PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Focus: Principles and Theories of Learning and Motivation By: Prof. Aurelia T. Estrada & Prof. Marivilla Lydia B. Aggarao Competencies: 1. Analyze the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and socio-cultural factors that affect learining. 2. Organize the learning environment that promotes fairness regardless of culture, family background and gender, responsive to learner’s needs and difficulties

Part I – CONTENT UPDATE I. Learning A. Definitions: • Learning is a process by which behavior is either modified or wholly changed through experience or training. • It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation or new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge. B. Learning Theories • They are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place.  Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories » Prefer to concentrate on actual behavior » Conclusions based on observations of external manifestations of learning. – Classical Conditioning- Ivan Pavlov » Classical means “in the established manner” » Believes that individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response. » Inclues the following : • Stimulus Generalization – a process by which the conditioned response transfer to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. • Discrimination – a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of previous experiences. • Extinction – the process by which a conditioned response is lost.

– Edward Thorndlike’s Connectionism • Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and the response. • Involves the Three Major Laws of Learning  Law of Readiness - readiness is an important condition of learning. A learner may be satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared.  Law of Exercise – explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement.  Law of Effect – when an organism’s response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying state accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection is decreased. Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment, failure, or negative experiences hinder it.

– Burrhas Skinner’s Reinforcement and Operant Conditioning • Stresses the consequence of behavior in order to learn. • Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and controlling behavior in and out of theclassroom • Classifies Reinforcement into  Verbal – praise, encouragement.  Physical – touches, pats, hugs.  Non – Verbal – smiles, winks, warm looks.  Activity – being allowed to play games, Listen to music , etc.  Token – points, chips, stars  Consumable- Cookies

 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – Is also called observational learning theory – States that learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of others. – Stressed the importance of Models because the observer- learner may A. Aquire new responses B. Strengthen or weaken every existing response. C. Cause the reappearance of responses that have been apparently forgotten. – Involves Four Phases • Attention – more exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. Observer must attend and recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response. • Retention – reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that observed behavior. • Motor Reproduction Process – after observation, have students demonstrate as soon as possible. Correct behavior can be reinforced while incorrect ones are altered. • Motivational Process – although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior , there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

 Cognitive Learning Theories • Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process. • Believe in the non-observable behavior.  David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Learning Theory • Concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting. • Meaningful learning results when information is acquired by linking the new information in the learner’s own cognitive structure. • Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows. • A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers (different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas_ which help to link new learning material with existing related ideas • Is different from discovery learning, since o Reception Learning – is concerned about presenting the ideas to be learned to the learner in a wellorganized fashion , while o Discovery Learning – Focuses on having identify the key ideas to be learned by themselves and work out to store this information on their own.

 Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory (or Inquiry Method) • Implies learning by discovering the solution • Contends that students should be give a wide variety of examples of certain facts and information and encourage them to discover the answer of the underlying rules or principles. • An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. The idea is that students are more likely to concepts they discover on their own. • Emphasizes that students should learn to recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would like , search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy and execute the chosen strategy. • Believes that : “You can’t teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is to position them where they can find what they need to know when they need to know it” – Seymour Papert

 Other Significant Learning Comcepts 1. Short – Team Memory • Consists of what is in our consciousness at any given time. Constitute the raw material needed for thinking which is reffered to as “working memory”. • New information is retained only for about 20 seconds or so. Limited not only in the length of time it can hold info but also in capacity – 5 to 9 new items or information. • Chunking (grouping of separate bits of information in meaningful way) improves capacity for short – term memory. • Without continued rehearsal and use, this information is generally lost from memory in about 20 seconds. • Value of short – term memory is that it enables us to store information long enough to make sense of the words and data we are dealing with at the moment. • When we have rehearsed and transformed input into meaningful information, it then has a chance of being encoded in the long – term memory.

