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A kindergartner shows his anxiety as he works

on a test. Many researchers and educators are strongly opposed to the use ofreadiness tests for grade placement, such as entering first grade.

scores might not be itted to advanced classes or other special programs in school. Their failure to gain ission would occur despite the fact that they can probably do as well as girls who had higher test scores. If we accept this definition of test bias, then the tests most frequently used to measure abil ities typically are not statistically biased (Reynolds, 1 994). In other words, when of a given group score lower on the tests-for example, tests of various abilities-their per formance on the criteria to be predicted, such as school grades, is generally lower. Not every one accepts this definition, however. Some people believe we need to view bias as part of a larger system, in which it is possible for both the criteria (e.g., school grades) and the predic tor test to be biased (see also Freedle, 2006; Reed et aI., 2007). THE C U LTURAL CONTEXT O F TESTI N G

Although we discussed cultural issues in general in Chapter 6, certain aspects o f culture apply directly to issues in standardized testing. These aspects are called culture-relevant, culture fair, and culture-free testing. • C U L T U R E - R E L E VA N T T E S T I N G People go into testing situations with very different cultural as well as socioeconomic backgrounds. A person whose native language is not Eng lish will obviously be at a disadvantage when given a test in English (Sattler, 1 992). A person who is not used to doing things under time pressure will be at a disadvantage when asked to take a severely time-constrained test. Cultural relevance is the extent to which a task or test is an appropriate measure, given a person's cultural background. In interpreting measures of individual differences, teachers need always to think about the extent to which a person's background has prepared him or her to take that test (Greenfield, 1997 ) . Making a test cul ture relevant means not just translating it into a language a person can understand. It also means ensuring that the content is meaningful to the person, given his or her cultural con texts. For valid cross-cultural comparisons, one must further ensure that the meaning of the test items in one culture is the same as the meaning in the culture to which the comparison is being drawn. Consider an example. Obviously, a question such as "Who was the first president of the United States?" does not become culturally fair when translated into the native language of a non-American. Why would a non-American even know who the first president of the

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United States was? This person would be far more likely to know the first leader of his or her own country. However, changing the test item to read, "Who was the first president of your country?" does not achieve equivalence either. Why not? First, because the country may never have had a president. Second, even if it has, the importance of the presidency in another country (e.g., one that also has a prime minister) may be different from that in this country. (For more on these issues, see Ogbu, 1 994.) The hazards of single-culture research have been shown by many research programs. For example, Greenfield ( 1997) found that it means a different thing to take a test among Mayan children than it does among most children in the United States. The Mayan expectation is that collaboration is not only permissible, but that it is rather unnatural notto collaborate. Such a finding is consistent with work suggesting different cultural constructions of the self in indi vidualistic cultures (i.e., cultures that stress the importance of the role of the individual) ver sus collectivistic cultures (i.e., cultures that stress the importance of the role of the group) (Markus & Kitayama, 199 1 ). Indeed, some cultures, especially Asian ones, tend to be more dialectical in their thinking, stressing that many problems have no "right" and "wrong" answers that stay the same over time. Other cultures, such as European and North American ones, tend to be more linear, believing that most problems do, indeed, have right and wrong answers that remain the same over time (Nisbett, 2003). Individuals in different cultures may even construct concepts in quite different ways (Atran, 1999; Coley, Medin, Proffitt, Lynch, & Atran, 1 999; Medin & Atran, 1999). For example, they may view "disease" in totally different ways, as caused by bacteria, spirits, or other entities. Thus groups may think about what appears superficially to be the same phenomenon-whether a concept or the taking of a test-differently. Many investigators have realized the importance of cultural context (Laboratory of Com parative Human Cognition, 1982; Serpell, 2002). Some studies have looked at Brazilian street children (Carraher, Carraher, & Schliemann, 1985; Ceci & Roazzi, 1 994; Nunes, 1994) . Brazil ian street children are under great pressure to form a successful street business. If they do not, they risk death at the hands of "death squads;' which may murder children who, because they are unable to earn money, resort to robbing stores (or who are suspected of resorting to rob bing stores). Researchers have found that the same children who are able to do the mathe matics needed to run their street businesses are often poorly able or completely unable to receive ing grades on tests of school mathematics. In fact, the more abstract and removed from real-world contexts the problems are in their form of presentation, the worse the children do on the problems. These results suggest that differences in environmental con text can have a powerful effect on performance. Such differences are not limited to Brazilian street children. Homemakers in Berkeley, Cal ifornia, who could do the mathematics needed for comparison shopping in the supermarket successfully, were unable to do the same mathematics when they were tested in a classroom and given the same kinds of problems presented in an abstract form (Lave, 1988) . In other words, their problem did not occur at the level of mental processes, but rather at the level of applying the processes in specific environmental contexts. A culture-fair test has the same meaning for of • C U LTU R E - F A I R T E S T I N G all cultures. This idea is different from that of culture relevance, where a test is designed to work for a particular culture, or occasionally, more than one culture. True culture fairness is virtually impossible to achieve. People in different cultures have different language and educational backgrounds, different social backgrounds, different experience with and attitudes toward tests, and even different notions of how to perform in a testing situation. T H INK ING ANALYT ICALLY Can you ever free a test com pletely of cultural influence? Why or why not? S U G G E ST I O N : Probably not.

The very act of taking a test is culturally influenced.

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C U LTU R E - F R E E T E S T I N G A culture-free test is unaffected by culture or cultural context. It is difficult to imagine constructing a test that is wholly unaffected by culture. Indeed, the very act of taking a test is a cultural act. People bring to the testing situation their cultural background. Moreover, scores on tests are always interpreted in a cultural context by people who have grown up with certain cultural expectations. Even tests that lack bias or achieve cultural relevance can be harmful if used for purposes for which they are not valid, as we discuss next. •


M IS U S E S O F STA N D A R D I Z E D TESTS

Two ways in which standardized test scores sometimes are misused in U.S. schools are ( 1 ) their use as the sole basis for selection or placement decisions and (2) their use as the sale way of judging the performance of a school, district, state, or even country. Why are these inap propriate uses of standardized tests? • H I G H - S TA K E S T E S T I N G The use of test scores as the sale or primary basis for making important decisions about a student's placement or ission to educational programs is sometimes called high-stakes testing. This use of tests was the concern parents often raised in conferences with McKinley Phillips, the teacher described in the chapter-opening vignette. The pressure on students resulting from high -stakes testing has led many students to spend a great deal of time, effort, and money on test preparation courses in an effort to gain a competitive advantage on the tests. Some students have even resorted to cheating. As we have emphasized in this chapter, test scores alone cannot be expected to provide a complete picture of a student's achievements or abilities. Thus high-stakes testing practices may lead to mistakes in placement. Ideally, standardized test scores will be combined with other methods of evaluation, such as grades, interviews, or observations, to make important decisions. All too often, however, this is not the case. As most college students know, standardized tests such as the SAT and ACT often play a large part in the college issions process. Test scores become even more important in the issions process for graduate school, law school, and medical school. Standardized test scores also have been used to indicate placement along various tracks at the middle school or high school level. Many school districts and states even use readiness tests to measure the extent to which a student is prepared to learn something, such as reading. Such tests are also used to determine the extent to which a child is ready for a grade placement, such as enter ing first grade. Many researchers and educators are strongly opposed to the use of readiness tests for the following reasons (see also Engel, 1991; May & Welch, 2006; Meisels, 1989; Shep ard & Smith, 1989): • Very young children are generally not prepared for the kind of paper-and-pencil tests typically used to measure readiness. • Delaying entrance into first grade on the basis of a readiness test is a gross overinter pretation of a single source of information. • It is not clear that the tests accurately measure readiness.

Another kind of high-stakes standardized test is the minimum-competency test, which measures whether a student has attained the minimum level of overall achievement neces sary for a particular purpose. Such tests are used, for example, to determine whether a stu dent is eligible to graduate from high school (see also Christenson, Decker, Triezenberg, Ysseldyke, & Reschly, 2007; Gewertz, 2007; Warren & Edwards, 2005) . Forty U.S. states use minimum-competency tests, although not all of those states base graduation decisions on test scores. Opponents of minimum-competency tests believe that no one test should be of such great importance that a monumental decision, such as whether to graduate a student from high school, is based on that test score alone. T E AC H E R T E S T ING .

As an aspiring teacher, you may be exposed to a series of eval uations that may feel like high-stakes testing to you, known as the Praxis Series (Dwyer & Vil legas, 1 993; http://www. google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie= UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&q= praxisHest, retrieved January 1 1 , 2004). The Praxis battery includes three tests. States may require any or all of them as part of their teacher certification processes. These tests are an important requirement for teacher certification in many states: Nearly 80 percent of states that require testing of teachers for licensure require the Praxis series. The first of these tests, called Praxis I, is taken early in your college career and assesses basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. It is essentially a test of academic skills to indicate your suitability for teacher training. Praxis II is taken at the end of your undergraduate stud ies and assesses mastery of your major subject and basic principles of teaching. Both Praxis I and Praxis II are the typical paper-and-pencil standardized tests described throughout most of I S S U E S A N D C O N C E R N S I N S TA N D A R D I Z E D T E S T I N G

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this chapter, with which you are probably quite familiar. The Praxis I test is also offered in cer tain testing centers in a computerized version (http://www.ets.orgJportal/site/ets/menuitem. fab2360b 164Sa 1 de9b3a0779f17S1 S09/?vgnextoid=48cOSee3d74f40 1 OVgnVCM1 0000022f9S 1 90RCRD, retrieved December 28, 2007). These computerized tests are relevant for licensure. The third test in the Praxis battery, Praxis III, varies from state to state, but generally consists of classroom observations of your teaching skills, made by trained local evaluators. The four major areas of focus of the Praxis III are evidence of planning for teaching, classroom envi ronment, classroom instruction, and fulfillment of professional responsibilities (http://www .ets.org/portalJ site/ ets/men uitem. c988baOeSddS 72 bada20bc4 7 c392 1 S09 /?vgnextoid= e3ge4c7S7f346 1 10VgnVCM 10000022f9S 1 90RCRD&vgnextchannel=83c4See3d74f40 1 0Vgn VCM 10000022f9S 1 90RCRD, retrieved December 28, 2007). This assessment is conducted dur ing actual teaching, often during the first year. It certainly would be wise for you to use all the methods you would recommend to your students to achieve your best performance on these tests. The Praxis series makes fairly heavy use of performance-based assessment. The idea is that teachers can be evaluated only if their actual classroom performance skills are taken into . Teachers are increasingly being tested when they seek to achieve certification by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS; http://www.nbpts.org/about/ hist.cfrn, retrieved January 1 1 , 2004). The procedure for National Board certification was developed by teachers for teachers. Certification is a way of demonstrating professionalism and excellence in teaching. Certification at present is voluntary and is not intended to be a replacement for state licensing. Indeed, certification indicates that an individual has met advanced standards, rather than the entry standards set of licensing. The NBPTS certifies teachers according to five propositions that it believes are essential for effective teaching: 1 . Teachers are committed to students and their learning. 2. Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to their students. 3. Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning. 4. Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from experience. S. Teachers are of learning communities. The tests used to assess these goals are in a process of continuing development. • O V E R U S E O F T E S T S I N M EA S U R I N G A C C O U N TA B I L I T Y The Praxis tests may be popular among many states because they the goal of a growing movement to hold teachers and schools able for meeting measurable educational outcomes. One of the factors many observers relate to the growth in the use of standardized tests in recent decades is the increasing demand among politicians, parents, and taxpayers for ability from schools (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 1992; see also Linn, 2006; McDermott, 2007). Pro ponents of this view believe that schools should set measurable goals for the education of children. Teachers and schools are then held responsible for the extent to which they meet their stated goals. The quantitative measurements provided by standardized tests-and par ticularly those that provide criterion-referenced scores-have made the tests valuable tools for those who wish to measure and state the achievements of teachers and schools in numer ical . As we have emphasized, several problems arise when standardized tests are used as the basis for judging teachers and schools. First, suppose the objectives measured by the standardized test in use do not fully match those of the school or school district. Students then may score low on objectives because they are not emphasized by the students' teachers. Teachers, in turn, may experience pressure from parents or s to raise test scores in an effort to prove they are providing quality education (Berliner & Biddle, 1997; Bracey, 1 994; Herman, Abedi, & Golan, 1994). Some teachers can succumb to the temptation to change their learning objectives and les son content so they coincide with the objectives and question content of the test their students must take. This phenomenon is known as teaching to the test. Evidence suggests that when teach ing certain populations, such as English language learners, an increase in teaching to the test is

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An example of an authentic assessment is to ask a student to plan and possibly carry out a simple science experiment. Another example is to ask a student to read a historical docu ment and comment on why it is or is not a credible source. In the first instance, the goal is to assess the extent to which the student can think as a scientist does. In the second instance, the assessment is the extent to which the student can think like a historian. Such assessments are quite different from multiple-choice tests of factual recall or inferences from facts. Performance assessments are often scored by means of rubrics, or formal specifications of criteria for evaluation (Mabry, 1 999; Stiggins, 1997 ) . For example, the evaluation of a his torical document might use a rubric such as the following:

High 5. The response is accurate, focused, coherent, and clearly articulated. The student shows firm understanding of bases for evaluating the credibility of a histori cal document, and of relating the document content to the historical context in which it was written. The response is insightful and draws connections among facts and ideas. =

Medium 3. The response is generally accurate and fairly coherent. The argu ment is focused but not necessarily compelling. Connections among ideas and between facts and ideas are not always well articulated. The response is at least somewhat insightful but generally does not contain any breakthrough ideas. =

Low 1. The response is often inaccurate and largely unfocused. Arguments are not clearly ed. Connections are either absent or weak. The response shows little grasp of the historical context in which the document was written. =

We cover the use of authentic assessment in individual classrooms in some detail in Chapter 14, but note here that special concerns arise when attempts are made to standardize authentic assessment (Worthen, 1 993). The uniformity of experience for each student that is the hallmark of a standardized test is difficult to achieve in performance tests or portfolio evaluations. You must take special care to achieve interrater reliability, as discussed earlier in the chapter. This is especially important if such assessments are to be useful in comparing ratings of students' per formance from widely varying schools. In addition, you must take as much care as you have with traditional tests to assure that authentic assessments are valid. A performance test that requires a student to graph sets of numbers, for example, may lack content validity. (Recall the lack of content validity in the math test we described earlier in the chapter that tested only plane geom etry.) As you will learn in detail in Chapter 14, authentic assessments, when they are carefully chosen, developed, and used, can be a useful addition to the present selection of ways to assess and compare students.

