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, and often ironic language that is usually directed against an individual. Partridge in Usage and Abusage would separate the two forms of speech completely: Irony must not be confused with sarcasm, which is direct: sarcasm means precisely what it says, but in a sharp, caustic, ... manner. The psychologist Martin, in The psychology of humour, is quite clear that irony is where "the literal meaning is opposite to the intended"; and sarcasm is "aggressive humor that pokes fun". [14] He has the following examples: For irony he uses the statement "What a nice day" when it is raining. For sarcasm, he cites Winston Churchill, who is supposed to have said, when told by Bessie Braddock that he was drunk, "But I shall be sober in the morning, and you will still be ugly", as being sarcastic, while not saying the opposite of what is intended. Psychology researchers Lee and Katz (1998) have addressed the issue directly. They found that ridicule is an important aspect of sarcasm, but not of verbal irony in general. By this , sarcasm is a particular

kind of personal criticism leveled against a person or group of persons that incorporates verbal irony. For example, a woman reports to her friend that rather than going to a medical doctor to treat her cancer, she has decided to see a spiritual healer instead. In response her friend says sarcastically, "Oh, brilliant, what an ingenious idea, that's really going to cure you." The friend could have also replied with any number of ironic expressions that should not be labeled as sarcasm exactly, but still have many shared elements with sarcasm. Most instances of verbal irony are labeled by research subjects as sarcastic, suggesting that the term sarcasm is more widely used than its technical definition suggests it should be (Bryant & Fox Tree, 2002; Gibbs, 2000). Some psycholinguistic theorists (e.g., Gibbs, 2000) suggest that sarcasm ("Great idea!", "I hear they do fine work."), hyperbole("That's the best idea I have heard in years!"), understatement ("Sure, what the hell, it's only cancer..."), rhetorical questions ("What, does your spirit have cancer?"), double entendre ("I'll bet if you do that, you'll be communing with spirits in no time...") and jocularity ("Get them to fix your bad back while you're at it.") should all be considered forms of verbal irony. The differences between these rhetorical devices (tropes) can be quite subtle and relate to typical emotional reactions of listeners, and the rhetorical goals of the speakers. Regardless of the various ways theorists categorize figurative language types, people in conversation who are attempting to interpret speaker intentions and discourse goals do not generally identify, by name, the kinds of tropes used (Leggitt & Gibbs, 2000).

Dramatic irony This type of irony is the device of giving the spectator an item of information that at least one of the characters in the narrative is unaware of (at least consciously), thus placing the spectator a step ahead of at least one of the characters. The OED defines this as: the incongruity created when the (tragic) significance of a character's speech or actions is revealed to the audience but unknown to the character concerned; the literary device so used, orig. in Greek tragedy.[15] According to Stanton,[16] dramatic irony has three stages—installation, exploitation, and resolution (often also called preparation, suspension, and resolution) —producing dramatic conflict in what one character relies or appears to rely upon, the contrary of which is known by observers (especially the audience; sometimes to other characters within the drama) to be true. In summary, it means that the reader/watcher/listener knows something that one or more of the characters in the piece is not aware of. For example:



In City Lights the audience knows that Charlie Chaplin's character is not a millionaire, but the blind flower girl (Virginia Cherrill) believes him to be rich.[17]



In North by Northwest, the audience knows that Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) is not Kaplan; Vandamm (James Mason) and his accomplices do not. The audience also knows that Kaplan is a fictitious agent invented by the CIA; Roger (initially) and Vandamm (throughout) do not.[18]



In Oedipus the King, the audience knows that Oedipus himself is the murderer that he is seeking; Oedipus, Creon and Jocasta do not.[19]



In Othello, the audience knows that Desdemona has been faithful to Othello, but Othello does not. The audience also knows that Iago is scheming to bring about Othello's downfall, a fact hidden from Othello, Desdemona, Cassio and Roderigo.[20]



In The Cask of Amontillado, the reader knows that Montresor is planning on murdering Fortunato, while Fortunato believes they are friends.[21]



In The Truman Show, the viewer is aware that Truman is on a television show, but Truman himself only gradually learns this.[22]



In Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows that Juliet is already married to Romeo, but her family does not. Also, in the crypt, most of the other characters in the cast think Juliet is dead, but the audience knows she only took a sleeping potion. Romeo is also under the same misapprehension when he kills himself.[23]

Tragic irony Tragic irony is a special category of dramatic irony. In tragic irony, the words and actions of the characters contradict the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. TheOxford English Dictionary defines this as: the incongruity created when the (tragic) significance of a character's speech or actions is revealed to the audience but unknown to the character concerned, the literary device so used, orig. in Greek tragedy.[15] Ancient Greek drama was especially characterized by tragic irony because the audiences were so familiar with the legends that most of the plays dramatized. Sophocles' Oedipus the King provides a classic example of tragic irony at its fullest. Colebrook writes: Tragic irony is exemplified in ancient drama ... The audience watched a drama unfold, already knowing its destined outcome. ... In Sophocles' Oedipus the King, for example, 'we' (the audience) can see what Oedipus is blind to. The man he murders is his father, but he does not know it. [24] Further, Oedipus vows to find the murderer and curses him for the plague that he has caused, not knowing that the murderer he has cursed and vowed to find is himself. Irony has some of its foundation in the onlooker's perception of paradox that arises from insoluble problems. For example, in the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet, when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged deathlike sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet stabs herself with a dagger thus killing herself.

Situational irony This is a relatively modern use of the term, and describes a sharp discrepancy between the expected result and actual results in a certain situation. Lars Elleström writes: Situational irony, ... is most broadly defined as a situation where the outcome is incongruous with what was expected, but it is also more generally understood as a situation that includes contradictions or sharp contrasts,[25] For example:



When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President; however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle made to protect the President from gunfire instead directed gunfire to the president.[26][27]



The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a story whose plot revolves around situational irony. Dorothy travels to a wizard and fulfills his challenging demands to go home, before discovering she had the ability to go back home all the time. The Scarecrow longs for intelligence, only to discover he is already a genius, and the Tin Woodsman longs to be capable of love, only to discover he already has a heart. The Lion, who at first appears to be a whimpering coward, turns out to be bold and fearless. The people in Emerald City believed the Wizard to be a powerful deity, only to discover that he is a bumbling, eccentric old man with no special powers at all.[27][28]



In O. Henry's story "The Gift of the Magi", a young couple are too poor to buy each other Christmas gifts. The wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his heirloom pocket watch. She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of combs for her long, beautiful, prized hair. "The double irony lies in the particular way their expectations were foiled." [29]



In the ancient Indian story of Krishna, King Kamsa is told in a prophecy that a child of his sister Devaki would kill him. To prevent this, he imprisons both Devaki and her husband Vasudeva, allowing them to live only if they hand over their children as soon as they are born. He murders nearly all of them, one by one, but the seventh and eighth children, Balarama and Krishna, are saved and raised by a royal couple, Nanda and Yashoda. After the boys grow up, Krishna eventually kills Kamsa as the prophecy foretold. Kamsa's attempt to prevent the prophecy led to it becoming a reality.[30]



This story is similar to those in Greek mythology. Cronus prevents his wife from raising any children, but the one who ends up defeating him is Zeus, the later King of the Gods.[31] Other similar tales in Greek Mythology include Perseus (who killed his grandfather, Acrisius by accident with a discus despite Acrisius' attempt to avert his fate), and, more famously, Oedipus who killed his father and married his mother not knowing their relationship, due to being left to die by his father to prevent that very prophecy from occurring. Cosmic irony (irony of fate) The expression cosmic irony or "irony of fate" stems from the notion that the gods (or the Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals with deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with situational irony, it arises from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human intentions and actual results. The resulting situation is poignantly contrary to what was expected or intended. According to Sudhir Dixit, "Cosmic irony is a term that is usually associated with [Thomas] Hardy. ... There is a strong feeling of a hostile deus ex machina in Hardy's novels." InTess of the d'Urbervilles "there are several instances of this type of irony."[32] "Justice" was done, and the President of the Immortals (in Æschylean phrase) had ended his sport with Tess.[33] Historical irony When history is seen through modern eyes, there often appear sharp contrasts between the way historical figures see their world's future and what actually transpires. For example, during the 1920s The New York Times repeatedly scorned crossword puzzles. In 1924, it lamented "the sinful waste in the utterly futile finding of words the letters of which will fit into a prearranged pattern." In 1925 it said "the question of whether the puzzles are beneficial or harmful is in no urgent need of an answer. The craze evidently is dying out fast." Today, no U.S. newspaper is more closely identified with the crossword than The New York Times.[34] In a more tragic example of historical irony, what people now refer to as "The First World War" was called by H.G. Wells "The war that will end war",[35] which soon became "The war to end war" and "The War to End All Wars", and this became a widespread truism, almost a cliché. Historical irony is therefore a subset of cosmic irony, but one in which the element of time is bound to play a role. Another example could be that of the Vietnam War, where in the 1960s the U.S. attempted to stop the Viet Cong (Viet Minh) taking over South Vietnam. However, it is an often ignored fact that, in 1941, the U.S. originally ed the Viet Minh in its fight against Japanese occupation.[36] In the introduction to The Irony of American History, Andrew Bacevich writes: After 9/11, the Bush istration announced its intention of bringing freedom and democracy to the people of the Middle East. Ideologues within the Bush istration persuaded themselves that American power, adroitly employed, could transform that region ... The results speak for themselves. [37] Gunpowder was, according to prevailing academic consensus, discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality.[38] Historical irony also includes inventors killed by their own creations, such as William Bullock—unless, due to the nature of the invention, the risk of death was always known and accepted, as in the case of Otto Lilienthal, who was killed by flying a glider of his own devising. In certain kinds of situational or historical irony, a factual truth is highlighted by some person's complete ignorance of it or his belief in its opposite. However, this state of affairs does not occur by human design. In some religious contexts, such situations have been seen as the deliberate work of Divine Providence to emphasize truths and to taunt humans for not being aware of them when they could easily have been enlightened (this is similar to human use of irony). Such ironies are often more evident, or more striking, when viewed retrospectively in the light of later developments which make the truth of past situations obvious to all. Other prominent examples of outcomes now seen as poignantly contrary to expectation include:



In the Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling in 1856, the United States Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment barred any law that would deprive a slaveholder of his property, such as his slaves, upon the incidence of migration into free territory. So, in a sense, the Supreme Court used the Bill of Rights to deny rights to slaves. Also, chief justice Taney hoped that the decision would resolve the slavery issue, but instead it helped cause the American Civil War.[39]



In the Kalgoorlie (Australia) gold rush of the 1890s, large amounts of the little-known mineral calaverite (gold telluride) were ironically identified as fool's gold. These mineral deposits were used as a cheap building material, and for the filling of potholes and ruts. When several years later the mineral was identified, there was a minor gold rush to excavate the streets.[40]



John F. Kennedy's last conversation was ironic in light of events which followed seconds later. During the motorcade in Dallas, in response to Mrs. Connolly's comment, "Mr. President, you can't say that Dallas doesn't love you," Kennedy replied, "That's very obvious." Immediately after, he was mortally wounded.[41]



In 1974, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission had to recall 80,000 of its own lapel buttons promoting "toy safety", because the buttons had sharp edges, used lead paint, and had small clips that could be broken off and subsequently swallowed.[42]



Introducing cane toads to Australia to control the cane beetle not only failed to control the pest, but introduced, in the toads themselves, a very much worse pest. This irony is exemplified by the song "There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly", in which the lady swallows a fly, and then swallows a spider to catch the fly, and so on with larger and larger animals, until she dies.

Use Comic irony Irony is often used in literature to produce a comic effect. This may also be combined with satire. For instance, an author may facetiously state something as a well-known fact and then demonstrate through the narrative that the fact is untrue. Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice begins with the proposition "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." In fact, it soon becomes clear that Austen means the opposite: women (or their mothers) are always in search of, and desperately on the lookout for, a rich single man to make a husband. The irony deepens as the story promotes this romance and ends in a double marriage proposal. "Austen's comic irony emerges out of the disjunction between Elizabeth's overconfidence (or pride) in her perceptions of Darcy and the narrator's indications that her views are in fact partial and prejudicial."[43] "The Third Man is a film that features any number of eccentricities, each of which contributes to the film's perspective of comic irony as well as its overall cinematic self-consciousness." [44] Writing about performances of Shakespeare's Othello in apartheid South Africa, Robert Gordon suggests: "Could it be that black people in the audience ... may have viewed as a comic irony his audacity and naïvety in thinking he could for white."[45]

Romantic irony and metafiction Romantic irony is "an attitude of detached scepticism adopted by an author towards his or her work, typically manifesting in literary self-consciousness and self-reflection". This conception of irony originated with the German Romantic writer and critic Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel.[46] Joseph Dane writes "From a twentieth-century perspective, the most crucial area in the history of irony is that described by the term romantic irony." He discusses the difficulty of defining romantic irony: "But what is romantic irony? A universal type of irony? The irony used by romantics? or an irony envisioned by the romantics and romanticists?" He also describes the arguments for and against its use. [47] Referring to earlier self-conscious works such as Don Quixote and Tristram Shandy, Douglas Muecke points particularly to Peter Weiss's 1964 play, "Marat/Sade". This work is a play within a play set in a lunatic asylum, in which it is difficult to tell whether the players are speaking only to other players or also

directly to the audience. When The Herald says, "The regrettable incident you've just seen was unavoidable indeed foreseen by our playwright", there is confusion as to who is being addressed, the "audience" on the stage or the audience in the theatre. Also, since the play within the play is performed by the inmates of a lunatic asylum, the theatre audience cannot tell whether the paranoia displayed before them is that of the players, or the people they are portraying. Muecke notes that, "in America, Romantic irony has had a bad press", while "in England ... [it] is almost unknown."[48] However, in a book entitled English Romantic Irony, Anne Mellor, referring to Byron, Keats, Carlyle, Coleridge and Lewis Carroll, writes, "Romantic irony is both a philosophical conception of the universe and an artistic program. Ontologically, it sees the world as fundamentally chaotic. No order, no far goal of time, ordained by God or right reason, determines the progression of human or natural events." Furthermore, Of course, romantic irony itself has more than one mode. The style of romantic irony varies from writer to writer. ... But however distinctive the voice, a writer is a romantic ironist if and when his or her work commits itself enthusiastically both in content and form to a hovering or unresolved debate between a world of merely man-made being and a world of ontological becoming.[49] Similarly, metafiction is "Fiction in which the author self-consciously alludes to the artificiality or literariness of a work by parodying or departing from novelistic conventions (esp. naturalism) and narrative techniques."[50] It is a type of fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, thereby exposing the fictional illusion. Gesa Giesing writes that "the most common form of metafiction is particularly frequent in Romantic literature. The phenomenon is then referred to as Romantic Irony." Giesing notes that "There has obviously been an increased interest in metafiction again after World War II."[51] For examples, Patricia Waugh quotes from several works at the top of her chapter headed "What is metafiction?". These include: "The thing is this./ That of all the several ways of beginning a book ... I am confident my own way of doing it is best" - Tristram Shandy "Fuck all this lying look what I am trying to write about is writing" - Albert Angelo "Since I've started this story, I've gotten boils ..." - The death of the novel and other stories by Ronald Sukenick[52] Additionally, The Cambridge Introduction to Postmodern Fiction refers to John Fowles's The French Lieutenant's Woman:[53] For the first twelve chapters ... the reader has been able to immerse him or herself in the story, enjoying the kind of 'suspension of disbelief ' required of realist novels ... what follows is a remarkable act of metafictional 'frame-breaking'. Chapter 13 notoriously begins: I do not know. This story I am telling is all imagination. These characters I create never existed outside my own mind. ... if this is a novel, it cannot be a novel in the modern sense.