2. Long –Term Memory • ive unconscious process as differentiated from short – term (active, dynamic, conscious) • Information enters slowly, not easily accessible, can be stored in unlimited amounts, is retained, indefinitely, not easily disrupted.  Cognitive psychologists subdivided the long – term memory into at least 3 components. • Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular times and places and a storage place for many personal experiences. • Semantic Memory – Knowledge of general facts, principles and concepts that are not connected to particular times and places. Organized in networks of connected ideas or relationships. • Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to “knowing that”

3. Teaching fpr Transfer (Gagne) • Transfer – To convey or cause to from one Place, person or things to another ; to direct (a person) elsewhere for help or information. • Retention – ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced. • Interference – act or an instance of hindering , obstructiong or impeding. • Forgetting – that apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual’s long term memory. 4. Forgetting • Decay (lack of use) and interference (new information interferes with ing old information) appears to be the primary means by which information is loss in the short – term memory. • Information stored in the long – term as well as the short – term, that is newer information and experiences can interfere with or cloud older memories.

5. Types of Interference • Proactive Inhibition – previous knowledge makes it difficult to new knowledge • Retroactive Inhibition – assimilation of new information gets in the way of ing already stored information 6. Specific Strategies for Memory Enhancement • Use Mnemonic Devices – one is the successive – comparison system based on idea that if two ideas are blended vividly in the mind, recalling one of them will automatically lead to recall. • Over Learn the Material – retention of new material can be enhanced if practice or review continues beyond the first errorless reproduction of the new information. • Distribute, study and practice new material, similar to medicine (can be taken in large or small dozes). • Sleep after studying not before.

• 7. Teaching Strategies that can be Enchance Retention and Learning. • Make sure you have students attention and look for ways to keep it. • Help students see relationship between information they have, learned and new information. • Give students opportunities for repetitive study and for review. • Reduce memorization to a minimum; keep meaning and comprehension at a maximum.

II. Achieving Cognitive , Psychomotor, and Affective Learning Outcomes. What are Learning Outcomes? • Consist of the particular knowledge, skill or behavior that a student is expected to exhibit after a period of study. • Provides information on what particular knowledge (cognitive), skill or behavior(psychomotor and affective), students gained after instruction is completed.  Cognitive Learning • Includes the learning of – o Fact- something that is true, something that actually exists or something having objective reality that can be identified according to an established standard or evaluation; is the lowest form of cognitive learning. o Concept – basically the main idea. A general idea derived or interfered from specific instances or occurences , or related set of facts put together; a higher form of learning. o Generalization – act or process of perceiving similarity or relation between different stimuli, between words , colord , sounds , lights , concepts , or feelings ; the formation of a general notion ; putting together related concepts; may also be similar to formulation of principles and rules governing certaijn concepts previously learned; the highest form of learning o Thinking – rational ; reasoning ; involves logic.

 Involves Levels of Cognitive Development )Bloom’s Taxonomy) • Knowledge – expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education. • Comprehension – intellectual ability ; the ability to grasp the meaning of something. • Application – act of putting something to a special use or purpose. • Analysis – resolution of anything complex into simple element. • Synthesis – result of combination, combining of various components, ideas, influence, or objects into a new whole. • Evaluation – assessment of value , act of considering examining something in order to judge its value , quality , importance extent or condition.

 Comes in the form of the following learning outcomes – Concept Leaning • Search for and listing of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples from non-exemplars of various categories, Concepts are the mental categories that help us classify objects , events , or ideas and each object, events or ideas , and each object , event or idea has a set of common relevant features. – Thinking, which can be of these types: • Problem Solving – process involved in the solution of a problem . A problem is simply a request for a satisfiable outcome to a situation. Solving the problem is a method of organizing the given information and using that information, along with knowledge you possess, to obtain the desired outcome or solution.

• Problem Solving Process o Problem definition o Problem analysis o Generating possible solution o Analyzing the solution o Selecting the best solution o Planning the next course of action • Strategies for Problem Solving o Define the Problem o Analyze the Problem o Establish Criteria o Propose solutions o Take action

 Critical Thinking 1. Convergent thinking. Assesses the worth and validity of something existent. 2. Involves precise, persistent objective analysis. 3. When teachers try to get several learners to think convergently, they try to help them develop common understanding. 4. Useful only in those situations where human beings need to solve problems, make descisions or decide in a reasonable end reflective way what to do or what to believe.  Strategies for Developing Critical Thinking 1. Remain relevant to the point 2. Take the entire situation into 3. Keep the original problem in mind 4. Look for options 5. Use credible sources  Critical Thinking Skills 1. Comparing and contrasting ideas with actual practice 2. Noting significant similarities and differences 3. Recognizing contradictions 4. Exploring implications and consequences.