W H Y U N D E R S TA N D I N G S TA N DA R D I Z E D T E S T I N G I S I M P O R TA N T T O T E A C H E R S •

Teachers need t o understand standardized test scores because they are widely used in schools and teachers are expected to be able to interpret them for students and parents alike.

W H AT A R E S TA N D A R D I Z E D T E S T S ? •

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Standardized tests are measurement devices that have been given to many individuals, often across the nation, to develop appropriate content and scoring compar isons. They are istered and scored according to uniform procedures.

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Norm-referenced tests report scores in relation to a set of normative scores. Criterion-referenced tests report students' levels of mastery of a specific body of knowl edge. In this chapter, we primarily focused on maximal performance tests, although typical performance tests are also used in assessment.

T Y P E S O F S TA N D A R D I Z E D T E S T S •

Various types of standardized tests are available. Some of the most commonly used are intelligence tests, aptitude tests, vocational interest tests, and achievement tests.

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Intelligence tests yield a score known as the intelligence quotient (IQ). Ratio IQs are calculated by comparing a person's mental age with the person's chronological age. In contrast, deviation IQs compare the individual's performance with that of an average person of the same chronological age. Achievement tests are the most commonly used standard ized tests in schools. Omnibus tests combine items of several types in one large test. Other tests divide items into groups of similar item types, or subtests.

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ASS ESS I N G TEST Q U A L ITY •

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Test quality can be assessed in many ways. One option is to consider the samples of people used to develop the test, as well as the population for whom test scores are relevant. Random samples are very difficult for test developers to achieve. Test norms are instead based on stratified samples, including representative samples. Tests vary in their consistency of measurement (reliabil ity) and in the extent to which they measure what they are supposed to measure (validity) . Types of validity include content validity, predictive validity, and con struct-related validity.

I N T E R P R E T I N G S TA N DA R D I Z E D T E S T S C O R E S •

A number of statistics are used in interpreting group data from tests. These statistics include frequency distri-

butions and measures of relative frequency and cumu lative frequency, measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), and measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, and variance) . A variety o f kinds o f scores can b e used o n standardized tests, such as raw scores, standard scores (including T-scores and stanine scores), percentile scores, or grade equivalents. We can distinguish between true and observed scores, but can only estimate the former, using confidence intervals and the standard error of measure ment.

I S S U E S A N D C O N C E R N S I N S TA N DA R D I Z E D TESTI NG •

Test bias means a test is unfair to of certain groups. The cultural backgrounds of groups of students often are related to issues of test bias. It is possible, albeit difficult, to make tests culturally relevant. Culture fair ness is often regarded as an ideal to be strived for rather than something that can be achieved. Many believe a truly culture-free test is simply impossible to construct. III Tests are often used in the pursuit of ability on the part of teachers and students. High-stakes testing and readiness scores can be misused, to the detriment of the students. Authentic assessments have been developed, in part, to address some of the potential misuses of tradi tional multiple-choice standardized tests.

K E Y T E RM S • ability

Practice of evaluating teachers and schools for the extent to which they meet measurable educational goals. Page 500 • Achievement test Test that measures accomplishments in either single or multiple areas of endeavor. Page 482

• Authentic assessments

Tests designed to allow students to show their achievements or abilities in a real-life context. Page 501

• Bimodal (or multimodal) distribution

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Distribution that has two (or more) modes, or most frequent values. Page 490

• Confidence interval

An interval estimate of a true score falls within a certain range of the observed score. Page 493

• Construct-related validity (construct validity)

• Differential Aptitude Tests

Tests designed to measure abilities developed over a period of years that predict success in particular areas of endeavor. Page 481 • Frequency distribution Numerical display of the number or proportion of student scores at each score level or interval. Page 488 • Grade equivalent score

Measure of grade-level achievement in comparison with the normative sample for a given test. Page 494

• High-stakes testing

Use of test scores as the sole or primary basis for making decisions important to the lives of students (and teachers) . Page 499

Extent to which a test completely and accurately captures the theoretical construct or attribute it is designed to measure. Page 487

• Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Extent to which the content of a test actually measures the knowledge or skills the test is supposed to measure. Page 487

• Median

• Content validity

• Criterion-referenced tests

Tests that measure a student's per formance relative to what the student should know. Page 475 • Culture-fair test Test that, in theory, would have the same meaning for of all cultures. Page 498 • Culture-free test

Test that, in theory, would be completely unaf fected by culture or cultural context. Page 498 • Deviation IQ scores Intelligence test scores calculated on the basis of how high a person's score is relative to that of other peo ple of his or her age. Page 480

Measure of intelligence comparing mental age to chronological age, multiplied by 1 00. Page 480

• Mean

Arithmetical average of a set of numbers. Page 489 Middle of an ordered set of values. Page 490

• Mental age (MA)

An individual's level of intelligence compared to an average person of the same physical age. Page 479

• Minimum-competency test

Test that measures whether a stu dent has attained the minimum level of overall achievement nec essary for a particular purpose. Page 499

• Mode The most frequent value within an ordered set of values. Page 490 • Normal distribution

Commonly occurring distribution of test scores in which most data values cluster around the average value. Page 491

KEY A N D D E F I N I T I O NS

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• Norm-referenced tests

Tests that compare test takers' scores with the average performance of the test takers. Page 475

• Norms (normative scores)

Test scores that reflect the perform ance of individuals in the population of interest. Page 475

• Observed score

Score someone actually receives on a test. Page 493

• Percentile score Proportion of other students' scores that equal or fall below a given student's own score. Page 493

• Population

Complete set of individuals to which a set of results will be generalized. Page 484

• Predictive validity

Extent to which a test predicts a perform ance that will be demonstrated after the test has been taken. Page 486

• Range

Difference between the lowest and the highest values in a distribution, or group of test scores. Page 490

• Raw score

Number of test items answered correctly. Page 491

• Readiness tests

Tests intended to measure the extent to which a student is prepared to learn something. Page 499

• Reliability

Consistency of test results. Page 485 • Standard deviation Measure indicating the adjusted average dispersion of values, such as test scores, around the mean, or aver age, value. Page 490 • Standard error of measurement confidence interval. Page 493

Measure used to express a

Apply the concepts you have learned in this chapter to the following problems of classroom practice. I N E L E M E N TA RY S C H O O L 1 . How would you explain the importance of sitting through an entire standardized testing session to a fourth grader who is hyperactive? What are some strategies you might use to help the student complete the test? 2. What are some ways you could ensure that your sec ond graders understand the instructions for a stan dardized test? 3. How would you adjust your fifth-grade reading les sons if you noticed that nearly all your students had low scores on the vocabulary portion of a standard ized test, although they scored well on the other read ing objectives? 4. How would you respond to questions from the par ents of a kindergartner who did not score well on the first-grade readiness test? What could you do if you were convinced the low test score did not truly reflect the student's readiness for first grade? 5. Nearly all of your third-grade class scored below aver age on the statewide achievement test last year. You are now under pressure from the principal to bring up this year's scores. What are some ways you could improve scores, without teaching to the test?

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• Standard score (z-score)

Test score that is calculated by con verting a raw score into units of standard deviation. Standard scores are arbitrarily defined to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Page 494

• Standardized test

Test that has been given to many individuals, often across the country, to develop appropriate content and scoring comparisons, and that is istered and scored according to uniform procedures. Page 474

• Stanine score Standard test score that has a range of 1 to 9, a mean of 5, and a standard deviation of 2. Page 494

• Test bias

Tendency for a test to be unfair for of some groups but not others. Page 496

• True score

Hypothetical test score a person would get if he or she took a test an infinite number of times with no practice effects. Page 493

• T-score

Type of standard score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 1 0. Page 494

• Validity

Degree to which a test provides measurements that are appropriate for its intended purpose. Page 486 • Variance Value of the standard deviation squared, an index that measures dispersion among scores. Page 49 1 • Vocational interest test

Test designed to help students decide where their vocational interests lie. Page 481

IN MIDDLE SCHOOL

1 . Your seventh graders have taken so many standardized tests that they are thoroughly bored with practice test sessions. How can you motivate them to pay attention to yours? 2. Without specifically teaching to the test, or targeting test content, what are some general principles or activ ities you can include in a sixth-grade science class in hopes of improving the students' scores on the annual achievement test? 3. The parents of one of your eighth-grade English stu dents have expressed concern because the student's grade equivalent score in reading is at the sixth-grade level. They ask, "Are you really giving students hard enough books to read?" How will you explain the meaning of the student's score? 4. One of your students disagrees with your comments about her math test scores. "I scored better than 9 1 percent of kids in the country:' she says. "What do you mean I have not fully mastered geometry?" How can you explain the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scores to her? 5. One of your eighth-grade math students has come to you in tears. She has just learned that a low math score on the standardized placement test will put her in the slow track next year at high school. You believe the placement would be an error. Which steps do you think she (or you) can take to change her placement?

• Norm-referenced tests

Tests that compare test takers' scores with the average performance of the test takers. Page 475

• Norms (normative scores)

Test scores that reflect the perform ance of individuals in the population of interest. Page 475

• Observed score

Score someone actually receives on a test. Page 493

• Percentile score Proportion of other students' scores that equal or fall below a given student's own score. Page 493 • Population

Complete set of individuals to which a set of results will be generalized. Page 484

• Predictive validity

Extent to which a test predicts a perform ance that will be demonstrated after the test has been taken. Page 486

• Range

Difference between the lowest and the highest values in a distribution, or group of test scores. Page 490

• Raw score

Number of test items answered correctly. Page 491

• Readiness tests

Tests intended to measure the extent to which a student is prepared to learn something. Page 499

• Reliability

Consistency of test results. Page 485

• Standard deviation

Measure indicating the adjusted average dispersion of values, such as test scores, around the mean, or aver age, value. Page 490

• Standard error of measurement confidence interval. Page 493

Measure used to express a

Apply the concepts you have learned in this chapter to the following problems of classroom practice. I N E L E M E N TA RY S C H O O L 1 . How would you explain the importance of sitting through an entire standardized testing session to a fourth grader who is hyperactive? What are some strategies you might use to help the student complete the test? 2. What are some ways you could ensure that your sec ond graders understand the instructions for a stan dardized test? 3. How would you adjust your fifth-grade reading les sons if you noticed that nearly all your students had low scores on the vocabulary portion of a standard ized test, although they scored well on the other read ing objectives? 4. How would you respond to questions from the par ents of a kindergartner who did not score well on the first-grade readiness test? What could you do if you were convinced the low test score did not truly reflect the student's readiness for first grade? 5. Nearly all of your third-grade class scored below aver age on the statewide achievement test last year. You are now under pressure from the principal to bring up this year's scores. What are some ways you could improve scores, without teaching to the test?

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• Standard score (z-score)

Test score that is calculated by con verting a raw score into units of standard deviation. Standard scores are arbitrarily defined to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 . Page 494

• Standardized test

Test that has been given to many individuals, often across the country, to develop appropriate content and scoring comparisons, and that is istered and scored according to uniform procedures. Page 474

• Stanine score Standard test score that has a range of 1 to 9, a mean of 5, and a standard deviation of 2. Page 494 • Test bias

Tendency for a test to be unfair for of some groups but not others. Page 496

• True score

Hypothetical test score a person would get if he or she took a test an infinite number of times with no practice effects. Page 493

• T-score

Type of standard score that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 1 0. Page 494

• Validity

Degree to which a test provides measurements that are appropriate for its intended purpose. Page 486

• Variance

Value of the standard deviation squared, an index that measures dispersion among scores. Page 491

• Vocational interest test

Test designed to help students decide where their vocational interests lie. Page 481

IN MIDDLE SCHOOL

1 . Your seventh graders have taken so many standardized tests that they are thoroughly bored with practice test sessions. How can you motivate them to pay attention to yours? 2. Without specifically teaching to the test, or targeting test content, what are some general principles or activ ities you can include in a sixth-grade science class in hopes of improving the students' scores on the annual achievement test? 3. The parents of one of your eighth-grade English stu dents have expressed concern because the student's grade equivalent score in reading is at the sixth-grade level. They ask, "Are you really giving students hard enough books to read?" How will you explain the meaning of the student's score? 4. One of your students disagrees with your comments about her math test scores. "I scored better than 9 1 percent o f kids in the country;' she says. "What do you mean I have not fully mastered geometry?" How can you explain the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced scores to her? 5. One of your eighth-grade math students has come to you in tears. She has just learned that a low math score on the standardized placement test will put her in the slow track next year at high school. You believe the placement would be an error. Which steps do you think she (or you) can take to change her placement?

IN HIGH SCHOOL 1 . One of your junior year students wonders about his chances of getting into college. ''African Americans always score lower on those tests," he says. "They are never going to let me in." What can you say to reassure this student? 2. Some of your seniors are worried they will not be able to graduate. They always have scored below average on standardized tests and they are not sure they can the state-required minimum-competency test. How can you help them? 3. You know one of your students works late most nights as a nurse's aide. The student is trying to gain experi ence for a career in physical therapy, but you are con cerned that a lack of sleep and preparation time will hurt her performance on the college entrance exam. What will you tell her?