Socratic irony Main article: Socratic method This is "The dissimulation of ignorance practised by Socrates as a means of confuting an adversary". [54] Socrates would pretend to be ignorant of the topic under discussion, to draw out the inherent nonsense in the arguments of his interlocutors. The Chambers Dictionary defines it as "a means by which a questioner pretends to know less than a respondent, when actually he knows more". Zoe Williams of The Guardian wrote: "The technique [of Socratic irony], demonstrated in the Platonic dialogues, was to pretend ignorance and, more sneakily, to feign credence in your opponent's power of thought, in order to tie him in knots."[55] A more modern example of Socratic irony can be seen on the American crime fiction television film series, Columbo. The character Lt. Columbo is seemingly naïve and incompetent. His untidy appearance adds to this fumbling illusion. As a result, he is underestimated by the suspects in murder cases he is

investigating. With their guard down and their false sense of confidence, Lt. Columbo is able to solve the cases leaving the murderers feeling duped and outwitted.[56]

Irony as infinite, absolute negativity Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, and others, see irony, such as that used by Socrates, as a disruptive force with the power to undo texts and readers alike.[57] The phrase itself is taken from Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics, and is applied by Kierkegaard to the irony of Socrates. This tradition includes 19th-century German critic and novelist Friedrich Schlegel ("On Incomprehensibility"), Charles Baudelaire, Stendhal, and the 20th century deconstructionist Paul de Man ("The Concept of Irony"). In Kierkegaard's words, from On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates: [Socratic] irony [is] the infinite absolute negativity. It is negativity, because it only negates; it is infinite, because it does not negate this or that phenomenon; it is absolute, because that by virtue of which it negates is a higher something that still is not. The irony established nothing, because that which is to be established lies behind it...[58] Where much of philosophy attempts to reconcile opposites into a larger positive project, Kierkegaard and others insist that irony—whether expressed in complex games of authorship or simple litotes—must, in Kierkegaard's words, "swallow its own stomach". Irony entails endless reflection and violent reversals, and ensures incomprehensibility at the moment it compels speech. Similarly, among other literary critics, writer David Foster Wallace viewed the pervasiveness of ironic and other postmodern tropes as the cause of "great despair and stasis in U.S. culture, and that for aspiring fictionists [ironies] pose terrifically vexing problems."[59]

Irony and awkwardness The '90s saw an expansion of the definition of irony from "saying what one doesn't mean" into a "general stance of detachment from life in general"[60] This detachment served as a shield against the awkwardness of everyday life. Humor from that era (most notably Seinfeld) relies on the audience watching the show with some detachment from the show's typical signature awkward situations. The generation of people in the United States who grew up in the 90s (Millennials) are seen as having this same sort of detachment from serious or awkward situations in life as well. Hipsters are thought of as using irony as a shield against those same serious or genuine confrontations. [61]

Misuse Some speakers of English complain that the words irony and ironic are often misused,[62] though the more general casual usage of a contradiction between circumstance and expectation originates in the 1640s. [63] [examples needed]

Dan Shaughnessy wrote: We were always kidding about the use of irony. I maintained that it was best never to use the word because it was too often substituted for coincidence. (Alanis Morissette's song "Isn't it Ironic?" cites multiple examples of things that are patently not ironic)[64] Tim Conley cites the following: "Philip Howard assembled a list of seven implied meanings for the word "ironically", as it opens a sentence:

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By a tragic coincidence



By an exceptional coincidence



By a coincidence of no importance



You and I know, of course, though other less intelligent mortals walk benighted under the midday sun



Oddly enough, or it's a rum thing that



Oh hell! I've run out of words to start a sentence with."[65]

Punctuation Main article: Irony punctuation No agreed method for indicating irony exists, though many ideas have been suggested. For instance, an irony punctuation mark was proposed in the 1580s, when Henry Denham introduced a rhetorical question mark or percontation point which resembles a reversed question mark. This mark was also advocated by the French poet Marcel Bernhardt at the end of the 19th century to indicate irony or sarcasm. French writer Hervé Bazin suggested another pointe d'ironie: the Greek letter psi Ψ with a dot below it, while Tom Dribergrecommended that ironic statements should be printed in italics that lean the other way to conventional italics.[66]

See also 

Accismus



Apophasis



Auto-antonym



Contradiction



Double standard



Hypocrisy



Ironism



Irony punctuation



Oxymoron



Paradox



Post-irony



Sarcasm



Satire

Notes 1; Jump up^ Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, v. sub εἰρωνείὰ. 2; Jump up^ Muecke, DC., The Com of Irony, Routledge, 1969. p. 80 3; ^ Jump up to:

Preminger, A. & Brogan, T. V. F. Brogan, The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, MJF Books, 1993, ISBN 9780691032719, pp. 633–635. a b c

4; ^ Jump up to: Fowler, H. W., A dictionary of modern English usage, 1926. a b

5; Jump up^ Gassner, J., Quinn, E., The Reader's Encyclopedia of World Drama, Courier Dover Publications, 2002, p. 358.

6; Jump up^ ""irony" at dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2010-12-23. 7; Jump up^ Quoted in The Free Dictionary under ironic: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ironic. 8; Jump up^ Oxford English Dictionary, second entry for irony 9; Jump up^ Encyclopædia Britannica[1] 10; Jump up^ Whately, R. Rhet. in Encycl. Metrop. (1845) I. 265/1 (cited in the OED entry) 11; Jump up^ Oxford English Dictionary

12; Jump up^ Abrams, M. H., & Harpham, G. G., A glossary of literary , 9th Ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009.

13; Jump up^ Horberry, R., Sounds Good on Paper: How to Bring Business Language to Life, A&C Black, 2010. p. 135. [2]

14; Jump up^ Martin, R. A., The psychology of humor: an integrative approach, Elsevier Academic Press, 2007. p. 13.

15; ^ Jump up to: Oxford English Dictionary entry for irony a b

16; Jump up^ Stanton, R., Dramatic Irony in Hawthorne's Romances, Modern Language Notes, Vol. 71, No. 6 (Jun., 1956), pp. 420–426, The Johns Hopkins University Press.

17; Jump up^ Clausius, C., The gentleman is a tramp: Charlie Chaplin's comedy, P. Lang, 1989, p. 104. 18; Jump up^ Gulino, P., Screenwriting: The Sequence Approach, Continuum, 2004, pp. 9–10. 19; Jump up^ Storey, I. C. and Allan, A., A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, p. 125. [3]

20; Jump up^ Booth, W. C., A Rhetoric of Irony, University of Chicago Press, 1974, p. 63. [4] 21; Jump up^ Poe, E. A., The Cask of Amontillado, The Creative Company, 2008, pp. 22–23. [5] 22; Jump up^ Adams, A., Parallel Lives of Jesus: A Guide to the Four Gospels, Presbyterian Publishing Corp, 2011, p. 30. [6]

23; Jump up^ William, J., Cliffs Complete Romeo and Juliet, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009, pp. 135, 169, 181. [7]

24; Jump up^ Colebrook, Claire. Irony. London and New York: Routledge, 2004, p. 14. 25; Jump up^ Elleström, L., Divine Madness: On Interpreting Literatu

Metonymy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with meronymy or meronomy. Metonymy (/mᵻˈtɒnᵻmi/ mi-TONN-ə-mee)[1] is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated inmeaning with that thing or concept.[2] The words metonymy and metonym come from the Greek: μετωνυμίὰ, metōnymía, "a change of name", from μετά, metá, "after, beyond" and-ωνυμίὰ, -ōnymía, a suffix used to name figures of speech, from ὄνῠμὰ, ónyma or ὄνομὰ, ónoma, "name".[3] For instance, Wall Street is often used metonymously to describe the U.S. financial and corporate sector, while Hollywood is used as a metonym for the U.S. film industry because of the fame and cultural identity of Hollywood, a district of the city of Los Angeles, California, as the historical center of American film studios and U.S. film stars.[4] Metonymy and related figures of speech are common in everyday talk and writing. Synecdoche and metalepsis are considered specific types of metonymy. Polysemy, multiple meanings of a single word or phrase, sometimes results from relations of metonymy. Both metonymy and metaphor involve the substitution of one term for another.[5] In metaphor, this substitution is based on some specific analogy between two things, whereas in metonymy the substitution is based on some understood association or contiguity.[6][7] American literary theorist Kenneth Burke described metonymy as one of four "master tropes": metaphor, a substitute for perspective; metonymy, a substitute for reduction; synecdoche, a substitute for representation; and irony, a substitute for dialectic. He described these tropes and the way they overlap in A Grammar of Motives.[8]

In addition to its use in everyday speech, metonymy is a figure of speech in some poetry and in much rhetoric. Greek and Latin scholars of rhetoric made significant contributions to the study of metonymy. Contents [hide]

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1Meaning relationships

o 1.1Metaphor and metonymy o 1.2Examples 

2Rhetoric in ancient history

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3See also

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4References

o 4.1Notes o 4.2Bibliography 

5Further reading

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6External links

Meaning relationships[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) Synecdoche, wherein a specific part of something is used to refer to the whole, or the whole to a specific part, usually is understood as a specific kind of metonymy. However, sometimes people make an absolute distinction between a metonymy and a synecdoche, treating metonymy as different from, rather than inclusive of, synecdoche. There is a similar problem with the use of simile and metaphor. When the distinction is made, it is the following: when "A" is used to refer to "B", it is a synecdoche if A is a component of B or if B is a component of A, and a metonym if A is commonly associated with B but not part of its whole or a whole of its part. Thus, "20,000 hungry mouths to feed" is a synecdoche because mouths (A) are a part of the people (B) referred to. "Australia votes" is also a synecdoche because Australia is a whole of which the people who voted are a part. On the other hand, "The White House said" is metonymy, but not synecdoche, for the president and his staff, because, although the White House is associated with the president and his staff, the building is not a part of the people. Metalepsis is also closely related to metonymy. Much as synecdoche, it is sometimes understood as a specific kind of metonymy. Metalepsis is a figure of speech in which a word or a phrase from figurative speech is used in a new context. The new figure of speech refers to an existing one.[9] For example, in the idiom lead foot, meaning someone who drives fast, lead is a heavy substance, and a heavy foot on the accelerator pedal would cause a vehicle to go quickly. The use of "lead foot" to describe a person follows the intermediate substitution of "lead" for "heavy". [10] The figure of speech is a "metonymy of a metonymy".[9] The concept of metonymy also informs the nature of polysemy, i.e., how the same phonological form (word) has different semantic mappings (meanings). If the two meanings are unrelated, as in the word pen meaning both writing instrument and enclosure, they are considered homonyms. Within logical polysemies, a large class of mappings may be considered to be a case of metonymic transfer (e.g., chicken for the animal, as well as its meat; crown for the object, as well as the institution). Other

cases wherein the meaning is polysemous, however, may turn out to be more metaphorical, e.g., eye as in the eye of the needle.

Metaphor and metonymy[edit] Main article: Metaphor and metonymy Metonymy works by the contiguity (association) between two concepts, whereas the term metaphor is based upon their analogous similarity. When people use metonymy, they do not typically wish to transfer qualities from one referent to another as they do with metaphor.[11] There is nothing press-like about reporters or crown-like about a monarch, but "the press" and "the crown" are both common metonyms. Some uses of figurative language may be understood as both metonymy and metaphor; for example, the relationship between "a crown" and a "king" could be interpreted metaphorically (i.e., the king, like his gold crown, could be seemingly stiff yet ultimately malleable, over-ornate, and consistently immobile). Two examples using the term "fishing" help clarify the distinction.[12] The phrase "to fish pearls" uses metonymy, drawing from "fishing" the idea of taking things from the ocean. What is carried across from "fishing fish" to "fishing pearls" is the domain of metonymy. In contrast, the metaphorical phrase "fishing for information" transfers the concept of fishing into a new domain. If someone is "fishing" for information, we do not imagine that the person is anywhere near the ocean; rather, we transpose elements of the action of fishing (waiting, hoping to catch something that cannot be seen, probing) into a new domain (a conversation). Thus, metaphor works by presenting a target set of meanings and using them to suggest a similarity between items, actions, or events in two domains, whereas metonymy calls up or references a specific domain (here, removing items from the sea).