 Creative Thinking  Involves the ability to produce new forms in art of mechanics or to solve problems by novel methods  Creativity consists in coming up with new andrelevant ideas  Creativity – two kinds  Cognitive- involved in problem solving  Aesthetic – relating to artistic creation  Strategies in Creating Creative Thinking • Be imaginative and take risk of what is not ordinary • Be open – minded ; be flexible • Grow in knowledge by reading , listening to others and involving yourself in different learning experiences

 Metcognition / Metacognitive Thinking – Meta- after; beyond; higher – Cognition – way of thinking ; perceiving; knowing\ – Refers to the idea of “knowing about knowing” involves the study of how we think about our own thinking in order to develop strategies of learning. – Is the capacity to monitor and regulate one’s own thinking processes and strategies , including the ability to evaluate and regulate one’s own thinking processes.  Characteristics of a Metacognitive Thinker – Has a realistic self – concept (taking conscious control of learning) – Able to make plans for himself. – Able to set short-term and long-term goals for his life (anticipates the future – projective thinking) – Determines strategies to achieve his goals (correcting errors, analyzing the effectiveness of learning strategies) – Direct his efforts, behavior and resources to the achievement of the goals (changing learning behaviors and strategies when necessary)

• Importance of Metacognition to Education • The task of educators is to acknowledge, cultivate, exploit, and enhance the metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learnes. • Independence leads to ownership as students realize they can pursue their non intellectual needs and discover a world of information at their fingertips.

 Principles involved in Achieving Cognitive Learning and Their Classroom Implications A. Content: Teach tacit heuristic knowledge as well as textbook knowledge. B. Situated Learning: Teach knowledge and skills that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life C. Modelling and Explaining: Show how a process unfolds and tell reasons why it happens that way. D. Coaching and : Pay personalized attention to performance, coupled with appropriate hints, helps, and encouraging . E. Articulation and Reflection: Make students think about and give reasons for their actions/ own performance. F. Exploration: Encourage students to try out different strategies and observe their effects. G. Sequence: Proceed in an order from simple to complex, with increasing diversity.

B. Affective Learining 1. Includes the learning of• Belief – an accepting of something or someone as true or reliable without asking for proof. • Attitude – a particular feeling or way of thinking about something. • Values – important and enduring beliefs or ideals shared by the of a culture about what is good or desirable and what is not. 2. Addresses interests, attitudes, options, appreciations, values , and emotional sets, and values, the learning of which should lead to internalization. 3. Levels of Affective Domain (Krathwol’s Taxonomy)  Receiving – student ively attends to particular phenomena or stimuli (classroom, activities, textbook, music , etc.) Teachers concern is that the students attention is focused. Intended outcomes include the students awareness that a thing exists. • Sample Objectives : listens attentively: shows sensitivity to social problems. • Behavioral Tems : (asks, chooses, identifies, locates, points to, sits erect, etc.)

 Responding – student actively participates, student not only attends to the stimulus but reacts in some ways. • Objectives: completes homework, obeys rules, participates in class discussion, shows interest in subjects, enjoys helping others, etc. • : answers, assists, completes, discusses, helps performs, presents , etc.

 Valuing – the worth of a student attaches to the particular object, phenomenon of behavior. Ranges from acceptance to commitment (eg. Assumes responsibility for the functioning of a group), attitudes and appreciation. • Objectives : shows concern for other’s welfare, demonstrates beliefs in democratic ways • : differentiates, explains, initiates, justifies, shares, etc.  Organization – bringing together different values, resolving conflicts among them, and starting to build an internally consistent value system – comparing, relating and synthesizing values and developing a philosophy of life. • Objectives : understands the role of systematic planning in solving problems, accepts responsibility for own behavior, etc. • : arranges, combines, integrates, modifies, organizes compares, etc.  Characterization by a Value Complex – at this level the person has held a value that has controlled his behavior for a sufficiently long time that a characteristic “lifestyle” has been developed. Behavior is pervasive, consistent and predictable. • Objectives : displays self – reliance in working independently, cooperates in group activities , etc. • : acts, discriminates, displays, influences, serves, solves, questions, revises, etc.