4. You teach a world history class that emphasizes prob lem solving, critical thinking, and creativity, and includes lots of group projects. During the past few years, you have heard complaints from students and parents that, although fun and instructive, your class does nothing to help students excel in the multiple choice college entrance and minimum-competency tests. How can you better prepare students for these high-stakes tests without compromising your approach to teaching? 5. Which kinds of standardized tests would you include in a junior-level life skills unit on career planning? Which other information would you ask the students to collect about themselves as part of their career planning process?

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Why Understanding Classroom Assessments Is Important to Teachers Formal and Informal Assessments Evaluating Student Achievement Formative and Summative Assessment Norm-Referenced and

Authentic Assessments

To help you see the big picture, keep the following

Types of Authentic

questions in mind as you read this chapter:

Assessments

•

Characteristics of Good

today's schools, and why are they important?


How do assessments affect student learning, and

Portfolios Exhibitions

What is the role of classroom assessments in

how do they affect instruction? •

Evaluating Performance on

What is the difference between using tests to select students for programs or to place them in


classes, on the one hand, and using tests to meas

Criterion-Referenced

Grading and Reporting

ure what students have learned in a specific

Assessments

The Importance of Grades

course, on the other hand?

The Goals of Assessment

to Students

Traditional Assessments

General Grading Guidelines

Which Material Should the Test Cover? The When and How of Testing Developing Objective Test Questions Developing Essay Tests

•

assessments? When is it best to use multiple

Relative Improvement Versus

choice, fill-in, sentence completion, matching,

Absolute Performance

and essay questions?

Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Grading

How can a teacher write fair and appropriate

•

What is the difference between traditional and

Systems

authentic assessment? Whal are the advantages

Total-Point Grading Systems

and disadvantages of each approach to assessment?

Percentage Grading Systems

•

How can a teacher be sure to use the information from assessment to grade students fairly? How can assessment and grading be used most effectively to enhance student motivation and increase learning?

•

How can teachers using their own tests ensure they are clear and fair? When should teachers use prepackaged tests?

•

How does a teacher accommodate to school wide grading policies that do not seem to apply to his or her class?

•

How can a teacher allow students to do extra work to make up for poor performance while still being fair to other students who scored well the first time around?

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J

ingXu was trying to put together her American history final exam for her twelfth-grade class. The class had spent the semester doing so many different types of activities-listening to lec tures, watching videotapes, breaking into groups for discussions, producing their own play as a final project, and writing three book reports. How could she possibly give a fair test on everything the class had learned? Jing's students had performed well and had exceedecj her expectations by all s, her class was a huge success. BecauseJing knew that one third of her students had begun the term with limited proficiency in Eng lish, she had based the curriculum on varied formats and presentation styles so as to engage those students and give them a chance to do well. Now, she faced the dilemma of testing and grading the students in a way that

met the school's uniform assessment goals. She also faced the need to assess the students' factual knowledge of history, even though the emphasis of her instruction was not on factual knowledge. Jing finally settled on a varied for mat for the test: a selection of multi ple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and matching questions, followed by two essays (the topics for which students could select from a list of five ques tions). She wrote some of the ques tions herself, but-because she had trouble recalling exactly which mate rial she had covered in lectures and class activities-she also chose some questions from the sample tests in her teacher's guide. She proofread the test carefully to make sure it was free of typographical errors. Feeling rea sonably satisfied, she called it a night. The next day, Jing noticed the perplexed looks on her students'

faces as they worked through the exam. When the bell rang, three fourths of the class had not finished the test. Several students stayed afterward to tellJing that the test was unfair and had nothing to do with what they had learned in class. Knowing they had performed poorly on the test, these students asked if they could do an extra project to help raise their averages. Jing did not know how to react. She believed the test was fair: If she let some students db an extra project to make up for their poor performance, her final grades for these students would be higher than the grades students should be getting, based on their knowledge of history. She couldn't give all her students good grades without angering the other history teachers and the principal, as well as the students with high test scores. What shouldJing do?

J

ing is a dedicated teacher whose goal is to reach her students and excite them about his tory. Although she succeeded in teaching an interesting and popular course, she failed in her attempt to assess the students fairly. Jing made several mistakes. First, the test she designed did not cover the same material that she taught: Because she had not followed an explicit teaching plan, when it came time to draw up the final exam, she could not remem ber what she had covered. Second, she wrote test questions that were sometimes unclear because she did not have time to review the questions, try them out on another teacher, and revise them. Third, Jing borrowed questions from sample tests that had little to do with her course. Jing must grade her students in accordance with school policy-one that makes it dif ficult for every student to get an A or a B in her course. During the semester, however, most students had done well on their projects and reports, and many believed they deserved high grades. In this chapter, we discuss what Jing might do next semester to avoid her mistakes and assess her students more fairly.

Why Understanding Classroom Assessments Is Important to Teachers What would it be like to be a student in a school with no assessment? Would you learn as much? Would you study as often at home? Freed from the worry of being evaluated, would you blossom in the school environment? Although many students might think the purpose of assessment is to make their lives miserable, research in educational psy chology has shown just the opposite: Assessments increase motivation and learning and, as a result, students benefit more from the time they spend in school (Brookhart, 1997; Brookhart

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DeVoge, 1999; Brookhart, Walsh, & Zientarski, 2006; Crooks, 1988; F. N. Dempster, 1991, 1992). The specific assessments used create some of the most salient aspects of the students' learning environment. Even within the same classroom, the type of assessment given affects students' perceptions of assigned tasks, self-efficacy for those tasks, reported mental effort invested, goal orientation, and learning strategy use. These factors also differ from one student to the next (Brookhart & Durkin, 2003). Fair assessments help students and teachers alike measure the students' progress toward their goals; fair assessments also help teachers improve their teaching to better assist students in meeting their goals. Students learn most when they are given brief, frequent assessments instead of longer and less frequent assessments (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik, 1991; F. N. Dempster, 1991; F. N. Dempster & Perkins, 1993). What is classroom assessment? Is it just the tests a teacher gives every two weeks over the course of the semester or school year? Actually, it encomes much more: Classroom assess ment consists of every type of information you take in about the students in the classroom. It consists of test results, grades on homework and class presentations, and the informal conver sations you have with your students over the course of the year. As Jing Xu, the teacher in the chapter-opening vignette, realized, classroom assessment is a complex issue that requires a teacher to consider numerous aspects of the students and the instructional environment. Taken as a whole, classroom assessments define student learning: what and how much students have learned, in what time frame. The entire picture of the ways you gather information on your stu dents constitutes your assessment system. Often, teachers map out an effective assessment sys tem at the same time they plan instruction. Even in schools that do not give grades, teachers gather information about students' progress so they can guide students and help them develop in their learning. &

F O R M A L A N D I N FO R M A L A S S E S S M E N T S

Even though both tests and discussions give you information about what a student has learned, the types ofinformation you gather from these two sources are very different. These two sources ofinformation correspond to formal and informal methods ofassessment. Formal assessments are objective and rigorous methods for obtaining information about student learning, such as tests, quizzes, book reports, and assigned in-class presentations. Informal assessments consist of observations you make of students in the classroom, doing work, and talking to you or to other students; such dialogue may include student answers to teacher-initiated questions. Informal assessments also consist ofinformation in written form that you obtain from some students, such as a special letter to you or an extra composition or journal entry that the student asks you to read. Formal assessment usually results in information collected in a uniform manner on all students, whereas informal assessment consists of information collected opportunistically on some students, but not always on others. You gather the information to help plan future instruction and to gauge the success of current instruction. You also use it to evaluate indi vidual students, to form the basis for , and, in general, to help students achieve their maximum potential.

THINKING il

What is your personal attitude about taking tests? Do you think that tests make you study harder and learn more? Why or why not? Think about your past experiences with tests, and how an test tends to influence your behav ior. Do you budget your time to prepare for the test, or do you put off studying until the last moment? Does anxiety over whelm you? Do your results on tests vary from time to time, and from subject to subject? Why might this be?

SUGGEST IO N :

THINKING A N A LY T I CA L LY

Describe three situations in which informal assessments might be fairer than formal ones. Hint: Consider the plight of students with test anxiety. Very anxious students might do better if asked informal questions by a friendly teacher than if con fronted with the same ques tions on an exam. Students with limited English proficiency might do better if questioned informally by a teacher who recognizes their language limi tations. Students with low self esteem might do better if the teacher gives them a few encouraging words before istering an informal test.

SUGGESTIO N :

A s tudent interacts infor mally with her teacher. Anxious students o ften do better if asked info rmal questions by afriendly teacher. The teacher can then use the interchange as part of her total assessment of the student.

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EVA L U AT I N G S TU D E N T A C H I E VEM E NT

T H IN K I N G C R E AT I V E LY

Suppose you took over a fellow teacher's class at mid-term, and the only information you were given about your students con sisted of their grades on three classroom tests. How could you determine the informational value and fairness of these grades? Which steps would you take to ensure that the students were judged fairly? You might ask the students if you can see their notebooks and homework assignment sheets to learn what kinds of notes they took and what, exactly, was being cov ered in class. You could con sider the readings they were assigned and compare the test content to what was taught. You could also ask students if the tests were fair, and if not, what might have made the tests more fair. You could repeat a test about which you were con cerned by making up your own test on the same basic content.

SUGG EST ION:

What do you do with the results of formal and informal assessments? The assessments them selves represent measurements of student learning. Measurements are data on student per formance and learning that you collect. You use these measurements to perform an evaluation, the process of making judgments about individual student's learning and per formance (and effort) based on the measurements, or information, at hand. Consider an example of the difference between measurement and evaluation. Larry Jacobs, an English teacher, has available the following information on two students: Stan received on his tests the grades of B+, A-, B+, and A; he also received a B- on his classroom presentation of his book report project. Susan received the grades of C+, B, B+, and A on the same tests; she also received an A on her classroom book report presentation. These grades, as well as grades on homework and other items, represent the measurements available to Larry on which he will base his decisions regarding final grades. Doing an evaluation is more complex than simply averaging each student's grades to obtain a final grade, however. Consider how the following pieces of information might affect the final grades doled out to Larry's students: What if Susan started out the year with an undiagnosed reading disability and then got appropriate help in the middle of the term? What if Stan became terribly nervous when speaking in front of the class? What if Susan's book report project showed evidence of significant parental involvement? What if Stan were caught cheating on the last test of the semester? As you can see, the process of evaluating students' learning often must take into many factors beyond simply the scores students receive on tests and assignments. , too, that evaluation is not the only subjective aspect of the measurement and evaluation process. Measurement itself can have subjective aspects, such as the grade given on an essay-which might be higher if the teacher liked the topic or identified with it-and the grade given on a classroom presentation, which may sometimes reflect the particular preferences and prejudices of a given teacher. Like Jing Xu, any teacher can become overwhelmed by the responsibility of conducting fair assessments. What is a beginning teacher to do if her or his goal is to assess all students fairly? We begin by discussing how to design and score different types of assessments and how to use the information provided by these scores in final grading decisions. Throughout the chapter, we return frequently to two introduced in Chapter 13-reliability and validity, both of which are important goals of assessment: •

•

Reliabi lity describes the consistency of a measurement-in other words, the extent to which the method of measurement can be relied on to provide consistent infor mation every time the method is used. Vali di ty describes the extent to which an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure.

A spelling test is not a valid measure of reading comprehension, for example, nor is a math test on fractions a valid test of everything learned in the sixth-grade curriculum. Assessments can be invalid for many reasons: They might ask the wrong types of questions, given the stated goal of the assessment, or they might ask the right types of questions but cover only a portion of the material they are supposed to cover. FO RMATIVE A N D S U M MATIVE A S S E S S M E N T

Have you ever taken a test to get into a special class, program, or school? Perhaps you have taken a math test to see which math class you belonged in. This type of assessment is called formative assessment; its purpose is to discover the strengths and weaknesses in prior learning. Forma tive assessment reveals a student's developmental stage in the area being tested. It is intended to be diagnostic-that is, it is often used to assist teachers and others in making decisions about where to place students (Herman, Osmundson, Ayala, Schneider, & Timms, 2006). You have undoubtedly been exposed many times in your academic career to the other type of assessment, called summative assessment. Summative assessment is the typical final exam type of assessment you are used to-a final test of student learning in a particular area.

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You can the difference between the two different forms of assessment by focusing on the words form (as in "to form a decision") and sum (as in "to summarize prior learning"). The distinction made between these two types of assessments refers more to the purposes for which the assessments are used than to any defining characteristics of the tests them selves. For example, consider the swimming test given at some colleges. If you take the test during your first week as a freshman and you it, you are exempt from a swimming requirement that you would otherwise have to f ulfill during your four years in college. In this case, the swimming test is a formative assessment, used for making placement decisions. The same test can also be used at the end of the one-semester athletic course in which swimming is taught. Used at this point, the test becomes a summative assessment, or a measure of what you learned in the course. Put simply, the purpose for which the test is istered is the differentiating aspect. As a teacher, you will use both formative and summative assessments. You may be asked by your school to ister standardized formative assessments early in the school year to help place students into various programs, special classes, or groups within classes. And, of course, you will give many summative assessments to fulfill your school's testing require ments to document student learning.

THINKING A N A LY T I CA L LY

Name three examples of forma tive assessment and three exam ples of summative assessment. Formative: bak ing a cake to qualify for an advanced cooking class; swim ming laps to qualify for a life guard position; taking a Spanish test for placement in an advanced Spanish class.

SUGGESTIO N:

Summative: baking a cake to be given credit for an advanced cooking course; swimming laps as a final exam in a swimming class; taking the final exam in an advanced Spanish class.