Examples[edit] Main article: List of metonyms Here are some broad kinds of relationships where metonymy is frequently used:



Containment: When one thing contains another, it can frequently be used metonymically, as when "dish" is used to refer not to a plate but to the food it contains, or as when the name of a building is used to refer to the entity it contains, as when "the White House" or "the Pentagon" are used to refer to the U.S. presidential staff or the military leadership, respectively.



A physical item used to refer to a related concept, such as "the bench" for the judicial profession,"stomach" or "belly" for appetite or hunger, "mouth" for speech, various for the genitalia for sexual desire, being "in diapers" for infancy, "palate" for taste, "the altar" or "the aisle" for marriage, "hand" for someone's responsibility for something ("he had a hand in it"), "head" or "brain" for mind or intelligence, or "nose" for concern about someone else's affairs, (as in "keep your nose out of my business")



Tools/Instruments: Often a tool is used to signify the job it does or the person who does the job, as in the phrase "the press" (referring to the printing press), or as in the proverb, "The pen is mightier than the sword."



Product for Process: This is a type of metonymy where the product of the activity stands for the activity itself. For example, in "The book is moving right along," the book refers to the process of writing or publishing.[13]



Punctuation marks often stand metonymically for a meaning expressed by the punctuation mark. For example, "He’s a big question mark to me" indicates that something is unknown.[14]



Synecdoche: A part of something is often used for the whole, as when people refer to "head" of cattle or assistants are referred to as "hands." An example of this is theCanadian dollar, referred to as the loonie for the image of a bird on the one-dollar coin. Also, the whole of something is used for a part, as when people refer to a municipal employee as "the council" or police officers as "the law".



Toponyms: A country's capital city is frequently used as a metonym for the country's government, such as Washington, D.C., in the United States. Similarly, other important places, such as Wall

Street, Madison Avenue, Silicon Valley, Hollywood, and Detroit are commonly used to refer to the industries that are located there (finance, advertising,high technology, entertainment, and motor vehicles, respectively). Such usage may persist even when the industries in question have moved elsewhere - for example, Fleet Street continues to be used as a metonym for the British national press, though it is no longer located in the physical street of that name. Sometimes, metaphor and metonymy may both be at work in the same figure of speech, or one could interpret a phrase metaphorically or metonymically. For example, the phrase "lend me your ear" could be analyzed in a number of ways. One could imagine the following interpretations:



Analyze "ear" metonymically first – "ear" means "attention" (because we use ears to pay attention to someone's speech). Now, when we hear the phrase "lending an ear (attention)", we stretch the base meaning of "lend" (to let someone borrow an object) to include the "lending" of non-material things (attention), but, beyond this slight extension of the verb, no metaphor is at work.



Imagine the whole phrase literally – imagine that the speaker literally borrows the listener's ear as a physical object (and the person's head with it). Then the speaker has temporary possession of the listener's ear, so the listener has granted the speaker temporary control over what the listener hears. We then interpret the phrase "lend me your ear" metaphorically to mean that the speaker wants the listener to grant the speaker temporary control over what the listener hears.



First, analyze the verb phrase "lend me your ear" metaphorically to mean "turn your ear in my direction", since we know that, literally, lending a body part is nonsensical. Then, analyze the motion of ears metonymically – we associate "turning ears" with "paying attention", which is what the speaker wants the listeners to do.

It is difficult to say which of the above analyses most closely represents the way a listener interprets the expression, and it is possible that the phrase is analysed in different ways by different listeners, or even in different ways by the same listener at different times. Regardless, all three analyses yield the same interpretation; thus, metaphor and metonymy, though quite different in their mechanism, may work together seamlessly.[15]

Rhetoric in ancient history[edit]

This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (December 2013) Western culture studied poetic language and deemed it to be rhetoric. A. Al-Sharafi s this concept in his book Textual Metonymy, "Greek rhetorical scholarship at one time became entirely poetic scholarship."[16] Philosophers and rhetoricians thought that metaphors were the primary figurative language used in rhetoric. Metaphors served as a better means to attract the audience’s attention because the audience had to read between the lines in order to get an understanding of what the speaker was trying to say. Others did not think of metonymy as a good rhetorical method because metonymy did not involve symbolism. Al-Sharafi explains, "This is why they undermined practical and purely referential discourse because it was seen as banal and not containing anything new, strange or shocking." [16] Greek scholars contributed to the definition of metonymy. For example, Isocrates worked to define the difference between poetic language and non-poetic language by saying that "prose writers are handicapped in this regard because their discourse has to conform to the forms and used by the citizens and to those arguments which are precise and relevant to the subject-matter. In other words, Isocrates proposes here that metaphor is a distinctive feature of poetic language because it conveys the experience of the world afresh and provides a kind of defamiliarisation in the way the citizens perceive the world."[16] Democritus described metonymy by saying, "Metonymy, that is the fact that words and meaning change."[16] Aristotle discussed different definitions of metaphor, regarding one type as what we know to be metonymy today. Latin scholars also had an influence on metonymy. The treatise Rhetorica ad Herennium states metonymy as, "the figure which draws from an object closely akin or associated an expression suggesting the object

meant, but not called by its own name".[16] The author describes the process of metonymy to us saying that we first figure out what a word means. We then figure out that word’s relationship with other words. We understand and then call the word by a name that it is associated with. "Perceived as such then metonymy will be a figure of speech in which there is a process of abstracting a relation of proximity between two words to the extent that one will be used in place of another."[16]Cicero viewed metonymy as more of a stylish rhetorical method and described it as being based on words, but motivated by style.

See also[edit] 

-onym



Antonomasia



Deferred reference



Eggcorn



Eponym



Enthymeme



Euphemism by comparison



Generic trademark



Kenning



Meronymy



Newspeak



Pars pro toto



Slang



Sobriquet



Social stereotype



Totum pro parte

References[edit] Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ "Metonymy | Define Metonymy at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2013-01-17.

2; Jump up^ "Metonymy - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriamwebster.com. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2013-08-13.

3; Jump up^ Welsh, Alfred Hux; James Mickleborough Greenwood (1893). Studies in English Grammar: A Comprehensive Course for Grammar Schools, High Schools, and Academies. New York City: Silver Burdett. p. 222.

4; Jump up^ Gibbs, Jr., Raymond W. (1999). "Speaking and Thinking with Metyonymy", in Pattern and process: a Whiteheadina perspective on linguistics, ed. Klaus-Uwe Panther and Günter Radden. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 61–76.ISBN 9027223564.

5; Jump up^ Dirven, René; Pörings, Ralf (2002). Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017373-4.

6; Jump up^ Wilber, Ken (2000). Sex, Ecology, Spirituality. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-0-83482108-8.

7; Jump up^ Tompkins, Penny; James Lawley. "Metonymy and Part-Whole Relationships". www.cleanlanguage.co.uk. Retrieved 19 December 2012.

8; Jump up^ Burke, Kenneth. (1945) A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice Hall Inc. pp 503-509. 9; ^ Jump up to: Bloom, Harold (2003). A Map of Misreading. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0a b

19-516221-9.

10; Jump up^ "metalepsis". Silva Rhetoricae. Retrieved 2013-12-05. 11; Jump up^ Chandler, Daniel. "Rhetorical Tropes". Semiotics for Beginners. Aberystwyth University. Retrieved 19 December 2012.

12; Jump up^ example drawn from Dirven, 1996 13; Jump up^ Lakoff and Johnson 1999, p. 203 14; Jump up^ Lakoff and Johnson 1999, p. 245 15; Jump up^ Geeraerts, Dirk (2002). "The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in composite expressions". In R. Dirven and R. Pörings. Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast (PDF). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 435–465. ISBN 978-3-11-017373-4. Retrieved30 November 2013.

16; ^ Jump up to: Bibliography[edit]

a b c d e f

Al-Sharafi, Abdul Gabbar (2004). Textual Metonymy: A Semiotic Approach.



Blank, Andreas (1997). Prinzipien des lexikalischen Bedeutungswandels am Beispiel der romanischen Sprachen. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-093160-0.



Corbett, Edward P.J. (1998) [1971]. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511542-0.



Dirven, René (1999). "Conversion as a Conceptual Metonymy of Event Schemata". In K.U. Panther and G. Radden. Metonymy in Language and Thought. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 275– 288. ISBN 978-90-272-2356-2.



Fass, Dan (1997). Processing Metonymy and Metaphor. Ablex. ISBN 978-1-56750-231-2.



Grzega, Joachim (2004). Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu? Ein Beitrag zur englischen und allgemeinen Onomasiologie. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter.ISBN 978-3-8253-5016-1.



Lakoff, George; Johnson, mark (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-05674-3.



Somov, Georgij Yu. (2009). "Metonymy and its manifestation in visual artworks: Case study of late paintings by Bruegel the Elder". Semiotica 2009 (174): 309–66.doi:10.1515/semi.2009.037.



Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. p. 680. ISBN 0-674-36250-0.



Warren, Beatrice (2006). Referential Metonymy

Synecdoche From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the linguistic term. For other uses, see Synecdoche (disambiguation). A synecdoche (/sɪˈnɛkdəkiː/, si-NEK-də-kee; from Greek συνεκδοχή synekdoche, meaning "simultaneous understanding"[1]) is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something refers to the whole of something, or vice versa.[2]

A synecdoche is a class of metonymy, often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole, or conversely the whole for one of its parts. Examples from everyday English-language idiomatic expressions include "bread and butter" for "livelihood", "suits" for "businessmen", "boots" for "soldiers", etc. [3] It is also often used in government announcements where a building stands in for a government official or agency, such as "No. 10" or "No. 10 Downing Street," the address of same, being used to represent theBritish Prime Minister, or "The Pentagon," the building housing its headquarters, to represent the United States Department of Defense. Contents [hide]



1Definition



2Classification



3Examples



4See also



5References



6Further reading



7External links

Definition[edit] Synecdoche is a rhetorical trope and a type of figurative speech similar to metonymy—a figure of speech in which a term that denotes one thing is used to refer to a related thing.[4][5] Indeed, synecdoche is sometimes considered a subclass of metonymy. It is more distantly related to other figures of speech, such as metaphor.[6] More rigorously, metonymy and synecdoche can be considered sub-species of metaphor, intending metaphor as a type of conceptual substitution (as Quintilian does in Institutio oratoria Book VIII). In Lanham's Handlist of Rhetorical ,[7] the three have somewhat restrictive definitions, arguably in tune with a certain interpretation of their etymologies from Greek:



Metaphor: changing a word from its literal meaning to one not properly applicable but analogous to it; assertion of identity rather than, as with simile, likeness.



Metonymy: substitution of cause for effect, proper name for one of its qualities, etc.

Classification[edit] Synecdoche is often used as a type of personification, by attaching a human aspect to a non-human thing. This is used in reference to political relations, including "having a footing", used to mean a country or organization is in a position to act, or "the wrong hands", to describe opposing groups, usually in the context of military power.[8] The two main types of synecdoche are microcosms and macrocosms. A microcosm is when a part of something is used to refer to the entirety.[9] An example of this would be someone saying that they “need a hand" with a project, when they really need the entire person.[10] A macrocosm is the opposite, when the entire structure of something is used to refer to a small part. [11] An example of this could be referring to "the world", when the speaker really means a certain country or part of the world.[12] The figure of speech is divided into the image (what the speaker uses to refer to something) and the subject (what is being referred to). This type of reference is quite common in politics. The residence of an executive is often credited for the executive's action. A spokesperson of the Executive Office of the President of the United States is identified in "The White House announced a new plan to reduce hunger." References to the King or Queen

of the United Kingdom are made in the same fashion by referring to today's official residence, Buckingham Palace. World-wide examples include "the Sublime Porte" of the Ottoman Empire, and "the Kremlin" ofRussia. Sonnets and other forms of love poetry frequently use synecdoches to characterize the beloved in of individual body parts rather than a coherent whole. This practice is especially common in the Petrarchan sonnet, where the idealised beloved is often described part by part, from head to toe. Insults often assign a body part to a person. A weak man may be called a "pussy," a slang name for the female genitals, even though men do not have them. An insulting, undesirable, irritating or annoying person may be referred to as an "asshole," probably due to its considered dirtiness. In the United States a woman, and in Europe a man or a woman, may be denigrated by calling them a "cunt." A worthless or contemptible man may be referred to as a "dick," a slang word for a penis, although the term "dick." as used to refer to a person has a non-insulting, non-synedoche use as slang for a detective, such as in the W. C. Fields motion picture The Bank Dick.. The equivalent word "prick" or theYiddish language term "schmuck" are also used as insults in place of "dick."[citation needed] It is also popular in advertising. Since synecdoche uses a part to represent a whole, its use requires the audience to make associations and "fill in the gaps", engaging with the ad by thinking about the product. [13] Moreover, catching the attention of an audience with advertising is often referred to by rs as "getting eyeballs", another synecdoche.[14]Synecdoche is very common in spoken English, especially in reference to sports. The names of cities are used as shorthand for their sports teams to describe events and their outcomes, such as "Denver won Monday's game", when more accurately, a sports team from the city was victorious.[14] Kenneth Burke (1945) declared that in rhetoric the four master tropes, or figures of speech, are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony. Burke's primary concern with these four master tropes is not simply their figurative usage, but with their role in the discovery and description of the truth. [15] He described synecdoche as “part of the whole, whole for the part, container for the contained, sign for the thing signified, material for the thing made…cause for the effect, effect for the cause, genus for the species, species for the genus".[16] In addition, Burke suggests that synecdoche patterns can include reversible pairs such as disease-cure.[17] Burke proclaimed the noblest synecdoche is found in the description of microcosm and macrocosm, “since microcosm is related to macrocosm as part to the whole, and either the whole can represent the part or the part can represent the whole".[17] Burke also compared synecdoche with the concept of "representation", especially in the political sense, where an elected representatives stand in pars pro toto for their electorate.[15]

Examples[edit] This section may contain excessive, poor, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (May 2014) A part referring to the whole (pars pro toto)



Referring to people according to a single characteristic: "the gray beard" representing an older man or "the long hair" representing a hippie.