4. Principles Involved in Achieving the development of attitudes and Values and Their Classroom Implications. • Every interaction with children provides an opportunity to teach values. • Children learn about out values through daily interaction with us. • Children learn through our examples. • Children learn values through the way we do things as a family. • Children learn values and beliefs through their exposure to the larger world. • Children learns values through our explanations of the world.  Psychomotor Learning  Includes the difference among 0 • Capacity – the innate facility of power to produce , perform or deploy. • Ability – competence in an activity or occupation because of ones skill, training, or other qualification ; is learned. • Skill – learned capacity to carry out predetermined results often with the minimum outlay of time , energy , or both.

 Levels of Psychomotor Learning • Perception – ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation through cue selection to translation. – Ex. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell or taste of food. – Keywords: chooses, describes, detects, identifies, selects, etc. • Set – readiness to act. Includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermined a person’s response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). – Ex. Recognizes ones abilities and limitation – Keywords: begins, displays, explains , proceeds, shows, reacts , etc. • Guided Response – early stage in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequency of performance is achieved by practicing. – Ex. Follows instruction to build a model. – Keyword : copies, traces , follows , reproduces, responds, etc.

• Mechanism – this is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses had become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. – Ex. Uses personal computer, repairs a leaking faucet, drives a car, etc. – Keywords: assembles, constructs, manipulates , measures, etc. • Complex Covered Response- skillfull performance of motor acts that involves complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate and highly coordinated performance. – Ex. Operates computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. – Keywords: Assembles, organizes, measures, construct, etc. • Adaptation – skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. – Ex. Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. – Keywords: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies , etc. • Origination – Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. – Ex. creates a new gymnastic routine, develops a new and comprehensive training program. – Keywords: arranges, builds , combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiates, etc.

 Principles Involved in Achieving Psychomotor Learning and Their Classroom Implications. The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face to face situation. The psychomotor domain focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of accuracy, smoothness, rapidity or force. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or operations for a child of given age. Avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current motor capabilities. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges. Psychomotor learning is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners to perform.

III. Motivation What is it? • An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want.) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. • Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior we ordinarily refer to as ability. Ability refers to what an individual can do or is able to do and motivation (or lack of at) refers to what a person wants to do. • In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to understand that motivation comes in two forms.

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Types of Motivation  Extrinsic Motivation – when students work hard to win their parents favor , gain teachers praise or earn high grades ; their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves. • Is fueled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from an external source. • Teacher is assertive and the students are ive. • Can have a powerful effect on behavior. People work for a paycheck, not just because they like working. • If students are preoccupied with reward, they might not pay so much attention as they should to what they are supposed to be learning. • If students perceive themselves as completing an assignment solely to attain rewards they may develop a “piece work mentality” or “minimum strategy” in which they concentrate on maximizing rewards by meeting minimum standards rather than doing excellent job as its own reward  Itrinsic Motivation – when students study because they enjoy the subject and desire to learn it, irrespective of the praise won on grades earned; the reasons for learning reside primarily inside themselves. • Fueled by one’s own goal or ambitions. • Self – starting , self perpetuating and requires only an inward interest to keep the motivational machinery going. • The use of rewards as extrinsic motivation has sometimes been found to increase intrinsic motivation, something that is likely to happen when the rewards are contigent on the quality of performances as opposed to simply participating in an activity.

 Principles of Motivation • The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned. • Incentives motivate learning. • Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self – directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards. • Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is when one wants to know something. • Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized  Theories of Motivation  Drive Theory (Clark Hull) • Drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates behavior. • Drives most typically have been considered to involve physiological survival needs; hunger, thirst, sleep , pain, sex. • A drive results from the activation of a need • Need- a physiological deficiency that creates a condition of disequilibrium in the body.

 Self – Efficacy (Albert Bandura) • Self – efficacy – it is the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. • Self – efficacy relates to a person’s sense of self – worth. • Self – efficacy affects people’s behavior including their 1. Choice of activities 2. Goals 3. Efforts and persistence 4. Learning and achievement  Factors in the development of self – efficacy 1. Previous successes and failures 2. Messages from others 3. Successes and failures of others 4. Successes and failures of the group as a whole

 Self Determination (Richard Ryan) • Self – Determination – comes from the sense of autonomy that a person has when it comes to things that he does and the choices he makes. • Tasks for a long period of time • To think meaningfully and creatively about those tasks • To experience pleasure in one’s activities • To achieve at higher level • We have the capacity to take risks or challenges that can enrich our lives and developed ourselves more. • There are several variables that influence people’s sense of self determination one way or the other.  Choices  Threats and deadlines  Controlling statements  Extrinsic reward  Surveillance and evaluation