N O RM - R E F E R E N C E D A N D C R I T E R I O N -R E F E R E N C E D A S S E SS M E N TS-

Another general concept to understand about assessment is the difference between norm referenced and criterion-referenced grading (see also Chapter 13). You may not realize it from the , but you already know what each expression means. When your teacher in seventh-grade science class announced, "You need to answer 80 percent of the test questions correctly to earn a B," he was using a criterion-referenced grading system. In this system, a grade represents a specific set of accomplishments, which can be identified for one student independently of the performances of other students (for example, getting 80 percent of the questions right). If your teacher in college-level science said, "I grade on a curve, and 20 percent of you will get Xs, 40 percent will get B's, and 40 percent will get C's and below;' she was using a norm referenced grading system. Such a system indicates how well a student has done compared with other students. It involves asg a student a grade relative to the other students who took the same assessment. Imagine that half of your educational psychology class consists of people who already know the material, but who are taking the course to pad their transcripts with Xs. What will this fact mean to you and to your chances for earning an A, if you are not already an expert in educational psychology? Conversely, think of the opposite situation, in which you are better prepared from past experiences and coursework for a given course than are the other students. You might sail through with little effort and receive an A . Thus a norm-referenced system can be unfair and highly influenced by the specific situation and the experiences of the students in a given class. Criterion-referenced systems, too, can present problems. One teacher complained that he set what he believed were reasonable criteria for an A, a B, a C, and so on. At the end of the term, he found that most of his students had gotten C's. This situation is not likely to satisfy parents or the school principal regarding the teaching and learning that have been taking place. Nor would the opposite situation satisfy the principal or other teachers (although the parents probably would not mind!)-that is, if nearly every student earns an A in one class because the teacher set lenient criteria for receiving an A, whereas other teachers in the same school established more rigorous criteria. •

FA I R N E S S I S S U E S

THI NKING A N A LY T I CA L LY

Name two additional draw backs of both norm-referenced andcriterion-referenced grad ing systems. Consider this ques tion from your own perspective as a student: What seems unfair about each method of grading? Norm: has no clear standard of performance that can be communicated to the students ahead of time; causes extreme competitiveness among students. Criterion: teachers can set inappropriate or irrelevant criteria; the best students may feel cheated by overly easy criteria .

SUGGESTIO N :

Obviously, both norm-referenced and criterion • A P P L Y I N G U N I FO RM C R I T E R I A referenced grading systems have both advantages and drawbacks. In practice, many school districts set uniform criteria for teachers to use in assessment and grading, thereby attempt ing to make the system and the standards more consistent. You will probably be given instruc tions from your principal regarding which type of grading system you should use. Some

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principals will not supply this information, in which case it is up to the individual teacher to identify the customary procedures. For example, if you are told to use a criterion-based sys tem, ask your principal and fellow teachers which criteria have been established for use in your school, so your practices do not deviate significantly from the practices of other teachers. T H E G O A L S O F A S S E S S M ENT

THI NKING

How has the nature of the assessments in your educational psychology course influenced your learning and studying behavior? Ask yourself, first, what types of assessments have been used this term and, second, how you have responded to them. Have any assessments been particularly good at motivating you to study more?

SUGGESTIO N:

What are the goals of assessment? To measure student learning and achievement fairly, appro priately, and consistently. Your goals should actively shape the nature of the assessments you use, their frequency, and the types of grading and reporting of grades based on these assessments. At first you may think the only goal of assessment is to determine what students know. However, research has shown that the use of assessments creates an incentive for students to study; thus assessment influences student motivation. The type of assessment given has a direct effect both on how students study and on what they learn (Crooks, 1988; F. N. Dempster & Perkins, 199 1, 1993; Gronlund, 1993). Researchers have looked at the effects of different assessment formats on student motivation and learning (Stefanou & Parkes, 2003). lt turns out that traditional paper and-pencil tests and performance assessments lead to more task-focused goal orientation among students than do laboratory tests. A S S E S S M ENT, M O T I VA T I ON, A N D L E A R N I N G Imagine you are taking an American history course, and you are told you will have a lOO-item multiple-choice test on the American Revolution. A friend of yours is told that, in her class, there will be an all-essay exam on the American Revolution. You and she would probably study the same material in different ways, because each of you would be guided by the different uses to which your knowledge will be put. You might be well advised to spend your time on hard-core memo rizing of facts and figures. Your friend might be well advised to think in more conceptual about the general issues surrounding the American Revolution and how she can write about these issues in essays. Although you and your friend might share equal amounts of motivation, the actions you take and the learning you accomplish will probably be shaped by the different types of assessments the two of you were preparing for. In addition to shaping learning strategies, assessment provides information that serves as a guide to the effectiveness of teaching strategies and as a mechanism for improving teach ing. The goal is meaningful learning. Consequently, if your students do not exhibit such learning on an assessment, you must ask yourself why and attempt to improve the situation. Assessment influences motivation and learning in other ways. Imagine that your goal is to help your students gain confidence in their ability to master tough material in history. Like Jing Xu, the teacher in the chapter-opening vignette, you might design assessments that allow the students some choice in which essay questions to complete (to help them do as well as possible). Alternatively, you might allow students to grade their own papers, telling them the test will not count toward their grade this time, but rather will be used to help pinpoint areas of personal weakness. Another common incentive is to tell students that their lowest test grade will be deleted. This approach encourages students to study harder for future assess ments, even if they did poorly on one test. Otherwise, the students might surmise that their test grade average had already been destroyed, and not study hard for the next test. •

• A S S E S S M E NT A S S T U D E NT F E E D B A C K Another important use of assessments is to serve as to students about their progress in learning. To maintain their motiva tion, students need -preferably on a frequent basis-about their progress, includ ing about what they are doing right and wrong and how to change (Bardine, 1999). With , students can chart their progress and gain additional motivation as they move nearer their goals. The more explicit and detailed this -as long as it is construc tive-the better. Students who receive written in addition to the more typical let ter grades are more likely to believe that effort and hard work, rather than luck and external factors, are responsible for their success (Cross & Cross, 1980-1981). As readers may know, currently there is a trend toward giving tests in a real-time computer setting. Research has shown that students learn more when they receive immediate about whether they

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answered each question correctly (Brosvic, Epstein, Dihoff, & Cook, 2006; Epstein, Epstein, & Brosvic, 200 1). As we discussed in Chapter 10, positi ve consists of praise and encouragement designed to give students confidence about their ability. By comparison, constructive is designed to show students specifically which aspects of their performance need improvement, and to provide specific suggestions for how to improve those areas. Both types of are valuable. Expert teachers often start out with positive to place a student in a receptive and nondefensive mood, only then giving con structive that shows what the student must do to improve (see Table 14.1). One study looked at the relationships between teachers' praise and and students' perceptions of the classroom environment. Negative teacher and effort were both related to students' relationships with their teachers, whereas ability was associated with perceptions of the classroom environment. Praise did not affect students' per ceptions of the classroom environment or teacher-student relationships. Satisfied students received more general praise, more general ability , more effort , and less negative teacher compared to dissatisfied students (Burnett, 2003). Another study looked at the relationships between teachers' and students' self talk and self-concepts. Self-talk (positive and negative) helped students deal with teacher and moderated the effect of negative on their academic self-concept. The importance of providing both ability and effort was highlighted by this research (Burnett, 2002). Yet another study showed that the amount and type of students receive predict a significant, although small, part of the quality of the content, organization, and mechan ics of students' writing assignments (Matsumura, Patthey-Chavez, Valdes, & Garnier, 2002; see also Matsumura & Gallimore, 2005). Clearly, teachers' influences students' per formance. Assessment of student performance also pro vides important to teachers about the quality and success of their instruction. A teacher might be very popular with her students; however, if assessments show that her students are not learning, the teacher must face the fact that her instruction is lacking. A teacher who is not pop ular might point to high student performance in defense of his effectiveness. Principals, other s, and school boards use on teacher performance, as reflected in student assessments, to hold teachers able for their work. Evaluations of students also have a direct effect on parents. Most parents wish to be involved in their children's school experiences, and knowing how well their children are •

ASS ESSM ENT AS TEA C H ER FE E D B A C K

TABLe1 4.1

Students who receive w ritten in additio n to letter grades are mo re likely to attribute their success to effo rt and hard work rather than to luck and external facto rs.

THINKING C R E AT I V E LY

How can you help students who are unfamiliar with school requirements and tests become more comfortable with the sys tem in use? How can you ensure that students understand the system? Give practice tests with lots of explanation about the testing and grading process. Discuss the system openly in class-do not keep it a secret. Encourage questions about the system and answer the!!' openly.

SUGGESTIO N:

Contrasting Positive and Constructive with Unhelpful Positive

Constructive

Unhelpful

''Try to open your composition with a sentence that explains the main idea."

"Do better work next time."

"You worked very hard on this assignment."

"Did you even study for this test?"

"Excellent job."

"Please do extra math problems each night until you feel more comfortable with fractions."

"You missed the point of the assignment."

"This shows real effort."

"Poor job."

"You are such a good student."

"Your answers show good thinking but not good organization-try writing from an outline."

"Study harder next time."

"I

enjoyed reading this."

"Think before you write!"

"You subtracted each column perfectly, but you forgot to borrow from the ten's place."

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doing is essential to keeping their at-home interactions with the children on target. For example, if a parent institutes a "no television on school nights" rule, the parent needs tan gible evidence that her child's test scores have improved. This information will bolster the decision to limit television . •

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING Given the m any and varied usesfor assessments, how can teachers ensure that assessm ents are asfair and useful aspossible? Here are several basicfactors to remem ber about how to use assessments effectively: III Make assessments meaningful to students. Make explicit their role in students' learning II

II

and their role in computing final grades. Apply these standards consistently. Ensure that assessments are objective and as fair as possible to all students from all backgrounds. Assessments should be both reliable and valid-they should consis tently measure what they are supposed to measure.

Ensure that assessments are neither so easy that all students do well with little effort, nor so difficult that no student does well despite having worked hard. Assess

ments must be challenging to students but always within reasonable limits, so that a competent student who works hard will do well. II Use methods of assessment frequently-frequently enough so that students get practice in being assessed and the assessment process is demystified for them. III

Bear in mind the many and varied influences on students' ability to score well on assessments. Students' age, developmental level, sex, and cultural background and experiences may all affect how they perform on assessments.

Traditional Assessments Traditional assessments consist of the typical interim and end-of-semester tests that teachers give to measure how much students have learned-much like the final exam prepared by Jing Xu to assess her students' understanding of history. Traditional assessment tests usually contain different types of questions, including multiple-choice, fill in, sentence completion, matching, and essay forms. Traditional types of assessments are not the only way, or necessarily the best way, for teachers to evaluate student learning. Never theless, they are the most common means of determining how well students have learned. Indeed, well-designed traditional tests provide valuable information about student learning (Linn & Gronlund, 1995). In this section, we review the process of deg and writing each type of test item so that the tests you design will be reliable, valid, and fair. In the next section, we explore alternative methods of assessing students that go beyond traditional forms of assessment. WH I C H MATE R I A L S H O U L D THE TEST COVER?

Before considering how to write good items for a particular test, first decide which material the test will cover. What are you testing the students on? What did you cover in your instruc tion? Which activities did the students perform, and what kind of homework and seatwork did you assign? Looking back to the beginning of the term, what were the goals and objec tives of your instruction? III C O NS U L T I NG P U B L I S H E D S O U R C E S Before deg a test on your own, exam ine the tests provided with your instructor's manuals and other teaching materials. You may be able to adapt or use, as is, some of the test questions-or even whole tests-that publish-

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ers have developed. The advantage of using these published test questions is that they have often been checked for errors or potential problems in phrasing; it is also much quicker to use these items than to write your own. The disadvantage of using published test questions is that they may not accurately reflect what you taught, because you may have adapted the material in the textbook or used material from more than one textbook or source. Published tests may also have been developed for a population different from yours. You will have to use your judgment both to evaluate the quality and fairness of the published tests and to see if they contain useful material, given your goals (Airasian, 1996).

T H I NKI N G A N A LY T I CA L LY

What might you do if the mate rial on which you wish to test students was not thoroughly covered in class, but was covered by students as a home reading assignment? How can you ensure that the test is fair? Make clear to the students that the home reading will be tested. Give students classroom time to do extra reading if you suspect some may get no time to read at home. Also, ask students to tell you beforehand if being tested on home reading pres ents any problem. Finally, vary the content of tests so as not to give an overt advantage to stu dents with parents who are heavily involved in their home reading.