Describing a complete vehicle as "wheels".



Referring to people by a particular body part. For example, "head count" or "counting noses".



Describing a small portable radio as a "transistor" (though that may simply be an abbreviation for "transistor radio"), or a CRT-based television receiver as "the tube"



Saying "bubbles" to refer to Champagne or any other sparkling wine



"Arabian sands" to refer the Arabian deserts.



"ivories" for a piano, by a complex of synecdoches: the piano designated by its part, the keys, which are typically made of ivory. A general class name used to denote a specific member of that or an associated class



"Wiki" for "Wikipedia"



"the good book", or "The Book" for the Bible ("Bible" itself comes from the Greek for "book")



"truck" for any four-wheel drive vehicle (as well as long-haul trailers, etc.)



"He's good people". (Here, the word "people" is used to denote a specific instance of people, i.e., a person.) A specific class name that refers to a general set of associated things



"John Hancock" used in the United States, for the signature of any person



A genericized trademark, for example "Coke" for any variety of cola (or for any variety of soft drink, as in the southern United States), "Band-Aid" for any variety of adhesive bandage, or "Styrofoam" for any product made of expanded polystyrene. The material that a thing is (actually, historically, or supposedly) made of referring to that thing



"brass" for brass instruments, or the shell casings of bullet cartridges.



"cement" for concrete, cement being just the binder in concrete



"glasses" for spectacles



"armor" for tanks



"pigskin" for an American or Canadian football



"plastic" for a credit card



"steel" for a sword



"strings" for string instruments



"threads" for clothing

 "tin" for a container made with tin plating A container is used to refer to its contents 

"barrel" for a barrel of oil



"keg" for a keg of beer



"he drank the cup", to refer to his drinking of the cup's contents

See also[edit] 

Antonomasia



Conceptual metaphor



Figure of speech



Hendiadys



Holonymy



Hyponymy



Meronymy



Faulty generalization (List of fallacies#Faulty generalizations)



Fallacy of division



Symbol



Totum pro parte



Pars pro toto



Synecdoche, New York

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ from the verb ἐκδέχομὰι "to take or receive from another" (simplex δέχομὰι "to receive"). "συνεκ-δοχή , ἡ, A. understanding one thing with another: hence in Rhet.,synecdoche, an indirect mode of expression, when the whole is put for a part or vice versa, Quint.Inst. 8.6.19, Aristid.Quint. 2.9, Ps.-Plu.Vit.Hom. 22." Henry George Liddell. Robert Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1940.

2; Jump up^ Oxford English Dictionary- synecdoche, University of Pennsylvania. N. R. Clifton (1983). The Figure on Film. University of Delaware Press. pp. 173–. ISBN 978-0-87413-189-5. Retrieved 19 May 2013.. Definition of Synecdoche, St. Edward's University. Synecdoche - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.

3; Jump up^ Examples of Synecdoche from day to day life 4; Jump up^ Glossary of Rhetorical , University of Kentucky 5; Jump up^ Jakobson, Roman & Morris Halle (1956). Fundamentals of Language. The Hague: Mouton. p. 95. ISBN 117871814X.

6; Jump up^ Figurative Language- language using figures of speech, University of West Georgia 7; Jump up^ Lanham, Richard A (1991). A Handlist of Rhetorical : A Guide for Students of English Literature, Second Edition. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: California University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0-520-07669-9.

8; Jump up^ Political Metaphors: http://www.politicalmetaphors.com/tag/synecdoche/ 9; Jump up^ Burke, Kenneth. The Kenyon Review. Vol. 1. Gambier: Kenyon College, n.d. 426. New Ser. Vol. 32. Jstor. Ithaka. Web.

10; Jump up^ Enelow, David. "The Four Master Tropes." Untitled Document. Head-Royce School, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.

11; Jump up^ Burke, Kenneth. The Kenyon Review. Vol. 1. Gambier: Kenyon College, n.d. 426. New Ser. Vol. 32. Jstor. Ithaka. Web.

12; Jump up^ Enelow, David. "The Four Master Tropes." Untitled Document. Head-Royce School, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. .

13; Jump up^ Chandler, Daniel, Semiotics: the Basics. Routledge, New York, 2007. (132133):http://books.google.com/books? id=utd_AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PT126&ots=IoMhYPzloj&dq=Barthes%201974%2C %20162%3B&pg=PT126#v=onepage&q=Barthes%201974,%20162;&f=false

14; ^ Jump up to: Synecdoche: The Art of Getting Eyeballs, Liz a b

Bureman:http://thewritepractice.com/synecdoche/

15; ^ Jump up to: Burke, Kenneth (1945). A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 503. a b

16; Jump up^ Burke, Kenneth (1945). A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice Hall. pp. 507–508.

17; ^ Jump up to: Burke, Kenneth (1945). A Grammar of Motives. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 508. a b

Further reading[edit] 

Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. p. 683. ISBN 0674-36250-0.



Monateri, Pier Giuseppe (1958). La Sineddoche. Formule e regole nel diritto delle obbligazioni e dei contratti. Milano: Giuffré.

External links[edit] Look up synecdoche in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.



Synecdoche from Silva Rhetoricæ: The Forest of Rhetoric Categories:



Rhetoric

Ellipsis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the punctuation mark. For the syntactic omission of words, see Ellipsis (linguistics). For other uses, see Ellipsis (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Ellipse.

… Ellipsis

…

Precomposed ellipsis

...

Spaced 3 periods

⋯

Mid-line ellipsis

Punctuation apostrophe brackets colon comma dash

’ ' [] () {} ⟨⟩ :

, ، 、 ‒ – — ―

… ... . . .

ellipsis exclamation mark

!

full stop, period

.

hyphen

‐

hyphen-minus

-

question mark

?

quotation marks

‘’ “” '' ""

semicolon slash, stroke, solidus

;

/ ⁄

Word dividers interpunct space

·    

General typography ampersand

&

asterisk

*

at sign

@

backslash

\

bullet

•

caret

^

dagger

†‡

degree

°

ditto mark

″

inverted exclamation mark

¡

inverted question mark

¿

number sign, pound, hash,

#

octothorpe

№

numero sign obelus

÷

multiplication sign

× ºª

ordinal indicator percent, per mil

%‰

plus and minus

+−

equals sign

=

basis point

‱ ¶

pilcrow

′ ″ ‴

prime section sign

§

tilde

~

underscore, understrike

_

vertical bar, pipe, broken bar

| ‖¦

Intellectual property copyright

©

sound-recording copyright

℗

ed trademark

®

service mark

℠

trademark

™

Currency generic currency symbol

¤

currency symbols

₳ ฿ ₵¢₡₢ $₫₯ ₠€ ƒ₣ ₲ ₴₭ ℗ ℗₥ ₦ ₧₱₰£ ៛℗℗₨ ₪៛℗₮ ₩ ¥ Uncommon typography

⁂

asterism hedera

℠

index, fist

☞ ‽

interrobang

⸮

irony punctuation

◊

lozenge reference mark

※

tie

℠ Related 

o o 

Diacritics Logic symbols

Whitespace characters In other scripts

    

Chinese Hebrew Japanese Korean Category



Portal

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Book

  

v t e

Ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the Ancient Greek: ἔλλειψις, élleipsis, "omission" or "falling short") is a series of dots (typically three, such as "…") that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.[1]Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can also indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, a mysterious or echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence. Aposiopesis is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence—for example: "But I thought he was . . ." When placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing. The most common form of an ellipsis is a row of three periods or full stops (. . .) or a precomposed tripledot glyph (…). The usage of the em dash (—) can overlap the usage of the ellipsis, especially in dialogue. Style guides often have their own rules governing the use of ellipses. For example, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends that an ellipsis be formed by typing three periods, each with a space on both sides.

Some[who?] believe that the use of four or more dots or simply two dots, which is often referred to as being more "informal" instead of the well established three dots, is acceptable as an ellipsis. Others [who?] believe it is used as an indicator of something that was missed in the message that should not have been; an unnecessary re-iteration due to lack of intelligence or understanding. The triple-dot punctuation mark is also called a suspension point, points of ellipsis, periods of ellipsis, or colloquially, "dot-dot-dot".[2] Contents [hide]



1In writing



2In different languages

o 2.1In English o 2.2In Polish o 2.3In Russian o 2.4In Japanese o 2.5In Chinese o 2.6In Spanish o 2.7In French o 2.8In German 

3In mathematical notation



4Computer interfaces



5Programming languages



6On the Internet and in text messaging



7Computer representations



8See also



9References



10Further reading



11External links

In writing[edit] In her book on the ellipsis, "Ellipsis in English Literature: Signs of Omission" (Cambridge University Press, 2015), Anne Toner suggests that the first use of the punctuation in the English language dates to a 1588 translation of Terence's Andria, by Maurice Kyffin. In this case, however, the ellipsis consists not of dots but of short dashes.[3] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, an ellipsis was often used when a writer intentionally omitted a specific proper noun, such as a location: "Jan was born on . . . Street in Warsaw." As commonly used, this juxtaposition of characters is referred to as "dots of ellipsis" in the English language.[citation needed] Occasionally, it would be used in pulp fiction and other works of early 20th-century fiction to denote expletives that would otherwise have been censored.[4]

An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context. For example, when Sue says "I never drink wine . . . ", the implication is that she does drink something else—such as vodka. In reported speech, the ellipsis can be used to represent an intentional silence. In poetry, this is used to highlight sarcasm or make the reader think about the last points in the poem. In news reporting, often associated with brackets, it is used to indicate that a quotation has been condensed for space, brevity or relevance. Herb Caen, Pulitzer-prize-winning columnist for the San Francisco Chronicle, became famous for his "Three-dot journalism".

In different languages[edit] In English[edit] The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (February 2011) The Chicago Manual of Style suggests the use of an ellipsis for any omitted word, phrase, line, or paragraph from within but not at the end of a quoted age. There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, while the second one makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: . . .) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three dots: . ...). An ellipsis at the end of a sentence with a sentence following should be preceded by a period (for a total of four dots). The Modern Language Association (MLA), however, used to indicate that an ellipsis must include spaces before and after each dot in all uses. If an ellipsis is meant to represent an omission, square brackets must surround the ellipsis to make it clear that there was no pause in the original quote: [ . . . ]. Currently, the MLA has removed the requirement of brackets in its style handbooks. However, some maintain that the use of brackets is still correct because it clears confusion.[5] The MLA now indicates that a three-dot, spaced ellipsis ( … ) should be used for removing material from within one sentence within a quote. When crossing sentences (when the omitted text contains a period, so that omitting the end of a sentence counts), a four-dot, spaced (except for before the first dot) ellipsis (. . . . ) should be used. When ellipsis points are used in the original text, ellipsis points that are not in the original text should be distinguished by enclosing them in square brackets (e.g. "text […] text"). [6] According to the Associated Press, the ellipsis should be used to condense quotations. It is less commonly used to indicate a pause in speech or an unfinished thought or to separate items in material such as show business gossip. The stylebook indicates that if the shortened sentence before the mark can stand as a sentence, it should do so, with an ellipsis placed after the period or other ending punctuation. When material is omitted at the end of a paragraph and also immediately following it, an ellipsis goes both at the end of that paragraph and in front of the beginning of the next, according to this style. [7] According to Robert Bringhurst's Elements of Typographic Style, the details of typesetting ellipses depend on the character and size of the font being set and the typographer's preference. Bringhurst writes that a full space between each dot is "another Victorian eccentricity. In most contexts, the Chicago ellipsis is much too wide"—he recommends using flush dots, or thin-spaced dots (up to one-fifth of an em), or the prefabricated ellipsis character (Unicode U+2026, Latin entity … ). Bringhurst suggests that normally an ellipsis should be spaced fore-and-aft to separate it from the text, but when it combines with other punctuation, the leading space disappears and the other punctuation follows. This is the usual practice in typesetting. He provides the following examples: i…j

k….

l…, l

l, … l

m…?

n…!

In legal writing in the United States, Rule 5.3 in the Bluebook citation guide governs the use of ellipses and requires a space before the first dot and between the two subsequent dots. If an ellipsis ends the sentence,

then there are three dots, each separated by a space, followed by the final punctuation. In some legal writing, an ellipsis is written as threeasterisks (*** or * * *) to make it obvious that text has been omitted. (...) is also used for awkward silence.

In Polish[edit] When applied in Polish language syntax, the ellipsis is called wielokropek, which means "multidot". The word wielokropek distinguishes the ellipsis of Polish syntax from that ofmathematical notation, in which it is known as an elipsa. When an ellipsis replaces a fragment omitted from a quotation, the ellipsis is enclosed in parentheses or square brackets. An unbracketed ellipsis indicates an interruption or pause in speech. The syntactical rules for ellipses are standardized by the 1983 Polska Norma document PN-83/P55366, Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim ("Rules for setting texts in the Polish Language").

In Russian[edit] The combination "ellipsis+period" is replaced by the ellipsis. The combinations "ellipsis+exclamation mark" and "ellipsis+question mark" are written in this way: !.. ?..