 Theory of achievement motivation (Atkinson) – Motivation to perform is affected by two variables\ » Expectancy – people must believe that they can accomplish a task, that’ is, they should have expectancy about what the want to achieve. » Value – they should place an importance or value in what they are doing – Several factors affecting expectancy » Previous triumphs and failures » Perceived difficulty of a task » One’s general work habits » Environmental resources » Quality of instruction » Anticipated effort necessary to succeed – Value is equally subjective in nature . some activities are valued due to » Personal characteristics that a person yearns for » Seen as means to a desired goal » They bring happiness.

 Attribution Theory (B. Weiner) – People’s various explanations for success and failure – their beliefs about what causes attributions. – Dimensions underlying people’s attributions. People can explain events in many different ways. For example, a tennis player may attribute his/her wins and successes in matches to things like – luck, health, effort, mood, strengths and weaknesses of his/her opponents, climate, his/her fans etc. – Attribution’s of people are affected by three dimensions. » Locus: (Place) Internal vs. External. » Internal : factors within ourselves. » External : factors beyond our control. » Temporal Stability : Stable vs. Unstable. » Stable : things that probably won’t change much in the near future. » Unstable : things that are can change from time to time. » Controllability : Controllable vs. Uncontrollable. » Controllable – things we can influence and change. » Uncontrollable – things that we have no influence.

 Techniques in Motivating Learners • Challenge them. Offer students opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take intellectual risks. • Build on strengths first. Opportunity to use their talents to achieve success. • Offer choices – offering choices develop ownership . When a child makes decisions he/she is more likely to accept ownership and control of the results. • Provide a secure environment. Permits children to fall without penalty. Learning how to deal with failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning. • Teach them how to make their tasks more manageable. Narrowing the topic to a challenging but manageable size is very important for developing motivation. • Teach students to evaluate themselves. Self – evaluation need to address the questions, “What was done well?”. “How can it be improved?” • Competition - can enhance or reduce motivation depending on how it is used. It is good for some, but it may result in a few winners and many losers.

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS 1. The learner should be biologically prepared applies to the law of A. Readiness B. Exercise C. Effect D. Practice ANALYSIS: 1. Biologically prepared here refers to the particular age level that a child can do or exhibit a particular behavior expected of him/her A. B. C.

This is the correct answer because the child is ready to do a particular thing or exhibit the behavior expected of him/her particular level. Biological preparedness or readiness can not be advanced nor delayed because it is a natural unfolding and D. exercise and practice similar concepts. If a child is not ready to learn, how can he practice or exercise if he/she has not yet learned something. Effect – this is in contrast to preparedness. Something has already taken place or has happened to see its effect/s. Preparedness has something to do with “before” and effect with “after”.

2. Which of the following statements will not the concept of individual differences? A. Use varied activities for a difficult lesson B. Consider the uniqueness of each student C. Involve all students regardless of what the activity is D. Help should be extended to both the gifted and retarded learners/students. ANALYSIS: Focus here is the concept of individual differences A. Using varied activities will meet individual differences. Some of the activities may be simple which will be suited to the slow or average students while some activities which may be quite difficult will be for the fast or bright students. B. Considering the uniqueness (what an individual possesses which others do not) is tantamount to acknowledging individual differences. C. Not all students will be interested in an activity especially if it is not interesting to them or is somewhat difficult to do. If all students will be involved regardless of what the activity is, then the concept of individual differences is not applied. D. Helping both the gifted and retarded learners/students is also considered as recognizing individual differences. Through some students are gifted, somehow they also need help in other aspects of development.

3. Mr. David would like to increase the abilities of his students to solve more complex problems. What must Mr. David do? A. Correct all wrong answers at all time. B. Increase practice with simple problems. C. Reduce stimulation so as to increase attention to the task. D. Problems match appropriately to student’s level of thinking. ANALYSIS: The thing to consider here is “to solve more complex problems” A. Just correcting the wrong answers of students at all time will not increase their abilities in solving more complex problems. B. It deals with simple problems. How will the students learn solving complex problems when they are used to solving simple problems only. C. If stimulation is lessened, the more students attention to the task at hand will be lessened, the more they will not think and be able to solve especially complex problems. D. This is the correct answer. Matching the problems to be solved with the students level of thinking is saying that the problem to be solved, through how complex. It is, is still not too easy nor too difficult but just right for the students to work on.