SUGGESTION:

Assuming you have decided to write your own test questions, consider the following pointers. The most important part of deg a good test is to make sure the test reflects what the students were taught. In other words, the test must be valid. The best way to ensure that the material on the test corresponds to the material taught is to return to your set of instructional objectives, which were discussed at length in Chapter 12 on classroom teaching. If you followed the plan you set forth, your test should cover the same basic content as the instructional objectives. The number of questions on each concept or topic should correspond to how much time you spent on the topic in class and how much time students were expected to spend on the topic in homework and out-of-class activities. Some teachers-particularly those at the elementary levels-may have taught several different subjects over the course of the year; these teachers will have to refer back to the units taught within each content area when developing their tests. A precise way to accomplish the goal of matching assessment to instruction is to use a behavior-content matrix, like the one shown in Figure 14. 1 (Berliner, 1987). A behav ior-content matrix lists the topics you covered in the left column, and the types of think ing or behaviors that students should be able to engage in across the top row. To design a test, start by summing up how many days (or units of time) you spent on each topic. Next, allocate these totals according to the types of thinking that were encouraged, showing which types of thinking you stressed more or less in your instruction on the various topics. •

U S ING INS T R U C T I O N A L 08J E C T I V E S

FIG U R E

1 4.1 A Behavior-Content Matrix for a High School Biology Course BEHAVIORS '"

c 0

., 'c

CONTENT

en 0 " Q) a: "0 c til iii " Q) a:

>en 0 (5 c E

�

�

If " t;: ·13 Q) c. CJ)

>en 0 (5 "0 0 .<: Qi :2

t) 2 (jj "0 c '"
'iii Cl Q) > c 0 � .� a. c. <

Q) en "0 Q) � 0 c �

�

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I 0 en c ·c Q) � " CJ)

j5

e a. 0 C 0 .� " ;;:

E Q) :2

c 0 "is (5 c. � x w

C/) ...J

=: �

Cells: Structure Functions Reproduction Genes: Dual Roles Macro/Micro Structures Inheritance Technology

TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENTS

515

As an example, consider a biology course in which you have spent 12 days on cells and 8 days on genes. You estimate you used about half your time teaching students how to under stand the basic concepts about cells and genes, and the other half teaching students how to apply this information to their own projects. In this case, your test should include roughly 12 of 20 questions (60 percent) on cells, and the other 40 percent on genes. Of the cell questions, roughly half-or 30 percent of the entire number of questions on the test-should stress understanding of basic concepts, and the other half should stress applying the information. Similarly, of the 40 percent of the test devoted to genes, approximately half should focus on understanding concepts-20 percent of the entire test's length-and 20 percent should involve applying information. (See Table 14.2 for an example.) When you follow these guide lines closely, the system ensures that what is tested matches what was stressed in instruction. Although it may seem a bit complex, this type of planning will result in a fairer and more valid test. T H E WH EN AND HOW O F T E S T ING ·

In many schools, the istration dictates the curriculum and the general schedule guide lines for testing students. Sometimes, however, teachers have considerable leeway in decid ing if and when to test. When you plan your instruction and assessments for the semester or the year, keep in mind the following guidelines about the best ways to help students benefit from the experience of taking tests. • G I V E F R E Q U E NT, S H 0 R T T E S TS First, schedule frequent and shorter tests rather than infrequent, longer ones. Students tend to leave their studying until just before the test; the more often they are tested, the more they will study. Moreover, the use of many shorter tests helps test-anxious students overcome the paralyzing fear of being given only one oppor tunity to show what they know. Also, by scheduling frequent tests, you encourage students to actively process and use the material. When you design a test, try to tailor it to the material that has been covered in the recent past. If you give many shorter tests, you will be testing frequently, as the students learn indi vidual topics. Later, you can give a longer retest in which you integrate material across top ics and help students think broadly about what they have learned. As you develop assessments during the term, incorporate questions that require students to reason actively with concepts they learned earlier.

• C O NS I D E R T E S T I NG C O N D I T I O N S When you ister a test, be attentive to the conditions students will face. Poor environmental conditions can depress test performance. For example, noises, music, laughing students in a neighboring room, and other distractions may all affect students' ability to concentrate. Give students explicit instructions regarding how long they will have to complete the test, whether you will give them any warnings about elapsed time, and what they should do once their test is handed in so they do not annoy other . students still working on the test. Also keep a close watch on students during a test, so you are available to answer questions if students need help with interpreting instructions, and so your presence will discourage cheating. By remaining attentive to students as they take a test, you can also help anxious students by offering a word of encouragement.

TA B L E

Content

516

CHAPTER 14

14.2 Percentages of Test Questions in Each Area of Instruction Understanding

Applying

Total Percentage

Basic Concepts

the Information

of Test Questions 60%

Cells

30%

30%

Genes

20%

20%

40%

Total

50%

50%

1 00%


• G I VE C LEA R D I R E C T I 0 NS To ensure that tests accurately reflect student learning, be certain your students understand the test directions. For example, go over a sample test question to demonstrate the task required.

• G I VE RA P I D FEED B A C K Once the students complete the tests and the tests are col lected, grade them and return them as soon as possible while the students are still interested in how they did and why. Waiting too long ensures that students will not link learning to per formance, or to their level of reward and recognition for that performance. Many teachers find it helpful to discuss right and wrong answers immediately after the test, or even to dis tribute a list of correct answers or information on where to find these answers. Having stu dents share their correct answers with the class is also a good practice, because it will help you incorporate testing into the curriculum as an instructional activity in itself.

DEVE L O P ING O B JECTIVE TEST Q UESTI ONS

In objective tests there is a single, known, correct answer to each question. Contrast objective tests with subjective tests, the most common of which are essay tests. In subjective tests, there is no one correct answer; the quality of an answer is open to interpretation, and different teach ers may even award different grades for the same response. Objective test items consist of mul tiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, short-answer, true/false, and matching items. You are probably familiar with all these items. When should you use each type? What testing goals are best served by multiple-choice versus matching items, for example? • M U L T I P L E - C H O I C E I TE M S Research has ed the advantages of the multiple choice item as the item type of choice in objective tests (Gronlund, 1993). Multiple-choice items let you test a great deal of information in one sitting. That explains why the format of the SAT, ACT, or other standardized tests you may have taken is usually multiple choice. Multiple choice items are useful for measuring factual knowledge; however, a well-crafted item can also measure higher levels of reasoning and application of knowledge-as is the case with many of the difficult items on the SAT and other challenging standardized tests. You are probably familiar with multiple-choice questions. Each question of this type con tains a stem (consisting of the question or incomplete statement) and a group of options, one of which is the keyed or correct answer. (The word "keyed" comes from "answer key.") The incorrect options are called distractors because they serve to distract students who are not sure which option is the keyed or correct answer. In some multiple-choice questions, there is only one right answer. In other questions, the options represent varying degrees of correctness, and the test-taker must choose the best option. A well-written test item includes the following components: •

•

• • • •

A stem that presents one question or problem. The stem must be clear and unam biguous. Distractors that are clear, grammatically consistent with the question in the stem, and equally technical in their language so the right answer does not leap out because of its technical phrasing compared to the distractors. Randomly varied positions of the right answer amid the group of distractors. Options, whether correct or incorrect, that are comparable in length. Underlined negative wording, to ensure that students see it. No absolutes such as "never" or "always" in distractors because these often give away the correct answer to students who are guessing.

When developing multiple-choice questions, avoid "none of the above" and "all of the above" because they encourage test-taking strategies that are irrelevant to subject matter knowledge-for example, choosing "all of the above" if at least two options are identified as plausible. In addition, two distractors should never have the same meaning, because it is obvious to students that the two distractors must be incorrect answers. (For additional infor mation on writing multiple-choice test items, see the following sources: Gronlund, 1988; Haladyna, 1999; Haladyna, Downing, & Rodriguez, 2002; Sadler, 2000).


517

As mentioned previously, carefully constructed multiple-choice items can be used to measure higher-order learning and reasoning. Students can be given material to analyze on their own during a test; this material may be new to the students, although the analysis should be related to what the students have learned in class (Gronlund, 1993). Many sci ence tests are designed in this way. For example, the test-taker might be shown a picture of a group containing different types of animals standing at varying distances from one another while drinking from a watering hole in Africa. The question is asked, "Based on this picture, what can you infer about the dietary patterns of the different animals?" The students' task is to analyze which animals are the solitary hunters that eat meat and which are the herd-dwelling grazers that eat grass and vegetation. The clues consist of the ani mals' relative positions at the watering hole and their social groups-that is, whether they travel in groups or alone. Animals that travel alone and look like predators are more brazen at the watering hole and thus would have a prime spot in the picture; by contrast, herd dwelling grazers are tentative and take safety in numbers at the periphery of the watering hole. As you can see, answering such a question correctly requires higher level reasoning and application of ideas about animal ecology. Table 14.3 provides examples of good and poor multiple-choice items.

THINKING Write four good true/false items on the material you have learned in this chapter. Use the exam ples in Table 1 4.3 to write ques tions about classroom assess ment. For example, "Guessing correctly is easier with true/false questions than with multiple choice questions containing four potential responses: True or false?"

S UGGESTION:

• T R U E I FA L S E I T E M S In a true/false item, the test-taker is presented with a statement and must judge whether it is true or false. Obviously, with only two possible answers, stu dents have a 50 percent chance of guessing correctly. In addition, the nature of each state ment to be judged as true or false is usually simple and factual. For these reasons, use true/false items only when they are clearly warranted-such as when there are a great number of basic facts students have been taught. Even then, however, there should be only a few such items on a single test (Linn & Gronlund, 1995). True/false items are also good for young students who are not yet adept at writing out their answers . If you decide to include true/false items on a test, follow these guidelines: • •

•

Write each statement so it is clear and unambiguous. Be sure each statement contains only one idea to be judged as true or false. When two ideas are represented, a student may become confused, thinking one idea is true and the other is false. If possible, avoid words such as m ost, som e, sometimes, possibly, m ay, usually, always, never, al� and none; if you must use these words, scrutinize them carefully because they can often provide clues to the student who guesses (Gronlund, 1993).

Some teachers ask students to write a rationale explaining why false items are false, thereby increasing the amount of meaningf ul information being assessed by true/false items. Table 14.4 on page 52 1 shows good and poor examples of true/false questions. M AT C H I N G IT E M S Matching items are similar to multiple-choice items, except there is both a group of stems and a group of options from which to choose the answers. The best matching items are those in which the same answer can be used several times, and in which the phrasing of the stems, on the one hand, and of the options, on the other hand, is consis tent. When we say that you should use the same answer several times, we mean that when students match question stems to answers, there should be some answers that are correct for more than one question stem. This way, students cannot simply get the correct answer by a process of elimination. If some potential matches are used multiple times and others are not used at all, students will have to keep on their toes. Matching items are useful for measuring students' ability to discern the exact definitions of a group of . Well-written items allow students to show what they know more quickly than they would by reading through numerous multiple-choice items. However, to avoid confusion: •

• •

51 8

CHAPTE R 14

Do not make matching lists longer than roughly ten items. Keep lists of items on the same page because flipping back and forth between two sheets can also be conf using (Linn & Gronlund, 1995).

CLASS ROO M ASSESS MENTS

TA B L E

POOR:

14.3 1.

Examples of Poor Versus Good Multiple-Choice Questions

Which of the following is not a character in The Odyssey? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

1.

Telemachus Penelope laertes Persephone

Which of the following is NOT a character in The Odyssey? A. B. C. D.

Telemachus Penelope laertes Persephone

Why Is It Poor?

By failing to underscore the word "not," a student may read quickly and misunderstand the question. POOR:

2.

Which animal is a mammal that can fly? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

2.

Arachnid Bat Moth Vulture

Which animal is a mammal that can fly? A. Spider B. Bat C. Moth D. Vulture

Why Is It Poor?

"Arachnid" may be an unfamiliar term for students and it is more technical than the other presented. POOR:.

3.

Hemingway has been considered by some critics to be a master of dialogue-writing. Which of the following works did he write? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

3.

Ernest Hemingway wrote which of the following works? A. B. C. D.

"Hills like White Elephants" Tender /s the Night "Maggie, a Girl of the Streets" The Grapes of Wrath

"Hills like White Elephants" Tender /s the Night "Maggie, a Girl of the Streets" The Grapes of Wrath

Why Is It Poor?

The information being tested bears no relationship to the opening sentence, which may confuse students. POOR:

4.

Which of the following refers to the tempo of a piece of music? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

4.

Forte Decrescendo poco y poco Piano largo

Which of the following refers to the tempo of a piece of music? A. B. C. D.

Forte Poco Piano largo

Why Is It Poor?

There is an imbalance in the length of choices, with one option much longer than the rest. POOR:

5.

What is the definition of bellicose? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

5.

War-like Attractive Beautiful Pretty

What is the definition of bellicose? A. War-like B. Attractive C. Sensitive D. Dishonest

Why Is It Poor?

Three of the choices are so similar that the answer must be the remaining item. POOR:

6.

Which of the following neurotransmitters is most commonly linked with schizophrenia? A. B. C. D.

GOOD:

Dopamine Chlorophyll Platelets GABA

6.

Which of the following neurotransmitters is most commonly linked with schizophrenia? A. B. C. D.

Acetylcholine Serotonin GABA Dopamine

Why Is It Poor?

Two of the choices (b and c) are not neurotransmitters, thus allowing them to be quickly discarded. POOR:

7. Which of the following plays did Shakespeare not write? A. B. C. D.

Hamlet A Dolls Howe Timon ofAthens The Winters Tale

Why Is It Poor?

The word "not" should be emphasized so students do not misread the question.

GOOD:

7. Which of the following plays did Shakespeare NOT write? A. B. C. D.

Hamlet A Dolls Howe Timon ofAthens The Winters Tale

1 4 .3

(continued)

8. Schizophrenic disorders affect approximately what percentage of the U.S. population?

GOOD:

8. Schizophrenic disorders affect approximately what percentage of the U.S. population? A. 1 % B. 8% e. 1 4% D. 20%

A. 1 % B 1 .5% e. 2% D. 3% Why Is It Poor?

The percentages are too similar across the options. POOR:

9. Which time period is commonly referred to as the Renais sance?

GOOD:

9. Which time period is commonly referred to as the Renaissance? A. 8th-1 0th centuries B. 1 1 th-1 3th centuries e. 1 4th-1 6th centuries D. 1 7th.,.1 9th centuries

A. 1 3th-1 5th centuries B. 1 4th-1 6th centuries e. 1 5th-1 7th centuries D. 1 6th-1 8th centuries Why Is It Poor?

The choices are temporally overlapping. thus allowing several partially correct answers. POOR:

1 0. The first time a company issues new stock to the public is referred to as an

GOOD:

A. initial public offering. B. price-earnings ratio. e. stock split. D. interest rate hike.

1 0. The first time a company issues new stock to the public is called A. an initial public offering. B. its price-earnings ratio. e. a stock split. D. an interest rate hike.

Why Is It Poor?

The article "an" leads to discarding choices b and c even if a student does not know the answer. POOR:

1 1 . A varietal wine refers to

GOOD:

A. a wine that is labeled with the different varieties of grapes used to produce it. B. a wine that is labeled with the different years in which its grapes were harvested. e. a wine that is labeled with the predominant grape used to produce it. D. a wine that is labeled with the different vineyards where it was produced.

1 1 . A varietal wine refers to a wine that is labeled with the A. different varieties of grapes used to produce it. B. years in which its grapes were harvested. e. predominant grape used to produce it. D. name of the Vineyards where it was produced.

Why Is It Poor?