In Japanese[edit] The most common character corresponding to an ellipsis is called 3-ten rīdā ("3-dot leaders", …). 2-ten rīdā exists as a character, but it is used less commonly. In writing, the ellipsis consists usually of six dots (two 3-ten rīdā characters, ……). Three dots (one 3-ten rīdā character) may be used where space is limited, such as in a header. However, variations in the number of dots exist. In horizontally written text the dots are commonly vertically centered within the text height (between the baseline and the ascent line), as in the standard Japanese Windows fonts; in vertically written text the dots are always centered horizontally. As the Japanese word for dot is pronounced "ten", the dots are colloquially called "ten-ten-ten" (てんてんて ん, akin to the English "dot dot dot"). [citation needed] In manga, the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, or a "pregnant pause". Given the context, this could be anything from an ission of guilt to an expression of being dumbfounded at another person's words or actions. As a device, the ten-ten-ten is intended to focus the reader on a character while allowing the character to not speak any dialogue. This conveys to the reader a focus of the narrative "camera" on the silent subject, implying an expectation of some motion or action. It is not unheard of to see inanimate objects "speaking" the ellipsis.

In Chinese[edit] In Chinese, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying the same horizontal or vertical space as two characters) (i.e. ……).[8] The dots are always centered within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal (on the baseline has become acceptable)[citation needed] and centered horizontally when vertical. Sometimes people will use three dots instead of six to save typing on the Internet.

In Spanish[edit] In Spanish, ellipsis is commonly used as a substitute of et cetera at the end of unfinished lists. So it means "and so forth" or "and other things". Other use is the suspension of a part of a text, or a paragraph, or a phrase or a part of a word because it is obvious, or unnecessary, or implied. For instance, sometimes the ellipsis is used to avoid the complete use of expletives. When the ellipse is placed alone into a parenthesis (...) or -less often- between brackets […], which is what happens usually within a text transcription, it means the original text had more contents on the same position but are not useful to our target in the transcription. When the suppressed text is at the beginning or at the end of a text, the ellipse does not need to be placed in a parenthesis.

In French[edit] In French, the ellipsis is commonly used at the end of lists to represent et cetera. However, any omitted word, phrase or line at the end of a quoted age would be indicated like this: [...] (space before and after the square brackets but not inside).

In German[edit] In German, the ellipsis in general is surrounded by spaces, if it stands for one or more omitted words. On the other side there is no space between a letter or (part of) a word and an ellipsis, if it stands for one or more omitted letters, that should stick to the written letter or letters. Example for both cases, using German style: The first el...is stands for omitted letters, the second ... for an omitted word. If the ellipsis is at the end of a sentence (or between two sentences), the final full stop is omitted. [9] Example: I think that ...

In mathematical notation[edit] An ellipsis is also often used in mathematics to mean "and so forth". In a list, between commas, or following a comma, a normal ellipsis is used, as in:

To indicate the omission of values in a repeated operation, an ellipsis raised to the center of the line is used between two operation symbols or following the last operation symbol, as in:

(though sometimes, for example, in Russian mathematical texts, normal, non-raised, ellipses are used even in repeated summations[10]). The latter formula means the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined mathematical symbol. Repeated summations or products may similarly be denoted using capital sigma and capital pi notation, respectively:

(see factorial) Normally dots should be used only where the pattern to be followed is clear, the exception being to show the indefinite continuation of an irrational number such as: Sometimes, it is useful to display a formula compactly, for example:

Another example is the set of zeros of the cosine function.

There are many related uses of the ellipsis in set notation. The diagonal and vertical forms of the ellipsis are particularly useful for showing missing in matrices, such as the size-n identity matrix

The use of ellipses in mathematical proofs is often discouraged because of the potential for ambiguity. For this reason, and because the ellipsis s no systematic rules for symbolic calculation, in recent years some authors have recommended avoiding its use in mathematics altogether.[11]

Computer interfaces[edit]

Thi not imp to r ma

2011

Ellipses are often used in an operating system's taskbars or web browser tabs to indicate that a interface string is longer than what can fit in the screen. Hovering the cursor over the tab often displays a tooltip of the full title. When many programs are open, or during a "tab explosion" in web browsing, the tabs may be reduced in size so much that no characters from the actual titles show, and ellipses take up all the space besides the program icon or favicon. In many interface guidelines, a "…" after the name of a command implies that the will need to provide further information, for example in a subsequent dialog box, before the action can be completed. A typical example is the Save As… command, which after being clicked will usually require the to enter a filename, as opposed to Savewhere the file will usually be saved under its existing name. An ellipsis character after a status message signifies that an operation is in progress and may take some time, as in "ing updates…".

Programming languages[edit] The ellipsis is used as an operator in some programming languages. The precise meaning varies by language, but it generally involves something dealing with multiple items. One of its most common uses is in defining variadic functions which can take an unknown number of arguments in the C, C++ and Java languages. See Ellipsis (programming operator).

On the Internet and in text messaging[edit] The ellipsis is a non-verbal cue that is often used in computermediated interactions, in particular in synchronous genres, such as

chat. The reason behind its popularity is the fact that it allows people to indicate in writing several functions:



the sign of ellipsis can function as a floor holding device, and signal that more is to come, for instance when people break up longer turns in chat[12]



dot-dot-dot can be used systematically to enact linguistic politeness, for instance indicating topic change or hesitation [13]



suspension dots can be turn construction units to signal silence, for example when indicating disagreement, disapproval or confusion [14]

Although an ellipsis is technically complete with three periods (...), its rise in popularity as a "trailing-off" or "silence" indicator, particularly in mid-20th-century comic strip and comic book prose writing, has led to expanded uses online. Today, extended ellipsis anywhere from two to dozens of periods have become common constructions in Internet chat rooms and text messages.[15] The extent of repetition in itself might serve as an additional contextualization or paralinguistic cue, to "extend the lexical meaning of the words, add character to the sentences, and allow fine-tuning and personalisation of the message"[16]

Computer representations[edit] In computing, several ellipsis characters have been codified, depending on the system used. In the Unicode standard, there are the following characters:

Name

HTML entity nam Characte or Unicode r Numeri characte referenc

Horizontal ellipsis

…

U+2026

…

Laotian ellipsis

ຯ

U+0EA F

ຯ

᠁

U+1801

᠁

ฯ

U+0E2F

ฯ

Mongolian ellipsis

Thai ellipsis

⋮

U+22EE

⋮

Midline horizontal ellipsis

⋯

U+22EF

⋯

Up-right diagonal ellipsis

⋰

U+22F0

⋰

Down-right diagonal ellipsis

⋱

U+22F1

⋱

Presentation form for vertical horizontal ellipsis

︙

U+FE19

︙

Vertical ellipsis

In Windows, it can be inserted with Alt + 0133 . In OS X, it can be inserted with ⌥ Opt + ; (on an English language keyboard). In some Linux distributions, it can be inserted with AltGr + . , or alternatively . . sequence can be used. In Chinese and sometimes in Japanese, ellipsis characters are made by entering two consecutive horizontal ellipsis (U+2026).[clarification needed] In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly. Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (U+002E) as compatibility equivalent (though not canonical) to the horizontal ellipsis character.[17] In HTML, the horizontal ellipsis character may be represented by the entity reference … (since HTML 4.0), and the vertical ellipsis character by the entity reference ⋮ (since HTML 5.0). [18] Alternatively, in HTML, XML, and SGML, a numeric character reference such as … or … can be used. In the TeX typesetting system, the following types of ellipsis are available:

Character name

Characte r

TeX m

Lower ellipsis

\ldots

Centred ellipsis

\cdots

Diagonal ellipsis

\ddots

Vertical ellipsis

\vdots

Up-right diagonal ellipsis

\reflectbox{\d

In LaTeX with the amsmath package from AMS-Latex more specific ellipses are provided for math mode.[19]

LaTeX symbol

Usage

Example code

\dotsc

dots with commas

\dotsb

dots with binary 1 + 2 + \dotsb + 9 operators/rel ations

\dotsm

dots with multiplicatio A_1 A_2 \dotsm A_9 n

\dotsi

dots with integrals

\dotso

other dots

1, 2, \dotsc , 9

\

int_{A_1}\int_{A_2}\dotsi\int_ A_9}

123 \dotso 9

The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:



in Windows-1250—Windows-1258 and in IBM/MS-DOS Code page 874, at code 85 (hexadecimal)



in Mac-Roman, Mac-CentEuro and several other Macintosh encodings, at code C9 (hexadecimal)



in Ventura International encoding at code C1 (hexadecimal)

Note that ISO/IEC 8859 encoding series provides no code point for ellipsis. As with all characters, especially those outside the ASCII range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naive text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mojibake. The Chicago Style Q&A recommends to avoid the use of … (U+2026) character in manuscripts and to place three periods plus two nonbreaking spaces (. . .) instead, so that an editor, publisher, or designer can replace them later.[20] In Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), the ellipsis is used as an extension marker to indicate the possibility of type extensions in future revisions of a protocol specification. In a type constraint expression like A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) an ellipsis is used to separate the extension root from extension additions. The definition of type A in version 1 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ...) and the definition of type A in version 2 system of the form A ::= INTEGER (0..127, ..., 256..511) constitute an extension series of the same type A in different versions of the same specification. The ellipsis can also be used in compound type definitions to separate the set of fields belonging to the extension root from the set of fields constituting extension additions. Here is an example: B ::= SEQUENCE { a INTEGER, b INTEGER, ..., c INTEGER }

See also[edit] 

Cohesion (linguistics)



Leader (typography) - a row of characters (usually dots or dashes) to connect items across a page (as in a table of contents)



elision - omission or deletion of a sound or syllable



Leiden Conventions

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ thefreedictionary.com 2; Jump up^ as coined by Virginia Woolf in her short story The Mark on The Wall -- or so do notes in Penguin Books' edition (Virginia Woolf: Selected Short Stories) suggest.

3; Jump up^ … dot, dot, dot: how the ellipsis made its mark, Research Impact, Cambridge University

4; Jump up^ Raymond Chandler, Frank MacShane. Raymond Chandler: Stories and Early Novels. First Edition. New York: Library of America. 1995. Note on the Texts.

5; Jump up^ Fowler, H. Ramsey, Jane E. Aaron, Murray McArthur. The Little, Brown Handbook. Fourth Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson Longman. 2005. p. 440.

6; Jump up^ http://www.naropa.edu/nwc/documents/citationcomparison sp11.pdf Archived March 15, 2015 at the Wayback Machine

7; Jump up^ Goldstein, Norm, editor. "Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law". 2005. pp.328–329.

8; Jump up^ 省略号 9; Jump up^ "Deutsche Rechtschreibung. Regeln und Wörterverzeichnis" (PDF) (in German). Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung. 2010. p. 100. Retrieved 2015-10-18. $ 100: Stehen die Auslassungspunkte am Ende eines Ganzsatzes, so setzt man keinen Satzschlusspunkt.

10; Jump up^ Мильчин А. Э. Издательский словарьсправочник.— Изд. 3-е, испр. и доп., Электронное — М.: ОЛМА-Пресс, 2006. (in Russian)

11; Jump up^ Roland Backhouse, Program Construction: Calculating Implementations from Specifications. Wiley (2003), page 138

12; Jump up^ Simpson, J (2005). "Meaning-making online: Discourse and CMC in a Language learning community". Recent Research Developments in Learning Technologies. CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.108.463.

13; Jump up^ Erika, Darics (2010). "Relational work in synchronous text-based CMC of virtual teams". Handbook of research on discourse behavior and digital communication: language structures and social interaction.

14; Jump up^ Ong, Kenneth Keng Wee (2011). "Disagreement, Confusion, Disapproval, Turn Elicitation and Floor Holding: Actions accomplished by Ellipsis Marks-Only Turns and Blank Turns in Quasisynchronous Chat". Discourse Studies 13 (2).

15; Jump up^ Maness, Jack M. (2007). "The Power of Dots: Using Nonverbal Compensators in Chat Reference" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Meeting of ASIS&T. Annual Meeting of ASIS&T. University Libraries − University of Colorado at Boulder. Retrieved 24 October 2011.

16; Jump up^ Kalman, Yoram M; et al. "CMC cues enrich lean online communication: the case of letter and punctuation mark repetitions" (PDF). Retrieved 9 July 2012.

17; Jump up^ UnicodeData.txt: 2026;HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS;Po;0;ON; 002E 002E 002E;;;;N;;;;;

18; Jump up^ "W3C Working Draft: HTML5: 8.5 Named character references". 2011. Retrieved 2012-11-08.

19; Jump up^ 's Guide for the amsmath Package. American Mathematical Society, 1999, p. 12.

20; Jump up^ "Chicago Style Q&A: How do I insert an ellipsis in my manuscript?". The Chicago Manual of Style, edition 16. University of Chicago Press. 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-10.

Further reading[edit] 

Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (Version 2.5 ed.). Point Roberts, Washington: Hartley & Marks. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-0-88179-132-7. OCLC 50848361.



Halliday, M.A.K, and Ruqayia, H. (1976), Cohesion in English, London: Longman.



Morris, William (1980). The Houghton Mifflin Canadian Dictionary of the English Language. Markham, ON: Houghton Mifflin Canada. p. 424 (spacing of dots: . . .). ISBN 978-0-395-296547.OCLC 8063090.

External links

Amphibrach From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

An amphibrach /ˈæmfibræk/ is a metrical foot used in Latin and Greek prosody. It consists of a long syllable between two short syllables.[1] The word comes from the Greek ἀμφίβρὰχυς, amphíbrakhys, "short on both sides". In English accentual-syllabic poetry, an amphibrach is a stressed syllable surrounded by two unstressed syllables. It is rarely used as the overall meter of a poem, usually appearing only in a small amount of humorous poetry, children's poetry, and experimental poems. The individual amphibrachic foot often appears as a variant within, for instance, anapaestic meter. It is the main foot used in the construction of the limerick, as in "There once was / a girl from / Nantucket." It was also used by the Victorians for narrative poetry, e.g. Samuel Woodworth's "The Old Oaken Bucket" beginning "How dear to / my heart are / the scenesof / my childhood." [2] W.H. Auden's "Oh Where Are You Going" is a more recent and slightly less metrically-regular example. The amphibrach is also often used in ballads and light verse, such as the hypermetrical lines of Sir John Betjeman's "Meditation on the A30". Amphibrachs are a staple meter of Russian poetry. A common variation in an amphibrachic line, in both Russian and English, is to end the line with an iamb, as Thomas Hardy does in "The Ruined Maid": "Oh did n't / you know I'd / been ru in'd / said she". [3] Some books by Dr. Seuss contain many lines written in amphibrachs, such as these from If I Ran the Circus: All ready / to put up / the tents for / my circus. I think I / will call it / the Circus / McGurkus. And NOW comes / an act of / Enormous / Enormance! No former / performer's / performed this / performance! Much of Leonard Cohen's song "Famous Blue Raincoat" [4] is written in amphibrachs e.g. the first verse (apart from the first foot of the third line, which is a spondee): It's four in / the morning, / the end of / December I'm writing / you now just / to see if / you're better New York / is cold, but / I like where / I'm living There's music / on Clinton / Street all through / the evening.