4. Which of the following statements is false about motivation? A. B. C. D.

A force that energizes, sustains and directs behavior toward a goal. Sometimes referred to as the “go of personality” in that its absence usually reduces most normal people to a state of listlessness and apathy. It is an external state or condition that serves to activate or energize behavior and gives it direction. It is a psychological state that is the consequence with a person having activated his or her motives.

5. The following are specific strategies for memory enhancement. Which one is not? A. B. C. D.

Use mnemonic devices Over learn the material Sleep before studying Distribute, study and practice new, materials

6. Which of the following statements is false? A. Critical thinking is a process, the goal of which is to make reasonable decisions about what to believe and what to do. B. Creative thinking is the generation thoughts, ideas, decisions, and actions often by novel and unexpected means. C. Metacognition is the capacity to monitor and regulate one’s own thinking or mental activity. D. None of the above.

7. Which phase in observational learning refers to – “although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there will be no overt performances unless conditions are favorable? A. Attention B. Retention C. Motivational Process D. Motor Reproduction Process

8. Which of the following best described what meaningful learning is? A. B. C. D.

When what is to be learned is new and easy for the students. Materials presented are difficult and challenging to the students. When the material to be learned is related to what students already know. Principle of learning aided by formulating and asking questions

9. Which of the following principles of learning applies to considering student’s age in presenting certain content and cognitive process? A. B. C. D.

Principle of readiness Principle of learning by doing Principle of presenting challenging tasks Principle of learning aided by formulating and asking questions.

10. When the usual manner of doing things is lost, the process is called A. Habituation B. Extinction C. Demolition D. None of the above 11. There are six levels in cognitive development moving through the lowest process to the highest.  Knowledge 2. Application 3. Synthesis 4. Analysis 5. Comprehension 6. Evaluation A. B. C. D.

1-5-2-4-3-6 1-2-3-4-5-6 1-3-5-2-4-6 1-4-2-3-5-6

12. Which principle underlies cognitive learning? A. B. C. D.

Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning. Meaningful engagement is necessary for deeper learning. Motivation generates, directs and sustains learning behavior All of the above.

13. Which of the following motivation is false?

A. B. C. D.

External motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than internal motivation. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized. Motivation to perform is affected by expectancy and value. Internal motivation is fueled by one’s goals or ambitions.

14. Which is not characteristic of a metacognitive thinker? A. B. C. D.

Has a realistic self-concept Able to make plans for himself Able to set short-term and long-term goals Propose solutions to problems

15. The following are stages in learning psychomotor skill. Which one is not?

A. B. C. D.

Planning stage Cognitive stage Organizing stage Perfecting stage

16. Which of the following is not included in affective learning? A. Attitudes B. Beliefs C. Values D. Ambitions 17. Which of the following will enhance the learning of preschoolers? A. B. C. D.

Always give reward and never punish Activities should be hands-on and not written Use colorful, attractive and challenging materials Make activities too easy, simple and for a short period of time

18. Maturation should precede certain types of learning. How is this applied in the classroom? A. B. C. D.

Follow the interest of students in asg task Concepts should be taught from simple to complex. Consider age level of students in teaching certain concepts. Give the same task to all students in a particular grade level.

19. Why should teacher provide positive and realistic praise? A. B. C. D.

To motivate the students to study. So the students will know what to do To be liked and loved by the students So the students will praise him/her

20. Which statement does not refer to cognitive theories? A. B. C. D.

Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process. Conclusions are based on observation of external manifestations of learning. Study of the structures and components of information processing Believe in the non-observable behavior

21. Which of the following is an application of classical conditioning in the classroom? A. B. C. D.

A first grade teacher greets each of the students with a smile when they come into the room in the morning. The teacher checks the given assignment everyday. The monitoring of absences is done by the class secretary. Cleanliness and orderliness of the room is a must in the classroom of Mrs. Orilla.

22. Which of the following principles apply in this situation? Teacher presented a new lesson wherein the students were asked to work on a new project which was somewhat complicated. The students showed interest while working on it. A. B. C. D.

Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging Lessons should be presented in varied and different ways Meaningful materials are readily learned than nonsense materials. Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate practice.