The stem should have included the phrase "a wine that is labeled with the" instead of including this phrase in each option and thus making the options overly wordy. POOR:

1 2 . The calculated mean of a sample A. is never equal to the mean of the population. B. is always equal to the mean of the population. e. is always equal to the population median. D. is an estimate of the population mean.

Why Is It Poor?

Words such as "never" and "always" are seldom true and thus provide clues regarding which options to discard. Also, if the item is constructed this way (with the stem and each option forming one complete sentence), the word "is" should be in the stem instead of in each option.

GOOD:

1 2 . Which of the following statements best describes the statistical importance of a sample mean? A. It cannot equal the mean of the population. B. It equals the mean of the population. e. It equals the population median. D. It represents an estimate of the population mean.

Table 14.5 on page 522 provides examples of good and poor matching questions. • F I L L - I N - T H E - B L A N K A N D S H O R T - A N S WE R I T E M S Fill-in-the-blank and short-answer items (also called completion items) require the test-taker to complete a state ment by filling in the missing information or to compose a short answer to a question. Teach ers often prefer this type of item because it seems easy to write a good item based on statements

520

CHAPT E R 14

C LASS ROOM ASS ESSM E NTS

TA B L E

POOR:

1 4.4 1.

Examples of Poor Versus Good True/False Questions

There are six stages of moral development. T/F

GOOD:

1.

According to Kohlberg's theory, there are six stages of moral development. T/F

GOOD:

2.

The automobile was invented before the phonograph. T/F

GOOD:

3.

There are 1 2 innings in a baseball game. T/F There are 4 quarters in a football game. T/F There are 2 periods in a basketball game. T/F

GOOD:

4.

In of height, Abraham Lincoln was bigger than Ulysses S. Grant. T/F

GOOD:

5.

The keyboard of a modern piano is composed of 88 keys. T/F

GOOD:

6. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all monotheistic religions. T/F

GOOD:

7.

Why Is It Poor?

Without specifYing whose theory is being referred to, one could argue that the statement is either true or false (e.g., Piaget's theory of moral development does not have six stages). POOR:

2.

The automobile was invented before the sewing machine and the phonograph. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

There should be one comparison-not two-for clarity. POOR:

3.

There are 1 2 innings in a baseball game, 4 quarters in a football game, but only 2 periods in a basketball game. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

It contains both true and false choices mixed together. POOR:

4.

Abraham Lincoln was bigger than Ulysses S. Grant. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

Without specifYing that the relevant dimension is height, one could assume some other dimension was being tested (e.g., popularity). POOR:

5. The keyboard is composed of 88 keys. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

Keyboards differ for different instruments. POOR:

6. Judaism and Christianity are monotheistic religions, but Islam believes in many deities. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

It mixes both true and false assertions and the wording is confusing. Also, a religion does not itself believe in one or more deities; people who adhere to the religion may. POOR:

7.

Mozart was a genius. T/F

Why Is It Poor?

With respect to his musical capabilities, many people consider Mozart a genius. T/F

Without specifYing that the relevant dimension is musical ability, one could argue that Mozart was not a genius.

in a textbook: You can take a statement of fact or a description, remove a key portion, and ask the student to supply the missing portion. Although this procedure seems very straightforward to teachers who know the answer they are seeking, for the student, items requiring the com pletion of missing information can be very confusing. First, there are often several potentially correct answers you may not have considered. If a student gives a correct answer that is not what the teacher seeks, the answer may inappropri ately be marked as wrong. Astute students recognize that their task is not only to think about how to complete the statement, but also to decide what the teacher is looking for before answering. To eliminate such problems, teachers often resort to writing items in a very sim ple form where there is less opportunity for ambiguity. Avoiding complexity when writing items often leads to items that measure only lower-level thinking or basic knowledge. Because of all these potential drawbacks, fill-in-the-blank and short-answer items should be used sparingly (Gronlund, 1993) . If you do choose to use completion items, keep the following points in mind: •

•

•

Each question should have one main point and should contain only one blank-or several, in order, if responses constitute a list-for the student to complete. More than one blank separated by portions of a sentence can cause confusion. All blanks should be the same length, thereby ensuring you do not give students clues about the relative lengths of correct answers. The question should be specific about the form of the answer you seek, without giving the answer away; this way, students will know what is expected of them.

TRAD I TIONAL ASSESSMENTS

THINKING IWrite three good completion items that test material from this chapter. To get you started, three examples from among many possibilities appear here:

SUGGESTION :

Evaluations of students that focus on real-world performances are known as ----: (authentic assessments).

_ _ _

Three frequently used types of objective test questions are and (multiple choice, true/false, matching). _ _ _ �

_ _ _ _ � .

____

Two basic approaches to grading are and (norm referenced, criterion referenced). ____

521

TA B L E

POOR:

1 4.5

Examples of Poor Versus Good Matching Questions Match the state in column A with its source of wealth in column B.

1.

Column A

__

Column B

New York Alaska Florida Nebraska NewJersey Wisconsin California

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

agriculture mining manufacturing information processing fabrication trucking insurance education endowments

1.

GOOD:

Match the state capital in Column B to the appropri ate state in Column A. Column B

Column A

__

New York Alaska Florida Nebraska NewJersey Wisconsin California

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

Juno Lincoln Madison Tallahassee Sacramento Trenton Albany

Why Is It Poor?

The question and the options are ambiguous and confusing. POOR:

Match the two columns so that the composer is matched with the work he composed.

2.

Column B

Column A __

Mozart The Daughter o fthe Regiment Barber ofSeville Gershwin Aida

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Verdi Porgy and Bess Donizetli Marriage of Figaro Rossini

GOOD:

2.

Match the composer in Column B to his work in Column A. Column B

Column A __

__

__

The Daughter ofthe Regiment Marriage of Figaro Porgy and Bess Aida The Barber ofSeville

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Rossini Gershwin Donizetli Mozart Verdi

Why Is I t Poor?

It mixes composers and works in the same column, thus making it confusing. POOR:

Match the number of the cognitive development stage proposed by Piaget with the developmental achieve ment given below.

3.

a. During the

__

stage, object permanence is achieved.

b. A child is able to solve abstract problems once he or she reaches the stage.

GOOD:

Object permanence is achieved.

1.

Abstract problems can be solved.

__

__

__

__

c.

A child is able to perform symbolic play for the first time during the stage.

__

3. Match the number associated with the cognitive stage of development proposed by Piaget with the devel opmental achievement given below. Sensorimotor

2.

Preoperational

Symbolic play is performed.

3.

Concrete operational

Conservation is acquired.

4.

Formal operational

__

d. The

__

stage is when the principle of conservation is acquired.

formal operational sensorimotor 3. preoperational 4. concrete operational 1.

2.

Why Is It Poor?

It is overly wordy and confusingly structured.

Table 14.6 provides examples of good and poor completion questions. Table 14.7 provides examples of confusing questions that should be avoided. • E VA L U A T I N G O BJ E C T I V E I T E M S Once you have developed an objective test and proofread it caref ully, you may think the test is ready to ister. Before moving forward, however, you should show the draft of the test to a colleague as an outside check on your thinking, and then pilot the test on a friend, or, ideally, on a student who is not in your class and who will not reveal the answers. If you cannot find an outsider to help you evaluate the test, put it aside for a few days and then read it again, with a more critical eye. Once you have istered a test for which you wrote the items, remain alert to potential problems with individual items. A large number of student questions about a particular item, for example, indicates a problem. If m any students answer an item

522

CHAPTER 14

CLASSROOM ASSESSM ENTS

TA B L E

POOR:

1 4.6 1.

Examples of Poor Versus Good Completion Questions

Complementary angles

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

degrees.

GOOD:

1.

Complementary angles add up to

GOOD:

2.

Name three people who have received the Nobel Prize in chemistry: and

____

Why Is It Poor?

Without specifying the sum of angles' degrees, one could validly respond in many ways (e.g., "are so-called because they complement each other"). POOR:

2.

and won the Nobel Prize in chemistry.

____

have all

� _ _ _ _ _ _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ �

Why Is It Poor?

It is confusing to present blanks before the question-the question should come first. POOR:

3.

The

____

War lasted from

___

to

1 865.

GOOD:

3.

The Civil War began in the year in the year

____

and ended

_ _ _ _

Why Is It Poor?

It is confusing and poorly worded. POOR:

4.

John Steinbeck received the Pulitzer Prize for

_ _ _

GOOD:

4.

Which ofJohn Steinbeck's literary works received the Pulitzer Prize?

GOOD:

5.

Water is composed of one part parts

Why Is It Poor?

The length of the lines is proportional to the words that fit them (The Grapes of Wrath), thus providing a clue to the correct answer. POOR:

5.

Water is composed of one part partes) oxygen.

_____

and

_____

and two

_ _ _ _ _

____

Why Is It Poor?

The answer called for mixes the name of the element (hydrogen) and the number of parts of the other element (oxygen) and is thus confusing. POOR:

6.

_____

refers to random access memory.

GOOD:

6.

The computer term RAM stands for

GOOD:

7.

Kangaroos are indigenous to

GOOD:

8.

Forte indicates that a musical selection should be played

GOOD:

9.

Unlike animal cells, plants contain the photosynthesisrelated molecule

_ _ _ _ _

Why Is It Poor?

By failing to limit the question to computer terminology, one could argue for other correct answers. POOR:

7.

______

are indigenous to Australia.

.

_____

Why Is It Poor?

Many things are indigenous to Australia besides kangaroos (e.g., abo rigines, platypuses, koalas) POOR:

8.

______

tells the musician to play loudly.

Why Is It Poor?

By failing to specify a musical term, it is possible to give several answers that are valid (e.g., "The audience," "A conductor"). POOR:

9.

Plant cells have

_ _ _ _ _ _

Why Is It Poor?

_ _ _ _ _ _

Plant cells have many features that can be listed. POOR:

1 0.

______

was assassinated in

1 963.

Why Is It Poor?

There may have been other persons assassinated in a U.s. president

GOOD:

1 0.

U.S. presidentJohn F. Kennedy was assassinated in the year . ___

1 963

besides

incorrectly, or if they misread the item (for example, if their answers are consistent for a different reading of the item than the reading you had in mind), the item itself may be flawed. Keep a record (on a clean copy of the test) of the student input you get in response to each item. The best items are clear and discriminate between those students who did well overall on the test and those students who did poorly overall on the test. As you are grading tests, be alert to unfair items you should rewrite or even eliminate from the test before you use it in the f uture. With some practice, you will be able to eliminate sources of bias from the objective tests you create.

T R A DITIONAL A S SE S S MENT S

523

14. 7 Examples of Deliberately Confusing or Poorly Worded Test Questions T hat Should Be Avoided

TA B L E

Question: How many three-cent stamps are in a dozen? Answer: Twelve.

1.

Why Is It Poor?

This is a trick question rather than an attempt to find out if a student understands how many things make a dozen. Question: What do the following pairs of letters represent? RD ST ND Answer: The letter pairs are the ending of the following words: THIRD FIRST SECOND

2.

Why Is It Poor?

These three letter pairs stand for an infinite number of other possibilities. Question: If you were to take two apples from three apples, how many would you have? Answer: Two apples. What you take is what you have.

3.

Why Is It Poor?

This question tests the ability to understand confusing wording rather than testing arithmetic and, therefore, is a trick question. 4.

Question: As a rule, how long will a so-called eight-day clock run without winding? Answer: If the clock isn't wound, it won't run at all.

Why Is It Poor?

It tests the student's willingness to accept the question as a challenge to come up with alternative schemes, rather than attempting to find out what a student knows about the length of a clock cycle. S.

Question: What are the next two letters in the following series? A E F H I K L M Answer: N and T. These are the next two letters in the alphabet composed only of straight lines.

Why Is It Poor?

It requires the student to read the mind of the person who came up with this arbitrary feature of letters.

D E V E L O P I N G E SSAY TESTS

Now, we consider a more subjective way to assess student learning-the essay test. Essay tests require students to be actively involved in defining a question as they answer it, and in com posing and defending their answer. Guessing is no longer an option. Students cannot easily hide behind incomplete knowledge and understanding of the material, although they can answer in generalities. To for students' different learning styles, you should vary the types of questions you use on a test to give all students a chance to show what they know. Essays are best used for measuring high-level, complex learning (Gronlund, 1993). Some stu dents naturally gravitate toward essay writing; others have trouble expressing their knowl edge in this format. Expert teachers these issues when they compose tests. One study examined the success of students in college if they either scored high on essay questions and scored low on multiple-choice questions, or vice versa (Bridgeman & Morgan, 1996). The authors found that both groups of students were equally successf ul across differ ent subject areas (history, English, and biology). Both groups had equivalent course grades, although students in the high-scoring multiple-choice group performed much better on the multiple-choice portions of tests across subjects (including the verbal portion of the SAT), whereas students in the high-scoring essay group performed much better on essay portions of tests across subjects. Obviously, students have differing styles that are reflected in better per formance on certain types of test questions. Nevertheless, in general, students with one style are neither smarter nor prone to doing better in school than students with other styles. Because essay tests are subjective, different teachers may grade the same response differently. Thus, when they score essays, expert teachers ensure that they follow appropriate guidelines regarding fair grading policies and procedures. In addition, they carefully consider and review their questions before istering an essay test. Well-designed essay tests delve much deeper into student learning than objective tests. Essay questions also take longer to answer; as a con sequence, teachers can cover less content by istering an essay test than they can with an objective test of the same duration. Often, the best compromise is to include both objective questions and essay questions on the same test. Next, we review a few suggestions for the best use of the essay format (Gronlund, 1993).

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CLASSROO M ASSESS MENTS

The essay question is the best format for prob ing student understanding and reasoning at a complex level.