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria 9.4.81. 2; Jump up^ Finch, Annie. A Poet's Craft. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012, p. 407

3; Jump up^ Finch, Annie, A Poet's Craft. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012, p. 406

4; Jump up^ Leonard Cohen's official website

External links[edit]  "The Old Oaken Bucket" by Samuel Woodworth Categories: 

Poetic rhythm

Anapaest From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

An anapaest (also spelled anapæst or anapest, also called antidactylus) is a metrical foot used in formal poetry. In classical quantitative meters it consists of two short syllables followed by a long one; in accentual stress meters it consists of two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable. It may be seen as a reversed dactyl. This word comes from the Greek ὰνάπὰιστος,anápaistos, literally "struck back" (a dactyl reversed), from ana and -paistos, verbal of πὰίειν, paíein "to strike."[1][2][3] Because of its length and the fact that it ends with a stressed syllable and so allows for strong rhymes, anapaest can produce a very rolling verse, and allows for long lines with a great deal of internal complexity.[4] Apart from their independent role, anapaests are sometimes used as substitutions in iambic verse. In strict iambic pentameter, anapaests are rare, but they are found with some frequency in freer versions of the iambic line, such as the verse of Shakespeare's last plays, or the lyric poetry of the 19th century.

Examples[edit] Trimeter Here is an example from William Cowper's "Verses Supposed to be Written by Alexander Selkirk" (1782), composed in anapaestictrimeter: I must finish my journey alone Tetrameter An example of anapaestic tetrameter is the A Visit From St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore (1823): Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house The following is from Byron's The Destruction of Sennacherib: The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. Hexameter An even more complex example comes from Yeats's The Wanderings of Oisin. He intersperses anapests and iambs, using six-foot lines (rather than four feet as above). Since the anapaest is already a long foot, this makes for very long lines.

Fled foam underneath us and 'round us, a wandering and milky smoke As high as the saddle-girth, covering away from our glances the tide And those that fled and that followed from the foam-pale distance broke. The immortal desire of immortals we saw in their faces and sighed. The mixture of anapaests and iambs in this manner is most characteristic of late-19th-century verse, particularly that of Algernon Charles Swinburne in poems such as The Triumph of Time and the choruses from Atalanta in Calydon. Swinburne also wrote several poems in more or less straight anapaests, with line-lengths varying from three feet ("Dolores") to eight feet ("March: An Ode"). Comic poetry The anapaest's most common role in English verse is as a comic metre, the foot of the limerick, of Lewis Carroll's poem The Hunting of the Snark, Edward Lear's nonsense poems, T. S. Eliot's Book of Practical Cats, a number of Dr. Seuss stories, and innumerable other examples.

See Also[edit] 

Anapestic tetrameter



Scansion

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ The Oxford Companion to English Literature 7th Ed. (2009) Edited by Dinah Birch, Oxford University Press Inc.

2; Jump up^ Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Ed. (1989) 3; Jump up^ The Oxford Dictionary of Literary (2008) Chris Baldick, Oxford University Press.

4; Jump up^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2011) Categories:

Trochee From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Choreus)

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

In poetic meter, a trochee /ˈtroʊkiː/, choree, or choreus, is a metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressedone, in English, or a heavy syllable followed by a light one in Latin or Greek. In this respect, a trochee is the reverse of an iamb. The adjective form is trochaic. Contents [hide]



1Etymology



2Examples

o 2.1Latin 

3See also



4References

Etymology[edit] Trochee comes from French trochée, adapted from Latin trochaeus, originally from the Greek τροχός (trokhós), "wheel",[1] from the phrase trokhaios pous, literally "running foot";[2] along with choree from χορός, khorós, "dance"; both convey the "rolling" rhythm of this metrical foot. The phrase was adapted into English in the late 16th century.

Examples[edit] Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha, whose meter was taken from Elias Lönnrot's Kalevala,[3] is written almost entirely in trochees, barring the occasional substitution (iamb, spondee, pyrrhic, etc.). Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odours of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows, In the second line, "and tra-" is a Pyrrhic substitution, as are "With the" in the third and fourth lines and "of the" in the third. Even so, the dominant foot throughout the poem is the trochee. Apart from the case of Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha, this metre is rarely found in perfect examples, at least in English. This is from Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven": Ah, distinctly I it was in the bleak December; And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Trochaic meter is also seen among the works of William Shakespeare: Double, double, toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble.[4] Perhaps owing to its simplicity, though, trochaic meter is fairly common in children's rhymes: Peter, Peter pumpkin-eater Had a wife and couldn't keep her. Often a few trochees will be interspersed among iambs in the same lines to develop a more complex or syncopated rhythm. Compare (William Blake): Tyger, Tyger, burning bright In the forests of the night These lines are primarily trochaic, with the last syllable dropped so that the line ends with a stressed syllable to give a strong rhyme or masculine rhyme. By contrast, the intuitive way that the mind groups the syllables in later lines in the same poem makes them feel more[according to whom?] like iambic lines with the first syllable dropped: Did he smile his work to see? The surrounding lines by this point have become entirely iambic: When the stars threw down their spears And watered Heaven with their tears ...

Did he who made the lamb make thee? Trochaic verse is also well known in Latin poetry, especially of the medieval period. Since the stress never falls on the final syllable in Medieval Latin, the language is ideal for trochaic verse. The dies irae of the Requiem mass is a perfect[according to whom?] example: Dies irae, dies illa Solvet saeclum in favilla Teste David cum Sibylla. The Finnish national epic Kalevala, like much old Finnish poetry, is written in a variation of trochaic tetrameter. The Taylor Swift song Blank Space contains examples of trochaic metre in its chorus, which is responsible for many listeners mishearing part of the lyric as the line "Got a long list of ex-lovers" is forced into an unnatural shape to fit the stress pattern: Got a long list of ex-lovers Where the stress would,in spoken English, naturally fall on the 'ex' of 'ex-lovers', it instead falls on 'of' and the first syllable of 'lovers', which can confuse on first hearing and cause the mind to try to fit an alternative two-syllable word into the 'of ex-' foot.

Latin[edit] In Greek and Latin, the syllabic structure deals with long and short syllables, rather than accented and unaccented. Trochaic meter was rarely used by the Latin poets, except in certain ages of the tragics and the comics.[5]

See also[edit] 

Trochaic substitution



Prosody (Latin)



Monometer

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Etymology of the Latin word trochee, MyEtymology (retrieved 23 July 2015)

2; Jump up^ Trochee, Etymology Online (retrieved 23 July 2015)

3; Jump up^ Christoph Irmscher (2006), Longfell ow Redux, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, p. 108.

4; Jump up^ The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. London: Abbey Library/Cresta House, 1977.

5; Jump up^ Gustavus Fischer, "Prosody", Ety molog

Dactyl (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Dactyly.

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

A dactyl (Greek: δάκτυλος, dáktylos, “finger”) is a foot in poetic meter. In quantitative verse, often used in Greek or Latin, a dactyl is a long syllable followed by two short syllables, as determined by syllable weight. In accentual verse, often used in English, it is a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables—the opposite is the anapaest (two unstressed followed by a stressed syllable). The Greek and Latin words δάκτυλος and dactylus are themselves dactyls (and hence autological). The English word poetry is also a dactyl. A useful mnemonic for ing this long-short-short pattern is to consider the relative lengths of the three bones of a human finger: beginning at the knuckle, it is one long bone followed by two shorter ones (hence the name dactyl).

An example of dactylic meter is the first line of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem Evangeline, which is in dactylic hexameter: This is the / forest prim- / eval. The / murmuring / pines and the / hem locks, The first five feet of the line are dactyls; the sixth a trochee. Stephen Fry quotes Robert Browning's The Lost Leader as an example of the use of dactylic metre to great effect, creating verse with "great rhythmic dash and drive":[1] Just for a handful of silver he left us Just for a riband to stick in his coat The first three feet in both lines are dactyls.

A dactyl is like a finger, having one long syllable followed by two short syllables.

Another example: the opening lines of Whitman's "Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking" (1859), his poem about the birth of his poetic voice: Out of the cradle, endlessly rocking [a dactyl, followed by a trochee ('cradle'); then another dactyl followed by a trochee ('rocking')] Out of the mockingbird's throat, the musical shuttle [2 dactyls, then a trochee ('throat, the'); then another dactyl, followed by a trochee] ... The dactyl "out of the..." becomes a pulse that rides through the entire poem, often generating the beginning of each new line, even though the poem as a whole, as is typical for Whitman, is extremely varied and "free" in its use of metrical feet. Dactyls are the metrical foot of Greek elegiac poetry, which followed a line of dactylic hexameter with dactylic pentameter.

See also[edit] 

Double dactyl

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Stephen Fry (2006), The ode less travelled: unlocking the poet within, Gotham, p. 84, ISBN 978-1-59240-248-9 Categories:

Iamb From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Lamb (disambiguation). Iamb, iambus, or iambic may refer to: Look up iamb in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Contents [hide]



1Meter and poetry

o 1.1Classical poetry and quantitative verse o 1.2Accentual-syllabic and syllabic verse 

2Other uses



3See also

Meter and poetry[edit] Classical poetry and quantitative verse[edit] 

Iamb (poetry)



Choliamb



Iambus (genre)

Accentual-syllabic and syllabic verse[edit] 

Iambic trimeter



Iambic trimeter#Accentual-syllabic iambic trimeter



Iambic tetrameter



Iambic pentameter



Iambic hexameter, or the alexandrine



Iambic heptameter, or the fourteener

Other uses[edit] 

Iamb (band)



Iambic keyer



Iambic Productions



Dionysius Iambus (ca; de), grammarian

See also[edit] 

Iambe

Iamb (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An iamb /ˈaɪæm/ or iambus is a metrical foot used in various types of poetry. Originally the term referred to one of the feet of the quantitative meter of classical Greek prosody: a short syllable followed by a long syllable (as in "delay"). This terminology was adopted in the description of accentual-syllabic verse in English, where it refers to a foot comprising an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (as in above). Contents [hide]



1Etymology



2Accentual-syllabic use



3Types of meter

o 3.1Tetrameter o 3.2Pentameter o 3.3Heptameter 

4Sound change



5See also



6Notes



7References



8External links

Etymology[edit] Main article: Iambus (genre) R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that the Ancient Greek: ἴὰμβος iambos has a Pre-Greek origin.[1] An old hypothesis is that the word is borrowed from Phrygian or Pelasgian, and literally means "Einschritt", i. e., "one-step", compare dithyramb and thriambus, but H. S. Versnel rejects this etymology and suggests instead a derivation from a cultic exclamation.[2] The word may be related to Iambe, a Greek minor goddess of verse, especially scurrilous, ribald humour. In ancient Greece iambus was mainly satirical poetry, lampoons, which did not automatically imply a particular metrical type. Iambic metre took its name from being characteristic of iambi, not vice versa.[3]

Accentual-syllabic use[edit]

A metrical tree representation of an iamb. W = weak syllable, S = strong syllable

An alternative metrical tree representation of an iamb. F = foot, σ = syllable. The head of the foot constituent, i.e. the stressed syllable, is indicated with a vertical line.

A bracketed grid representation of an iamb. The x's in the lower grid are syllables, the x in the upper grid indicates the position of the stressed syllable.

In accentual-syllabic verse an iamb is a foot that has the rhythmic pattern: da DUM Using the 'ictus and x' notation (see systems of scansion for a full discussion of various notations) we can write this as: x / The word 'attempt' is a natural iamb: x

/

at-tempt In phonology, an iambic foot is notated in a flat representation as (σ'σ) or as foot tree with two branches W and S where W = weak and S = strong. Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used measures in English and German poetry. A line of iambic pentameter comprises five consecutive iambs. Iambic trimeter is the metre of the spoken verses in Greek tragedy and comedy, comprising six iambs—as one iambic metrum consisted of two iambs. In English accentual-syllabic verse, iambic trimeter is a line comprising three iambs. Less common iambic measures include iambic tetrameter (four iambs per line) and iambic heptameter, sometimes called the "fourteener" (seven iambs per line). Lord Byron's poem "She Walks in Beauty" exemplifies iambic tetrameter; iambic heptameter is found in Australian poet A. B. "Banjo" Paterson's "The Man from Ironbark". Related to iambic heptameter is the more common ballad verse, in which a line

of iambic tetrameter is succeeded by a line of iambic trimeter, usually in quatrain form. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is a classic example of this form. The reverse of an iamb is called a trochee.