23. All except one is not a characteristic of Skinner’s reinforcement and operant conditioning. Which one is not?

A. B. C. D.

Stressed the consequence of behavior in order to learn Proved that reinforcement is a powerful toll in shaping and controlling behavior in and out of the classroom. Emphasized the greater influence of the environment on learning and behavior that is either to reinforce or eliminate None of the above.

24. What should a teacher do to help students learn psychomotor skills? A. Teacher uses verbal explanation and description of the movements in addition to live demonstration of the movements. B. Teacher provides to the learner about his/her progress. C. Teacher encourages the learner to practice , practice, in order to maintain his/her sharpness. D. All of the above.

PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS 1. Which theory operates in “stimulus – response principle, which means all behaviors? Are caused by external stimuli? A. B. C. D.

Contextualist Theory Behaviorist Theory Cognitive Theory Constructivist Theory

ANALYSIS: • Option A – it explains that learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment an individual lives in. • Option B – is the correct option. It tells about how behaviors are acquired and developed through external stimuli. • Option C – it mentions about mental images and verbal descriptions as tools for retaining information. • Option D – is the correct options. It discusses how prior knowledge helps the learner Understand new information in the learning process.

2. Teacher Angelo , a SPED teacher, before introducing a new , lesson, he helps his highly functioning ADHD students build the prerequisite knowledge since prior knowledge is essential for the comprehension of new information. What learning theory is associated in the situation? A. B. C. D.

Social Learning Theory Information Processing Dual – Coding Learning Theory Schema Learning Theory

Analysis • Option A- it tells about how people learn through observation, imitation and modeling. • Option B – it explains that an individual learns when the human mind takes in information, perform operation in it and retrieve when needed. • Option C – it mentions about mental images and verbal descriptions as tools for retaining information • Option D – is the correct option. It discusses how prior knowledge helps the learner understand new information in the learning process.

3. Ms. Erika in her Biology class accompanies her discussion with interesting visual aids. She strongly believes that students learn better when lessons are presented with images, real or imagined aside from mere lecture method of verbal representations. Which learning theory she upholds to?

A. B. C. D.

Social Cognitive Theory Dual – Coding Theory Information Processing Approach Meaningful Reception Learning Theory

Analysis • Option A – it explains that children learn by what they see and observe • Option B – is the correct option since the teacher uses both mental images and verbal representations as tools in affecting learning. • Option C – it tells about gaining insight in understanding information • Option D – it talks about relatedness between previously known information to new information to make learning more meaningful.

4. Marga , a 3-year old girl, applies make – up on her face, gets her mom’s bag, wears her shoes and starts walking around the receiving room as soon as her mom left for work. What theory explains such? A. Contextual Theory B. Cognitive Theory C. Social Learning D. Constructivist Theory

Analysis • Option A – it points out hat learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment an individual lives in. • Option B – it tells about the influence of psychological factors on how one behaves • Option C – is the correct option. It explains that children learn by simply watching and observing the behavior of another person, called the model, and later imitating the model’s behavior. • Option D – is illustrates that learning is an active and constructive process way in the learning process.

5. Which of the following learning theories in Thorndlike states that an organism learns by doing and forget by not doing, in other words, it refers to the law of use and law of disuse. A. B. C. D.

Law of Effect Law of Set and Attitude Law of Readiness Law of Exercise

Analysis • Option A – it explains on reward and punishment in increasing desirable and undesirable behaviors. • Option B – it tells about “pre-judgments” or prior experiences effect toward a given task • Option C – it points out on satisfying and annoying response depending on the preparedness of the learner. • Option D – is the correct answer. It suggests that connections between a stimulus and response are strengthened as they are used and weakened when practice is discontinued

6. Which of the following learning theories explained on Zone of Proximal Development? (ZPD) wherein the gap between actual and potential development should be mediated? A. B. C. D.

Social Cognitive Social Constructivism Cognitive Construction Cognitive Behavior Modification

7. Mr. Ang patiently teaches his son, John on how to ride a bike. After a month of holding on to John’s bike while John rides on it, Mr. Ang gradually detaches himself to the bike then John afterwards could now ride his bike on his own. What has been practiced in the situation? A. B. C. D.

Learning Scaffolding Knowing Understanding

8. Who among the proponents of theories of learning was known for his “Bobo Doll” experiment wherein children imitated what they have witnessed regarding the treatment given to Bobo doll?