W R I T I N G G O O D E S SAY Q U E S T I O N S

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

A good essay question is clear and unambiguous and defines a specific question or set of questions. When writing essay questions, provide clear input about what the answer should cover, so the essays do not drift from the main point. In deciding how much time to give students to compose their answers, that some students may have the appropriate knowledge and understanding but be slow writers. To be sure essay questions do not primarily test the ability to write under pressure, provide ample time for their completion. When including more than one question, suggest how students should divide their time among the questions. When writing essay questions, craft the questions caref ully and read them over-and have others read them-to spot inconsistencies or areas that can be misread. Stress higher-order thinking skills by asking students to compare and contrast, or to analyze the antecedents and consequences of an event. Tell students to list facts to defend their answers. As with objective test items, piloting an essay test is always a good idea. Avoid making essay tests too long, particularly for younger students, to keep fatigue and writer's block from undermining students' ability to show what they know. Table 14.8 provides examples of good and poor essay questions.

TA B l E

POOR:

14.8

1 . What is the general tone of the essays written by Huxley and Snow?

Compare and contrast traditional and authentic assessment. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of criterion-versus norm referenced grading systems. Describe three specific methods teachers can use to ensure that their tests are fair. SUGGESTIO N :

GOOD:

1 . The essays of Huxley and Snow are both concerned with "the future of man." Do you find these writers generally optimistic or pessimistic? Point out the similarities and differences in their views, and present your views of the future of civilization in the context of these two writers.

GOOD:

2.

Define, discuss, and defend what you believe to be the three most important differences between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development

GOOD:

3.

Identify the six stages of the Phase Model with respect to the life course of a patient with Alzheimer's disease. For at least three of the stages, give an example of a defining behavioral and/or physical change seen in a patient in that stage.

GOOD:

4.

Describe the social and political atmosphere in the United States at the time when Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, and state three social and/or political changes that resulted from the publication of this book.

GOOD:

5.

Describe social mechanisms among chimpanzees in of dependent rank, strategic intelligence, and reciprocity. For two of these, give an example of a behavior among chimpanzees that exemplifies that social pattern.

It is vague with regard to what is being tested. For example, does the question mean "tone" in the sense of affect (optimistic), style (choppy versus fluid), beliefs (decency of man), or something else? 2.

Write three good essay test questions covering material from this chapter.

Examples of Poor Versus Good Essay Questions

Why Is It Poor?

POOR:

THI NKING

List all of the differences between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development.

Why Is It Poor?

The word "list" encourages students simply to make a list without defin ing or analyzing significant issues. Also, the word "all" makes the question potentially impossible to answer and again encourages students to make a list of differences between the two theories with no analysis. POOR:

3.

Describe the life course of a patient with Alzheimer's disease in of defining changes.

Why Is It Poor?

It is ambiguous as to what is being sought-life course is a broad concept and a student could write almost anything. POOR:

4.

Why did Harriet Beecher Stowe write Uncle Tom's Cabin?

Why Is It Poor?

The question is vague and allows students to respond in numerous ways that have little to do with the most significant aspects of the book. Authors have many potential reasons for writing books-including personal reasons-that are not nearly as important for students to understand as the broader societal impact of the book. POOR:

5.

Describe social mechanisms among chimpanzees.

Why Is It Poor?

It is overly broad and not specific as to which mechanisms are being tested.

TRAD IT IO NA L A S SE S SME N T S

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THINKING Have you ever written what you believed was a good response to an essay question and then received a poor grade? Why do you think this happened? What could your teacher have done to help avoid this problem? Sometimes a difference of opinion with a teacher can create such a situa tion, such as when a student writes a political essay and the teacher opposes the position taken by the writer. Sometimes a teacher may expect a certain type of response and react neg atively to other types of responses. Expert teachers take steps to ensure that their grad ing of essays is not biased by asking other teachers to read essays that seem problematic, or by asking students to discuss and clarify their responses. SUGGESTION:

• WH E N TO U S E E S S AY Q U E S T I O N S Elementary school students can begin to answer brief essay questions only after they have mastered written language. In their first few years at school, most children need the guidance of true/false, multiple-choice, and fill-in questions; an open essay is intimidating. By fourth or fifth grade, students are able to do well on essays if the questions are clear, the essay length is specified, and they have been assigned homework and classwork requiring writing essays. As students progress through school, the use of essays becomes increasingly more appropriate; by high school, most students are well accustomed to writing their answers in essay form. Essays are often the best way to measure higher-order critical thinking. In most cases, for well-crafted questions, students cannot study for and do well on an essay test simply by memorizing vast amounts of information: Instead, they must learn how to reason actively and process information. Essay testing does have some drawbacks, however. First, scoring essay tests takes far longer than scoring objective tests. Scoring can be highly subjective, although expert teachers take care to eliminate unnecessary bias. In addition, students' writing ability is likely to be a strong contributor to their grades on an essay. If a test seeks to evaluate writing ability as well as con tent-related knowledge, this is not a problem. But sometimes students with good knowledge and critical-thinking skills do not write well, or they make spelling and grammatical errors that significantly lower their scores, despite their superior understanding. Conversely, stu dents with excellent writing ability may be able to write an immaculate essay that largely misses the point. In general, be caref ul to use fair scoring procedures that give appropriate weight to both content and form of essays.

• E VA L U A T I N G E S S A Y T E S T S The most challenging aspect of an objective test is writ ing good items; the grading is generally simple. The most difficult part of an essay test, how ever, is ensuring that grading is fair and accurate. Develop criteria for scoring an essay test in advance, unless you have no experience with a particular group of students or a particular grade level. In the latter case, first read the essays and then put them aside while you develop a grading scheme. If you intend to give each essay two grades-one for content and the other for style, for example-inform students of this fact in advance, so they understand the grad ing scheme you will use. At least three approaches ensure fair grading (Williams, Blythe, White, Li, Sternberg, & Gardner, 1996). For situations in which there is one long essay rather than multiple short essays, follow these steps: •

•

First read through all of the essays and then divide them into piles. Using five piles works well. The first pile should contain the best essays and the fifth pile the worst; the piles in between contain the essays corresponding to intermediate levels of quality. After sorting the essays, skim the piles once again to ensure you have s orted fairly. Finally, award grades that correspond to the piles-A's to the essays in pile 1, B's to the essays in pile 2, and so on. A second approach to grading essays follows this scheme :

•

•

•

Begin by writing a model answer to each question that contains all the facts and main issues you want your students to cover. Allocate point totals that a student will earn for having each portion of the correct answer. Allow for good writing to earn more credit by awarding a certain number of points for it. This scoring technique is well suited to grading essays that are designed to elicit fac tual recall and direct exposition; however, more complex essay topics do not allow as easily for the use of this technique. A third approach to grading essays takes this tack:

•

526

C H APTER 14

Begin by developing a generic scoring key that can be used for many different types of essays. This scoring key consists of anchors explaining what each score reflects Many teachers use a 1-to-5 scale. A 1 reflects a poor essay that makes few or no appropriate points and is nearly incomprehensible; a 5 reflects an excellent essay that is well argued,

CLA S SR O OM A S SE S SMENT S

TAB L E

1 4.9

A Grading Scheme for Essay Tests

Grading on a 1 -to-5 Scale 5

Excellent essay in every respect-well written, clear, well organized, overall excellent use of written English. Excellent understanding and organization of relevant knowledge. Shows level of comprehension, analysis, and synthesis of ideas and concepts that goes beyond simply repeating what was learned in a well-organized way.

4

Very good essay. Some elements may be lacking, but generally a solid effort evidencing good command ofwritten English. Very good understanding and organization of relevant knowledge. (The presence of two or more errors turns a 5 into a 4; a 5 should be reserved for excellent essays with only minor errors.)

3

Good essay. It flows and is readable, but it is marked by some flaws in grammar, sentence structure, vocabulary, clarity of expression, and so on. Good understanding and organization of relevant knowledge. (Many serious flaws mean that the essay should be given a 2.)

2

Poor essay. An effort was made, but the quality is generally low. Many errors are apparent; the student could clearly use extra work in writing. Poor command of relevant knowledge. Very poor essay or essentially blank. Nothing much to work with. The student obviously performs very poorly in writing and could clearly use a substantial amount of help. Almost no command of relevant knowledge.

•

• •

well written, and filled with numerous facts that its arguments. Intermediate numbers correspond to intermediate levels of essay quality. By developing such a scor ing key in advance, you can begin grading without reading through all of the essays. However, always shuffle the essays and read a few of them before beginning to get an idea of the range in quality of the responses. To ensure you are grading the essays fairly, score all students' answers to one question before moving on to score the next question. This procedure prevents bias because of a good or poor first answer on a given student's paper. The student may have done a far better (or worse) job on the second question than on the first question, and grad ing all answers to a particular question in a row prevents you from developing a gen eral impression of the student's performance based on answers you read first. Such a general impression may unfairly advantage or disadvantage students whose answers vary in quality. Try to grade all responses to a particular question at a single sitting. Have students place their names on the backs of their papers, so you are not biased by knowing the identity of the students during grading.

Table 14.9 shows a sample grading scheme for essay tests. Essay tests measure what students know by asking them to actively demonstrate their knowledge and reasoning ability. Much of what makes essay tests appealing in comparison to objective tests is that, in the real world after graduation from school, students will not be given questions to answer followed by lists of options containing the right answer. Thus essay questions are considered to be a better reflection of the ability to think actively and inde pendently about all information, and to formulate a persuasive argument on one's own. •

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING •

Count on well-designed traditional assessments to provide valuable information about student learning and progress. There is a rich history regarding all aspects of traditional assessment, which has been the testing mode of choice in most schools for decades. You can draw on numerous sources of information to refine your under standing and use of traditional assessments.

•

Plan well-organized lessons and tailor assessment questions to the level and content of classwork and homework. Tests are effective only when they target the


527

appropriate material at the appropriate level. Caref ul planning and integration of instruction and assessment are key. • Use frequent, short assessments. These help students improve and result in greater learning and retention of material. Giving one big test creates intense pressure on stu dents when the big test comes around, but allows for slacking off in the meantime. Expert teachers use tests to motivate good studying behavior, and they prevent single tests from becoming the sole means for a student to show what he or she knows. •

Use objective test questions to assess a wide range of student learning in a short time. Well-written objective questions-especially multiple-choice questions-can be

remarkably effective; poorly written questions can be disastrous. Broad coverage of the material is possible with well-written objective questions. • In using essay tests, be careful to ensure uniform and fair grading of essays. Evalua tion of essays sometimes confuses writing skill with knowledge of the subject matter itself-and the two do not necessarily always go hand in hand. Writing good essay questions is challenging and takes practice. Ensuring fairness in grading essays requires rigorous application of the techniques discussed in this chapter.

C O N S T R U CTI N G Y O U R O W N L EA R N I N G Write a rough draft o f a final exam that reflects the material you have learned in this course. Make sure the test includes at least two of each of the fo llowing types of questions: mu ltiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, matching, true/false, and essay. Read your test over and try to imagine what it would be like to take the test. Is it fa ir? Are the questions clear and unam biguous? Now find a friend in the class to whom to give your test. Ask this person to read through the questions and comment on their fa irness and appropriateness. Does your friend think the test is clear? How would she or he improve it? What does this demonstra tion tell you about the process of writing a test for the students you teach?

Authentic Assessments Many educators believe that the entire premise of classroom testing-as well as standardized testing-is flawed: These people argue that tests should reflect the types of real-world performances for which schools are preparing students (Boud & Falchikov, 2006; Herrington & Herrington, 2006; Wiggins, 1989). Such authentic assess ments ask students to use skills and knowledge to solve problems in the same manner as if they were completing real-world tasks. For example, the written test you took to get a dri ver's license was a typical standardized test, but the road test you took was an authentic assessment. The idea was to observe people actually behind the wheel before giving them driver's licenses, and it makes excellent sense. After all, how comfortable would you be on the road if licenses were awarded solely on the basis of scores on the written test? The goal of authentic assessment is to give a better picture of how students will perform in actual meaningful activities while using their new skills and knowledge (Wolf, 1998; Wolf, Bixby, Glenn, & Gardner, 199 1). Given students' individual differences and the range of learning styles, some students who do not score high on traditional tests perform better on authentic assessments-the nature of the performance required may be a better match to these students' abilities and talents.

Norman Gronlund ( 1988) describes four types of performance tests that simulate real-world performances to differing degrees. The least like a real-world performance is the traditional paper-and-pencil test, with which we are all familiar. Next is the identific a-

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TEACH I N G A N D LEAR N I N G A B O U T C L A S S RO O M A S S E S S M E N T S I N E A C H C H A P T E R O F T H E T E XT, W E I N T R O D U C E Y O U T O A F E W S P E C I F I C S T RA T E G I E S - A N A LY T I C A L , C R E A T I V E , A N D P R A C T I C A L - U S E D B Y B O T H E X P E R T T E A C H E RS A N D E X P E RT S T U D E N T S .

T H I: A N A LY T l C A ... I £ A \.. I1 ':: I( . Raman writes one or two test questions every day in the teacher's lou nge after class, to be sure his tests mirror what he taught T H E C R E AT I V E TEA C H E R : To make his assessments more interesting to students, Raman writes essay ques

I;

Crystal completes the practice tests in her textbook u nder the same conditions that she will face during the actual test ( by timing her self, not resting in between questions, and so o n ) .