Types of meter[edit] Tetrameter[edit] Main article: Iambic tetrameter Iambic tetrameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of four iambic feet: Lo, thus I triumph like a king, Content with that my mind doth bring. (Edward Dyer, "My Mind to Me A Kingdom Is") 'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe. (Lewis Carroll, "Jabberwocky")

Pentameter[edit] Main article: Iambic pentameter Iambic Pentameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of five iambic feet: To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. (Alfred Tennyson, "Ulysses") Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18) (Although, it could be argued that this line in fact reads: Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Meter is often broken in this way, sometimes for intended effect and sometimes simply due to the sound of the words in the line. Where the stresses lie can be debated, as it depends greatly on where the reader decides to place the stresses. Although in this meter the foot is no longer iambs but trochees.) A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse! (William Shakespeare, Richard III)

Heptameter[edit] Iambic Heptameter is a meter referring to a line consisting of seven iambic feet: I s'pose the flats is pretty green up there in Ironbark. (A. B. Paterson, The Man from Ironbark) Key:



Non-bold = unstressed syllable



Bold = stressed syllable

Sound change[edit] Main article: Latin spelling and pronunciation § Iambic shortening Through iambic shortening, a word with the shape light– heavy or short–long changes to become light–light.

See also[edit] 

Prosody (Latin)

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 572.

2; Jump up^ Versnel, H. S. (1970). "I. 2 Θρίαμβος". Triumphus: An Inquiry Into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 16– 38.ISBN 90-04-02325-9. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

3; Jump up^ Studies in Greek elegy and iambus By Martin Litchfield West Page 22 ISBN 3-11-004585-0

References[edit] 

Murfin, Ross C.; Ray, Supryia M. (2009). The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary . Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-46188-1. LCCN 2008925882.

External links[edit]  "Iambic". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Categories: 

Metrical feet



Phonology

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Iambic pentameter From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Iambic pentameter /aɪˈæmbɪk pɛnˈtæmᵻtər/ is a commonly used type of metrical line in traditional English poetry and verse drama. The term describes the rhythm that the words establish in that line, which is measured in small groups of syllables called "feet". The word "iambic" refers to the type of foot that is used, known as the iamb, which in English is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The word "pentameter" indicates that a line has five of these "feet". Iambic rhythms come relatively naturally in English. Iambic pentameter is the most common meter in English poetry; it is used in many of the major English poetic forms, includingblank verse, the heroic couplet, and some of the traditional rhymed stanza forms. William Shakespeare used iambic pentameter in his plays and sonnets. Contents [hide]



1Meter

o 1.1Simple example o 1.2Iamb in classical and English verse o 1.3Rhythmic variation 

2Theories of iambic pentameter

o 2.1Halle–Keyser 

3History



4Reading in drama



5See also



6Notes



7References

Meter[edit] Simple example[edit] An iambic foot is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The rhythm can be written as: da DUM

The da-DUM of a human heartbeat is the most common example of this rhythm. A standard line of iambic pentameter is five iambic feet in a row: da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM

Straightforward examples of this rhythm can be heard in the opening line of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 12: When I do count the clock that tells the time and in John Keats' To Autumn:[1] To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells It is possible to notate this with a "/" marking ictic syllables (experienced as beats) and a "×" marking nonictic syllables (experienced as offbeats). In this notation a standard line of iambic pentameter would look like this: × / × / × / × / × /

The scansion of the examples above can be notated as follows: * / * /

* /

*

/

* /

When I do count the clock that tells the time × /

× /

×

/

× /× /

To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells

Iamb in classical and English verse[edit] The term "iamb" originally applied to the quantitative meter of classical poetry. The classical were adapted to describe the equivalent meters in English accentual-syllabic verse. Different languages express rhythm in different ways. In Ancient Greek and Latin, the rhythm was created through the alternation of short and long syllables. In English, the rhythm is created through the use of stress, alternating between unstressed and stressed syllables. An English unstressed syllable is equivalent to a classical short syllable, while an English stressed syllable is equivalent to a classical long syllable. When a pair of syllables is arranged as a short followed by a long, or an unstressed followed by a stressed, pattern, that foot is said to be "iambic". The English word "trapeze" is an example of an iambic pair of syllables, since the word is made up of two syllables ("tra—peze") and is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable ("tra— PEZE", rather than "TRA—peze"). A line of iambic pentameter is made up of five such pairs of short/long, or unstressed/stressed, syllables.

Rhythmic variation[edit] Although strictly speaking, iambic pentameter refers to five iambs in a row (as above), in practice, poets vary their iambic pentameter a great deal, while maintaining the iamb as the most common foot. However, there are some conventions to these variations. Iambic pentameter must always contain only five feet, and the second foot is almost always an iamb. The first foot, in contrast, often changes by the use of inversion, which reverses the order of the syllables in the foot. The following line from Shakespeare's Richard IIIbegins with an inversion: / × × / × / × / × / Now is the winter of our discontent

Another common departure from standard iambic pentameter is the addition of a final unstressed syllable, which creates a weak or feminine ending. One of Shakespeare's most famous lines of iambic pentameter has a weak ending:[2] × /× / × /

/ × × / (×)

To be or not to be, | that is the question

This line also has an inversion of the fourth foot, following the caesura (marked with "|"). In general a caesura acts in many ways like a line-end: inversions are common after it, and the extra unstressed syllable of the feminine ending may appear before it. Shakespeare and John Milton (in his work before Paradise Lost) at times employed feminine endings before a caesura. [3] Here is the first quatrain of a sonnet by John Donne, which demonstrates how he uses a number of metrical variations strategically. This scansion adds numbers to indicate how Donne uses a variety of stress levels to realize his beats and offbeats (1 = lightest stress, 4 = heaviest stress): 4 1 1 4

3 4 1

/ × × /

× / ×

4 /

1 2 × /

Batter my heart three-personed God, for you 1 3 2

4

3

× / ×

/

×

4 1

4

/ × /

1 4 × /

As yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. 1 2 1 4 1

4 2

× / × / ×

/ ×

4 1(1) 4 / ×(×) /

That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend 1

4

1 4

×

/

× /

3

4 1

× / × /

4

1 4 × /

Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new.

Donne uses an inversion (DUM da instead of da DUM) in the first foot of the first line to stress the key verb, "batter", and then sets up a clear iambic pattern with the rest of the line (da DUM da DUM da DUM da DUM). In the second and fourth lines he uses strongly-stressed offbeats (which can be interpreted as spondees) in the third foot to slow down the rhythm as he lists monosyllabic verbs. The parallel rhythm and grammar of these lines highlights the comparison Donne sets up between what God does to him "as yet" ("knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend"), and what he asks God to do ("break, blow, burn and make me new"). Donne also uses enjambment between lines three and four to speed up the flow as he builds to his desire to be made new. To further the speed-up effect of the enjambment, Donne puts an extra syllable in the final foot of the line (this can be read as an anapest (dada DUM) or as an elision). As the examples show, iambic pentameter need not consist entirely of iambs, nor need it have ten syllables. Most poets who have a great facility for iambic pentameter frequently vary the rhythm of their poetry as Donne and Shakespeare do in the examples, both to create a more interesting overall rhythm and to highlight important thematic elements. In fact, the skillful variation of iambic pentameter, rather than the consistent use of it, may well be what distinguishes the

rhythmic artistry of Donne, Shakespeare, Milton, and the 20th century sonneteer Edna St. Vincent Millay. Several scholars have argued that iambic pentameter has been so important in the history of English poetry by contrasting it with the one other important meter (tetrameter), variously called “four-beat,” “strong-stress,” “native meter,” or “four-by-four meter.”[4] Four-beat, with four beats to a line, is the meter of nursery rhymes, children’s jump-rope and counting-out rhymes, folk songs and ballads, marching cadence calls, and a good deal of art poetry. It has been described by Attridge as based on doubling: two beats to each half line, two half lines to a line, two pairs of lines to a stanza. The metrical stresses alternate between light and heavy.[5] It is a heavily regular beat that produces something like a repeated tune in the performing voice, and is, indeed, close to song. Because of its odd number of metrical beats, iambic pentameter, as Attridge says, does not impose itself on the natural rhythm of spoken language.[6] Thus iambic pentameter frees intonation from the repetitiveness of four-beat and allows instead the varied intonations of significant speech to be heard. Pace can be varied in iambic pentameter, as it cannot in four-beat, as Alexander Pope demonstrated in his “An Essay on Criticism”: When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw, The line, too, labours and the words move slow. Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o’er th’unbending corn, and skims along the main. The last line is in fact an alexandrine — an iambic hexameter, which occurs occasionally in some iambic pentameter texts as a variant line. Not only does Pope exemplify "swiftness" by rushing over 12 syllables in the place of 10; he actually implies 14 syllables in the place of 10 (not to suggest Pope would have read it this way), including 4 lightly stressed syllables (actual and implied) between the first 2 ictuses: /

×(×) (×)× / × /

×

/ ×/

× /

Flies o'er th'unbending corn, and skims along the main.

Moreover, iambic pentameter, instead of the steady alternation of lighter and heavier beats of four-beat, permits principal accents, that is accents on the most significant words, to occur at various points in a line as long as they are on the even–numbered syllables, or on the first syllable, in the case of an initial trochaic inversion. It is not the case, as is often alleged, that iambic pentameter is “natural” to English; rather it is that iambic pentameter allows the varied intonations and pace natural to significant speech to be heard along with the regular meter.[7]

Theories of iambic pentameter[edit] Halle–Keyser[edit] Linguists Morris Halle and Samuel Jay Keyser developed the earliest theory of generative metrics[8] — a set of rules that define those variations that are permissible (in their view) in English iambic pentameter. Essentially, the Halle–Keyser rules state that only "stress maximum" syllables are important in determining the meter. A stress maximum syllable is a stressed syllable surrounded on both sides by weak syllables in the same syntactic phrase and in the same verse line. In order to be a permissible line of iambic pentameter, no stress maxima can fall on a syllable that is designated as a weak syllable in the standard, unvaried iambic pentameter pattern. In the Donne line, the word God is not a maximum. That is because it is followed by a pause. Similarly the words you, mend, and bend are not maxima since they are each at the end of a line (as required for the rhyming ofmend/bend and you/new.) Rewriting the Donne quatrain showing the stress maxima (denoted with an "M") results in the following: / × × M

× M ×

/ × /

Batter my heart three-personed God, for you × M × /

×

/ × M

× /

As yet but knock, breathe, shine and seek to mend. × / × M ×

/ ×

/ ×(×) /

That I may rise and stand o'erthrow me and bend ×

M

× /

× / × M

× /

Your force to break, blow, burn and make me new.

The Halle–Keyser system has been criticized because it can identify ages of prose as iambic pentameter.[9] Other scholars have revised Halle–Keyser, and they, along with Halle and Keyser, are known collectively as “generative metrists.” Later generative metrists pointed out that poets have often treated non-compound words of more than one syllable differently from monosyllables and compounds of monosyllables. Any normally weak syllable may be stressed as a variation if it is a monosyllable, but not if it is part of a polysyllable except at the beginning of a line or a phrase.[10] Thus Shakespeare wrote in The Merchant of Venice, Act I, Scene 2: ×

× /

/

× /

× /(×)× /

For the four winds blow in from every coast

but wrote "vanishingly few"[11] lines of the form of "As gazelles leap a never-resting brook". The stress patterns are the same, and in particular, the normally weak third syllable is stressed in both lines; the difference is that in Shakespeare's line the stressed third syllable is a one-syllable word, "four", whereas in the un-Shakespearean line it is part of a two-syllable word, "gazelles". (The definitions and exceptions are more technical than stated here.) Pope followed such a rule strictly, Shakespeare fairly strictly,[12] Milton much less, and Donne not at all—which may be why Ben Jonson said Donne deserved hanging for "not keeping of accent".[10] Derek Attridge has pointed out the limits of the generative approach; it has “not brought us any closer to understanding why particular metrical forms are common in English, why certain variations interrupt the metre and others do not, or why metre functions so powerfully as a literary device.”[13] Generative metrists also fail to recognize that a normally weak syllable in a strong position will be pronounced differently, i.e. “promoted” and so no longer "weak."

History[edit] Latin verse included lines of ten syllables. It is widely thought that some line of this length, perhaps in the Alcmanian meter, led to the ten-syllable line of some Old Frenchchansons de geste such as The Song of Roland. Those Old French lines invariably had a caesura after the fourth syllable. This line was adopted with more flexibility by thetroubadours of Provence in the 12th century, notably Cercamon, Bernart de Ventadorn, and Bertran de Born.[14] In both Old French and Old Provençal, the tenth syllable of the line was accented and feminine endings were common, in which case the line had eleven syllables. Italian poets such as Giacomo da Lentini, Boccaccio, Petrarch, and Danteadopted this line, generally using the eleven-syllable form (endecasillabo)[14] because most Italian words have feminine endings.[15]:91 They often used a pattern where the fourth syllable (normally accented) and the fifth (normally unaccented) were part of the same word, the opposite of the Old French line with its required pause after the fourth syllable. This pattern came to be considered typically Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer followed the Italian poets in his ten-syllable lines, placing his pauses freely and often using the "Italian" pattern, but he deviated from it by introducing a strong iambic rhythm and the variations described above. This was an iambic pentameter.[15]:87–88 Chaucer's friend John Gower used a similar meter in his poem "In Praise of Peace."[15]:91 Chaucer's meter depended on the pronunciation of final e's that even by his time were probably silent. It was soon forgotten that they were ever pronounced, so later readers could not recognize his meter and found his lines rough.[16] His Scottish followers of the century from 1420 to 1520— King James I, Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, and Gavin Douglas—seem to have understood his meter (though final e had long been silent in Scots) and came close to it. Dunbar, in particular, wrote poems in true iambic pentameter.[15]:105–112 In England, the poems of the 15th and early 16th centuries are in a wide variety of meters. Thomas Wyatt, for example, often mixed iambic pentameters with other lines of similar

length but different rhythm. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, on the other hand, used a strict tensyllable line that was similar to the Old French line, with its pause after the fourth syllable, but typically had a regular iambic pattern, and had many of the modern types of variation. Thomas Sackville, in his two poems in the Mirror for Magistrates, used a similar line but with few caesuras. The result was essentially the normal iambic pentameter except for the avoidance of the "Italian" line. It was Philip Sidney, apparently influenced by Italian poetry, who used large numbers of "Italian" lines and thus is often considered to have reinvented iambic pentameter in its final form. He was also more adept than his predecessors in working polysyllabic words into the meter. However, Sidney avoided feminine endings. They appear more often in the work of such masters of iambic pentameter as Edmund Spenser and Shakespeare.[15]:119–127 Iambic pentameter became the prevalent meter in English. It was estimated in 1971 that at least three-quarters of all English poetry since Chaucer was in this meter.[17]

Reading in drama[edit] There is some debate over whether works such as Shakespeare's were originally performed with the rhythm prominent, or whether the rhythm was embedded in the patterns of contemporary speech. In either case, when read aloud, such verse naturally follows an iambic beat. The rhythm of iambic pentameter was emphasised in Kenneth Branagh's 2000 production of Love's Labour's Lost, in a scene where the protagonists tap-dance to the "Have at you now, affection's men-at-arms" speech. In this case, each iamb is underscored with a flap step.