A. B. C. D.

Albert Bandura Jullian Rotter Ivan Pavlov Burrhus Skinner

9. What theory explains the interlocking of one system to another system wherein if the relationship in the immediate system breaks down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment resulting to behavioral deficiencies? A. B. C. D.

Contextualist Theory Constructivism Theory Behaviorism Theory Cognitive Theory

10. Which of the following best describes what meaningful learning is? A. B. C. D.

When what is to be learned is new and easy for the students Materials presented are difficult and challenging to the students. When the material to be learned is related to what students already know. Students find the lessons easy and relevant to what was assigned to them.

11. Ms. Jones after learning the statements made by her colleague toward their newly appointed principal, she is carefully deliberating or whether to accept , reject or suspend judgment in such claim. What type of thinking Ms. Jones has?

A. B. C. D.

Creative Thinking Critical Thinking Reflective Thinking Logical Thinking

12. The class of Mr. Veloso read the book entitled “ The Reader”. After which he divided the class into two groups and asked each group to write and perform a play based on the story. The group who performed better is exempted to take the long quiz. What cognitive domain is manifested? A. B. C. D.

Evaluation Knowledge Analysis Synthesis

13. Mr. Tan is a man with principles. He sees to it that he assesses correctly his statements using analysis and logic before disclosing his evaluation to his subordinates. Mr. Tan is manifesting what type of thinking? A. B. C. D.

Creative Thinking Critical Thinking Reflective Thinking Logical Thinking

14. One of Mr. Agor’s in the dance troupe collapsed during their rehearsal for their competition in Seoul, Korea. What should Mr. Agor do with the student?

A. B. C. D.

Ignore the student and go on with the rehearsal Pull-out the student and bring her/him at the back stage Do not allow him/her anymore to at the competition Give him/her first aid

15. According to this cognitive theory, the individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), perform operation in it, stores the information (storage) andretrieves it when needed (retrieval) A. B. C. D.

Meaningful Reception Cumulative Learning Information Processing Cognitive Behavior Modification

16. Learning is used to be meaningful when new information is related to what the learner already know. What theory s such statement?

A. B. C. D.

Cognitive Behavior modification Information Processing Cumulative Learning Meaningful Reception

17. It refers to the acquisition of fine and gross motor skills in conjunction with muscular development as they relate to the mental process. A. B. C. D.

Cognitive Learning Affective Learning Psychomotor Learning Social Learning

18. Teacher Kiko prepared the materials for his laboratory class in chemistry. He instructed the team leader in every group to start along with the of the group. Mr. Kiko allows his students to construct their own knowledge through direct experience and enable them to create schema. What theory is displayed in the given situation? A. B. C. D.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivism Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

19. When the nature of situation has a significant effect on the process of learning, this statement is ed by what theory? A. B. C. D.

Learning Modalities Individual Differences in Learning Situated Learning Learning Styles

20. When the nature vs nurture, heredity and environment plays a significant role in the learning process. He proposed that environmental context has interrelated major levels. But if the relationship in the immediate system breaks down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his/her environment resulting to behavioral and academic deficiencies. A. B. C. D.

William Kohler Robert Gagne David Ausubel Urie Brofenbrenner

21. Schools and teachers should work to the primary relationship of the child and create an environment that welcomes family relationship and close collaboration between home and school? A. B. C. D.

Giving of report card and outing Parent – conferencing and ticket selling Home visitation and parent – conferencing Telephone brigade and interview

22. It explains the gap between actual and potential development wherein the former refers to what children can do on their own, while the latter refers to what children can do with help A. B. C. D.

Scaffolding Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Assimilation Accommodation

23. Joy, a sophomore high school student from Sto. Tomas school was well – known for her abilities to show case her talents during the sophomore night and has the most number of acquaintances because of her initiative to start a conversation with her peers. Joy has the intelligence of A. B. C. D.

Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist Existentialist

24. It is an instructional process in which the teacher adjusts the amount and type of offered to the child to suit the child’s abilities, withdrawing the as the child becomes more skilled. A. B. C. D.

Scaffolding Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Assimilation Accommodation

25. One of the requirements of teacher Carmel in her class Is a case study. She grouped her class into four and asked each group to prepare a case to present their view about homosexuality. What cognitive domain is displayed.?

A. B. C. D.

Evaluation Knowledge Synthesis Analysis