See also[edit] 

Anapaest



Blank verse



Dactyl



Dactylic pentameter



Foot (prosody)



Iamb (poetry)



Ragale



Systems of scansion



Trochee



The Ants Go Marching[18]

Notes[edit] 1; Jump up^ This line (line 7 of "To Autumn") is used by Timothy Steele as an example of an unvaried line of iambic pentameter, see Steele 1999, p. 5

2; Jump up^ This line is used as an example by Marjorie Boulton in The Anatomy of Poetry (revised edition), Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953, revised 1982. ISBN 0-7100-90870, page 28, although she marks the third foot as carrying no stress.

3; Jump up^ Bridges Milton's Prosody 4; Jump up^ Attridge, Derek (2014) [1982]. The Rhythms of English Poetry. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-317-86951-1. Easthope, Antony (2013) [2002]. Poetry as Discourse. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-13503365-1.

Halpern, Martin (June 1962). "On the Two Chief Metrical Modes in English". PMLA 77(3): 177–186. doi:10.2307/460476. JSTOR 460476.

5; Jump up^ Attridge 2014, pp. 76–122 6; Jump up^ Attridge 2014, pp. 124–6 7; Jump up^ For a detailed discussion of the varied intonations possible in iambic pentameter, seeCooper, John R. (Fall 1997). "Intonation and iambic pentameter". Papers on Language and Literature 33 (4): 392–421. reprinted with changes as the first chapter of Cooper, John R. (2009). "Iambic Pentameter". Wit's Voices: Intonation in Seventeenth-century English Poetry. University of Delaware Press. pp. 37–58. ISBN 978-0-87413-059-1.

8; Jump up^ Its final revised form in English Stress: Its Forms, Its Growth, and Its Role in Verse, Harper and Row, 1971.

9; Jump up^ Attridge 2014, p. 41 10; ^ Jump up to: Kiparsky, Paul (1975), "Stress, Syntax, and Meter" (PDF), Language 51 (3): a b

576–616, doi:10.2307/412889, retrieved 2011-06-11

11; Jump up^ Hayes, Bruce (1989), "The Prosodic Hierarchy in Meter", Phonetics and Phonology, Volume I: Rhythm and Meter (PDF), Academic Press, pp. 201–260, retrieved2012-07-24

12; Jump up^ Kiparsky said there were no such lines in Shakespeare. However, there is at least one: "Give renew'd fire to our extincted Spirits" (Othello II 1), pointed out as an objection to Kiparsky's theory by Groves, Peter L. (1998), Strange Music: The Metre of the English Heroic Line, ELS Monograph Series No.74, Victoria, BC: University of Victoria, ISBN 0920604-55-2. Thus Hayes's characterization "vanishingly few" seems more accurate.

13; Jump up^ Attridge 2014, p. 50 14; ^ Jump up to: Menichetti, Aldo (1994), "Quelques considérations sur la structure et a b

l'origine de l'«endecasillabo»", in Cerquiglini-Toulet, Jacqueline; Collet, Olivier, Mélanges de Philologie et de Littérature Médiévales Offerts à Michel Burger, Librairie Droz, p. 225,ISBN 2-600-00017-8, retrieved 2009-09-18

15; ^ Jump up to:

a b c d e Duffell, Martin J. (2008). A New History of English Meter. Modern Humanities Research Association. ISBN 1-905981-91-0.

16; Jump up^ That Chaucer had counted these es in his meter was not proposed till the 19th century and not proved statistically till the late 20th. Duffell 2008, pp. 83–84

17; Jump up^ Nims, John Frederick (1971), Sappho to Valéry: Poems in Translation, Princeton University Press, p. 18, ISBN 0-691-01365-9

18; Jump up^ http://www.rfwp.com/samples/hemi83.pdf

References[edit] 

Baker, David, ed. (1996). Meter in English: A Critical Engagement. University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 978-1-55728-444-0.



Bridges, Robert (2009) [1921]. Milton's Prosody with a Chapter on Accentual Verse and Notes. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-115-33690-1.



Corn, Alfred (2008). The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody. Copper Canyon Press. ISBN 978-1-55659-281-2.



Fussell, Paul (1979) [1965]. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-553606-4.



McDowell, Robert; Gross, Harvey S. (1996). Sound and Form in Modern Poetry. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06517-3.



Hobsbaum, Philip (1996). Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-41508797-1.



Malcovati, Leonardo (2005). Prosody in England and Elsewhere: A Comparative Approach. Gival Press. ISBN 978-1-928589-26-6.



Steele, Timothy (1999). All the fun's in how you say a thing: an explanation of meter and versification. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1259-6.



Turco, Lewis (1986). The New Book of Forms: A Handbook of Poetics. University Press of New England. ISBN 978-0-87451-380-6.



Williams, Miller (1986). Patterns of Poetry: An Encyclopedia of Forms. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1330-1.

Categories:

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Pyrrhic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Pyrrhic (verse metre))

For other uses, see Pyrrhic (disambiguation).

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

A pyrrhic (Greek: πυρρίχιος pyrrichios, from πυρρίχη pyrrichē) is a metrical foot used in formal poetry. It consists of two unaccented,short syllables.[1] It is also known as a dibrach.

Poetic use in English[edit] Tennyson used pyrrhics and spondees quite frequently, for example, in In Memoriam: When the blood creeps and the nerves prick. "When the" and "and the" in the second line may be considered as pyrrhics (also analyzable as ionic meter). Pyrrhics alone are not used to construct an entire poem due to the monotonous effect. [2] Poe observed that many experts rejected it from English metrics and concurred:

The pyrrhic is rightfully dismissed. Its existence in either ancient or modern rhythm is purely chimerical, and the insisting on so perplexing a nonentity as a foot of two short syllables, affords, perhaps, the best evidence of the gross irrationality and subservience to authority which characterise our Prosody.[3]

War dance[edit] By extension, this rhythmic pattern apparently formed the basis of an identically named ancient Greek war dance. Proclus thought it was the same as the hyporcheme (hyporchēma), while Athenaeus distinguished them; this may have depended on whether song accompanied the dance. Citing Aristoxenus, Athenaeus said the pyrrhic is a Spartan dance for boys carrying spears to prepare for war, and noted the intense speed of the dance. In Plato's Laws, the dance is described as representing the offensive and defensive movements in battle. Other Greeks associated it with Dionysus.[4]

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Harry Rusche, A Handbook of for Discussing Poetry, Emory University Department of English [1] Last accessed 20 December 2006

2; Jump up^ "Rhythm, Meter, and Scansion Made Easy," Riverdale School, [2] Last accessed 20 December 2006

3; Jump up^ Poe, "The Rationale of Verse" 4; Jump up^ Thomas J. Mathiesen. "Pyrrhic

Spondee From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Spondee (disambiguation).

[hide]This article has multiple issue

This article possibly contains origina

This article does not cite any sources

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

In poetry, a spondee (Latin: spondeus) is a metrical foot consisting of two long syllables, as determined by syllable weight in classical meters, or two stressed syllables, as determined by stress in modern meters. The word comes from the Greek σπονδή, spondē, "libation". The spondee typically does not provide the basis for a metrical line. Instead, spondees are found as irregular feet in meter based on another type of foot. For example, the epics of Homer and Vergil are written in dactylic hexameter. This term suggests a line of six dactyls, but a spondee can be substituted in most positions. The first line of Vergil's Aeneid has the pattern dactyl-dactyl-spondee-spondee-dactyl-spondee: Ārmă vĭrūmquĕ cănō, Troīaē quī prīmŭs ăb ōrīs In classical meter spondees are easily identified because the distinction between long and short syllables is unambiguous. In English meter indisputable examples are harder to find because metrical feet are identified by stress, and stress is a matter of interpretation. For example, the first part of this line from Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (in iambic pentameter) would normally be interpreted as two spondees: Crý, crý! Tróy búrns, or élse let Hélen gó.

See also[edit] 

Prosody (Latin)

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Tribrach (poetry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009)

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.

  

v t e

A tribrach is a metrical foot used in formal poetry and Greek and Latin verse. In quantitative meter (such as the meter of classical verse), it consists of three short syllables; in accentual-syllabic verse (such as formal English verse), the tribrach consists of threeunstressed syllables. According to some sources, another name for this meter is choree, from the Greek choreus. Other sources categorize the choree as a metrical foot containing two unstressed syllables, or one accented followed by one unaccented foot. The existence of the tribrach has been contested by some writers[who?] and its entry in the Oxford English Dictionary under 'Poetry ' lacks a formal definition, but does appear, primarily as a musical form, in some American dictionaries, such as Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary. Its appearance in English poetry is rare, as it tends to resolve into two disyllabic feet, depending upon the feet that surround it. This poetry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Categories:



Poetic rhythm

Trochee From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Metrical feet

Disyllables

˘˘

pyrrhus, dibrach

˘¯

iamb

¯˘

trochee, choree

¯¯

spondee

Trisyllables

˘˘˘

tribrach

¯˘˘

dactyl

˘¯˘

amphibrach

˘˘¯

anapaest, antidactylus

˘¯¯

bacchius

¯¯˘

antibacchius

¯˘¯

cretic, amphimacer

¯¯¯

molossus

See main article for tetrasyllables.



v

 

t e

In poetic meter, a trochee /ˈtroʊkiː/, choree, or choreus, is a metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressedone, in English, or a heavy syllable followed by a light one in Latin or Greek. In this respect, a trochee is the reverse of an iamb. The adjective form is trochaic. Contents [hide]



1Etymology



2Examples

o 2.1Latin 

3See also



4References

Etymology[edit] Trochee comes from French trochée, adapted from Latin trochaeus, originally from the Greek τροχός (trokhós), "wheel",[1] from the phrase trokhaios pous, literally "running foot";[2] along with choree from χορός, khorós, "dance"; both convey the "rolling" rhythm of this metrical foot. The phrase was adapted into English in the late 16th century.

Examples[edit] Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha, whose meter was taken from Elias Lönnrot's Kalevala,[3] is written almost entirely in trochees, barring the occasional substitution (iamb, spondee, pyrrhic, etc.). Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odours of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows, In the second line, "and tra-" is a Pyrrhic substitution, as are "With the" in the third and fourth lines and "of the" in the third. Even so, the dominant foot throughout the poem is the trochee. Apart from the case of Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha, this metre is rarely found in perfect examples, at least in English. This is from Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven": Ah, distinctly I it was in the bleak December; And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Trochaic meter is also seen among the works of William Shakespeare: Double, double, toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble.[4] Perhaps owing to its simplicity, though, trochaic meter is fairly common in children's rhymes: Peter, Peter pumpkin-eater Had a wife and couldn't keep her.

Often a few trochees will be interspersed among iambs in the same lines to develop a more complex or syncopated rhythm. Compare (William Blake): Tyger, Tyger, burning bright In the forests of the night These lines are primarily trochaic, with the last syllable dropped so that the line ends with a stressed syllable to give a strong rhyme or masculine rhyme. By contrast, the intuitive way that the mind groups the syllables in later lines in the same poem makes them feel more[according to whom?] like iambic lines with the first syllable dropped: Did he smile his work to see? The surrounding lines by this point have become entirely iambic: When the stars threw down their spears And watered Heaven with their tears ... Did he who made the lamb make thee? Trochaic verse is also well known in Latin poetry, especially of the medieval period. Since the stress never falls on the final syllable in Medieval Latin, the language is ideal for trochaic verse. The dies irae of the Requiem mass is a perfect[according to whom?] example: Dies irae, dies illa Solvet saeclum in favilla Teste David cum Sibylla. The Finnish national epic Kalevala, like much old Finnish poetry, is written in a variation of trochaic tetrameter. The Taylor Swift song Blank Space contains examples of trochaic metre in its chorus, which is responsible for many listeners mishearing part of the lyric as the line "Got a long list of ex-lovers" is forced into an unnatural shape to fit the stress pattern: Got a long list of ex-lovers Where the stress would,in spoken English, naturally fall on the 'ex' of 'ex-lovers', it instead falls on 'of' and the first syllable of 'lovers', which can

confuse on first hearing and cause the mind to try to fit an alternative two-syllable word into the 'of ex-' foot.

Latin[edit] In Greek and Latin, the syllabic structure deals with long and short syllables, rather than accented and unaccented. Trochaic meter was rarely used by the Latin poets, except in certain ages of the tragics and the comics.[5]

See also[edit] 

Trochaic substitution



Prosody (Latin)



Monometer

References[edit] 1; Jump up^ Etymology of the Latin word trochee, MyEtymology (retrieved 23 July 2015)

2; Jump up^ Trochee, Etymology Online (retrieved 23 July 2015)

3; Jump up^ Christoph Irmscher (2006), Longfell ow Redux, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, p. 108.

4; Jump up^ The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. London: Abbey

Library/Cresta House, 1977.

5; Jump up^ Gustavus Fischer, "Prosody", Ety mology and an introduction to syntax (Latin Grammar, Volume 1), J. W. Schermerhorn (1876) p. 395.

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