T H E C R EAr J V E S T U D E N T : Crysta l draws up practice

tions that ask students to take the perspectives of stu

tests for herself to take and hands them in to her

dents from different parts of the world.

teacher for her comments,

T H E P R A C T I C A L TEAC H E R : Raman gives students practice quizzes that he doesn't even collect and then

T H E P RA CT I C A L S T U D E N T: Crystal gets together with several of her friends, and they ask themselves which

goes over the right a nswers in class, so as to prepare

types of test questions the teacher is likely to ask on the

students for tests,

next test as they work through the a nswers together.

tion test, in which students are asked to describe things to show their knowledge (for exam ple, the bones in the human body for a medical student, the uses of different tools for a sculpting student, and the parts of an engine for a student of auto mechanics), Next is the simulated performance, in which students perform under conditions created to simulate the real world (for example, learning R on a dummy or practicing diving jumps on a tram poline while wearing a harness) , Finally, there is the work-sample assessment, in which real world performances are scored as assessments (for example, a musical performance before an audience or an autopsy performed by a veterinary student on a dead animal) , Perhaps you have taken an authentic assessment. For example, you may have played a musical instrument in a recital, or you may have played on a sports team that entered a competition, In these domains, we are used to thinking in of authentic assess ments, How much would it mean if you knew the results of a paper-and-pencil test taken by an athlete who wished to your team or by a music student who wished to play in your band? In other domains, however, we are not used to thinking in of authen tic assessments, For example, you might not think of the idea of giving grade school chil dren math tests that consisted of their actually buying items with play money and making proper change, their dividing a recipe in half to cook for only two rather than four people, or their using a bus schedule to figure out when they would arrive in a neighboring town, Even so, these are legitimate math tests, because they ask children to apply their math skills to solve real-world problems, Of course, authentic assessments can also be paper-and-pencil tests, Teachers can design tests that ask students to complete tasks with real-world relevance-for example, writing a per suasive letter to an elected official or developing architectural plans for a house, Thus authen tic assessments can take many forms; the key is that such tests always assess real-world skills, For example, research has shown that creative artwork by K- 12 students can be empirically assessed using quantitative measures that tap into authentic learning, and that these measures can reli ably assess student art growth (Dorn, Madeja, & Sabol, 2004), Authentic assessment approaches have even been used successfully with preschool children, documenting their progress toward early learning standards (Grisham-Brown, Hallam, & Brookshire, 2006).

THINKING ; R A Ci' , r A Describe three situations not discussed in the text in which authentic assessments can be used. Screening potential leads for the school play; giving a full in-box to job applicants and asking them to prioritize the work; asking a potential hairdresser to show what he can do (on someone else!) before hiring him.

SUGGESTION :

What are the characteristics of good authentic assessments? How can teachers be sure that authentic assessments are valid, reliable, and as objective and fair as possible?

AUTHENT I C ASSESS MENTS

529

• PLA N N I N G A U T H E N T I C ASSESSME NTS Often an authentic assessment has an open-ended time allotment. Although the final performance may be timed, in general, ample time to prepare and rehearse is provided. In other words, authentic assessments do not usu ally involve working against the clock, unless the assessment reflects a naturally speed-related performance (such as jumping horses in a competition or singing a fast song). In addition, authentic assessments often require collaboration with other people in the planning, devel oping, or enacting of the performance. (One drawback of group performances is the diffi culty of separating out the performances of individual team for evaluation purposes.) These assessments should mimic as closely as possible the real-world tasks that students will complete outside of school. They should challenge students to learn, grow, and develop as they push themselves to attain greater levels of ability. Good authentic assessments also give students leeway to customize or select particular aspects of their performances to show their own individual contribution. Beginning teachers (or any teacher who wishes to learn more) can consult books entirely devoted to the principles and practices of authentic assessment (for example, Khattri, Reeve, & Kane, 1998).

• G RA D I N G A U T H E N T I C A S S E S S M E N T S How are authentic assessments graded fairly? The criteria must be well thought through and must match important aspects of the skills on display-handwriting should not matter, for example, in judging the quality of a play script that is being acted out. Authentic assessments are best graded on a criterion referenced system, wherein grades are based on independent sets of standards defining good performances. A good authentic assessment is graded on criteria the students themselves per ceive as being meaningful to the performance. The types of grades given should reflect mul tiple aspects of the performance. Consequently, a teacher or of teachers might give multiple grades for different facets of the performance. Sometimes, the quality of a per formance may not be uniform across the different aspects. For example, the content of the writing on which a speech is based may be good, but the delivery weak. By giving multiple grades, you can reward and acknowledge those aspects of performances that deserve it.

• GOALS O F AUTHENTIC ASSESSM ENT The best authentic assessments allow all students to show what they know. These assessments make it possible for diligent effort to produce a good final product, even if the student lacks natural gifts in the area. In other words, if the goal is to evaluate general understanding of music, an assessment of singing ability is not fair to an unmusical child. Conversely, an assessment of a general music proj ect is fair, if this general project consists of a report on a musician along with a live presen tation of a recording and an analysis of the person's music. Good authentic assessments energize students about showing what they know. They are especially adept at providing opportunities for those students who do not always do well on objective tests or essay tests to display their special gifts. A final quality of good authentic assessments is that they require students to listen to on their performance, and then to react to that and strengthen the performance. Baxter, Elder, and Glaser ( 1996) studied the role of performance assessments in making relevant cognitive activity apparent to teachers and students. They found that students' per formance on a science authentic assessment demonstrated critical differences between those students who could think and reason well, and those students who could not. Differences in the quality of explanations, adequacy of problem representation, appropriateness of solution strategies, and frequency and flexibility of self-monitoring all varied among the students who participated in this study. In their own classrooms, teachers can observe these types of cog nitive characteristics of effective performance on an authentic assessment. Expert teachers then use this information for purposes of planning instruction and grading students. One study looked at the relationship between student performance on a senior-level voca tional authentic assessment, students' opinions about the authenticity of the assessment, and the degree of match between the assessment and the instruction students received (Gulikers, Bastiaens, Kirschner, & Kester, 2006). The authors wanted to know if higher levels of authen ticity and matching would result in deeper learning and skill development. Results showed that deeper learning and greater skill development occurred when ( 1) the assessment task was more

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14


authentic, (2) the context in which the task was performed was more authentic, (3) the form of the assessment task was more authentic, and (4) all of the preceding qualities matched the types of instruction students had received. P O RT F O L I O S

A portfolio is a collection of student work that demonstrates the student's abilities, efforts, accomplishments, and growth in an area or areas. In addition to being a type of authentic assessment, a portfolio is a method of instruction that assists students in their learning and development. A portfolio can represent the stu dent's own selections of work (influenced by teacher advice), the teacher's selections, or some of both; it should contain a state ment of the student's goals and progress toward achieving these goals. Collins ( 1992) recommends that teachers define the cate gories a portfolio should contain, and allow students to select the exact contents within each category. A portfolio can be changed and adapted as a student moves through a course or semester so as to reflect the student's growth over time. Often, students are given the task of reflecting on the contents of their portfolio to assess their progress and chart their goals for the future. Two common types of portfolios you are probably familiar with are artistic portfolios and writing portfolios. For example, when an artist applies to a graduate program, she typically must supply a portfolio she has designed to show the range of her talents and her development as an artist. The portfolio often includes a writ ten statement of her professional goals as well. Similarly, when a fashion model solicits a job, he shows a portfolio of photographs that displays his range of poses and his best physical features. A writer's portfolio consists of a selection of short stories, poems, essays, or critical pieces of work that show that writer's range and strengths. These artistic and creative arenas are not the only places in which portfolios are appropriate, however. A student can prepare a portfolio in any area of study-science, social studies, foreign language, mathematics, or health and nutrition. A portfolio's contents are influenced by the nature of the area being reflected. For example, a portfolio in biology class might include samples of insects and plants with descriptions, as well as laboratory reports and data analy ses. A portfolio in social studies might include copies of old newspaper articles the student has analyzed, along with an explanation of the student's analyses; photographs of histori cal sites with student descriptions of them; and transcripts of interviews with people from different countries-and analyses of these interviews-conducted by the student. A math ematics portfolio might include a record and description of math problems the student attempted and solved at different points in the semester, showing how her methods of analysis became more sophisticated. Portfolio content is also influenced by the age of the student and whether she is grouped with same-age peers or in multi-age teams ( Hall & Hewitt-Gervais, 2000). •

T Y P E S A N D C O N T E N T O F P O RT F O L I O S

Teachers sho uld define th e categories aportfolio sho uld contain but allow students to select th e exact contents with in each category.

THI NKING

Name three additional situa tions in which portfolios would be appropriate. pastry chef could displays photo of his cre ations, a teacher might create a portfolio containing samples of lesson plans and novel approaches to instruction, and a carpenter could assemble a photo album showing his past woodworking projects. SUGG EST ION : A

Portfolios can include work from one course, a group of • C R E AT I N G P O RTF 0 L l O S courses, or even out-of-school activities. When you use portfolios to assess and instruct stu dents, that students should take primary responsibility for creating their portfo lios. Encourage them to include pieces of work that represent self-reflection, improvement, and the ability to learn from criticism. Portfolios should include material that reflects the differ ent activities the students engaged in while doing various kinds of coursework (for example, laboratory reports, library assignments, and foreign language stories). Expert teachers stress that students' portfolios are personal statements and explicitly recognize that students should be given a substantial say about what to include. At the same time, the expert teacher pro vides guidelines to ensure that students are including work from a range of areas and of a

A U T H ENTI C A S S E S SM ENT S

531

range of types (in other words, not just their journal entries for the semester, or not just their chemistry lab write-ups). Students must understand that their portfolios should not include everything they have done, but rather should encom a sample of work across several content areas. • A D VA N TA G E S 0 F PO R T F 0 L l O S Any type of learning task can become the basis for a portfolio collected and managed by the student. One of the advantages of portfolios is that they engender pride in the students who have developed them. Seeing the growth of one's collection provides a feeling of accomplishment that is often lost when the work is never col lected and displayed in one place. Also, in their portfolios students can be encouraged to show improvements in their work; this process helps build confidence by reminding students of their ability to persevere and overcome obstacles. Because of all of these advantages, expert teachers incorporate the use of portfolios into their assessment. Use of portfolios as assess ments is most effective if these portfolios are classroom based rather than being assembled solely for large-scale testing and evaluation of students (Freedman, 1993).

EXH I B I T I O N S

Another type of authentic assessment i s a student exhibition o r performance. You are prob ably familiar with exhibitions: Vocal recitals, plays, book reports, skits, and other types of exhibitions are common in today's classrooms. An exhibition is a public performance whose audience may include people who will judge the performance. Exhibitions that represent good authentic assessments will reflect a great deal of time and preparation, and this preparation will have helped the student understand a wide range of material. For example, to earn a graduate degree, a person must of ten complete an oral qualifying examination that lasts for several days (with breaks for meals and sleep). This authentic assessment is actually an exhibition of what the student has learned, of ten in a public forum. Because exhibitions can be nerve-wracking for some students, it is wise to use them with portfolios, which do not entail on-the-spot performances. EVA L U AT I N G P E R F O RMA N C E O N A U T H E N T I C A S S E S S M E NTS

The evaluation of either a portfolio or an exhibition should be based on an analysis of whether the portfolio or exhibition has met established criteria. Points can be assigned for the portions of the work that can be judged as correct or incorrect. Points can also be assigned for the portions requiring written work, such as analyses and essays, following the guidelines already provided for grading essays. For the portions of work that involve artistic displays, either the teacher can be the sole judge or, preferably, a of educators, students, and even parents can make judgments. As with all assessments, the proper use of authentic assessments includes giving students clear and directions for f uture improvements:

Studentspresent a martial arts sh ow for parents, teachers, and sch oolm ates.

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TAB L E

1 4.1 0 Example of Scoring Protocol for an Authentic Assessment

Task: Writing and performing a skit about preventing teen suicide. Assign points on a l -to-S scale for each of the fol lowing aspects of the performance.

1.

Displays understanding of nature of problem.

Z.

Displays knowledge of national statistics.

3.

Portrays troubled teens in realistic, convincing manner.

4.

Story makes sense and rings true.

5.

Performance reaches audience and holds their attention.

6.

Performance commu nicates valuable lessons.

7.

Dialogue moves quickly and is well edited.

8.

Student actors are convincing.

9.

Student actors know their lines and are well rehearsed.

1 0.

Performers look straight ahead and speak clearly and convincingly.

1 1. 1 Z.

Costuming is appropriate. Performance shows effective teamwork.

Students should be told not only what they have done well, but also what they could have done better, why, and how. Like traditional assessments, authentic assessments can be biased, unreliable, and invalid. To avoid these problems, develop and enforce rigorous standards for judging the work rela tive to objective criteria of quality. By following this path, you ensure that all students have an equal chance to do well if they apply themselves. Herman, Gearhart, and Baker ( 1993) examined issues of reliability and validity in port folio scoring. They showed that it is possible to score portfolios consistently by giving a sin gle score of overall quality, and by using a common rating scale to score different classroom assignments of a similar type. However, the degree to which these scores are meaningf ul and can be generalized is questionable. The Herman et al. ( 1993) study also found significant dif ferences when students' performance was judged based on a standard writing assignment, individual student work, and portfolios. The scores doled out depended on the rating and summing procedure used. All scoring schemes carry with them value judgments about what is an important and meaningf ul accomplishment, so teachers who use portfolios as means of authentic assess ment must recognize that their own subjectivity in grading can be a significant hurdle to overcome. When experienced raters use well-designed scoring schemes, reliability improves (Herman & Winters, 1994). One way to reduce subjectivity in the scoring of authentic assessments is to develop ahead of time clear and unambiguous scoring guides that are uni formly applied to every student's performance (see Table 14. 10 for an example). Another source of low reliability in the grading of authentic assessments can be uneven student performance . Some performances or work samples are often better than others, par ticularly for those students whose work varies widely from day to day. Consider a broad range of work samples for portfolio inclusion to ensure that the student's best work is represented, and ensure that every judge (if there are multiple judges) scores the same work samples.

THI NKING A N A LY T I CA L LY Which factors might bias the grade given to a student for a n exhibition? SUGGESTION:

If the teacher

likes the student and/or knows her well; if the student has rehearsed the performance for the teacher several times and has gotten the teacher's pledge of approva l; if the teacher is in a particularly good or bad mood that day or is a ngry with the student, for example.

fORUM W H I C H TYPES OF ASSESSME NTS A R E BEST?

A re traditional assessments adeq uate to evaluate students? Or should schools switch to authentic and p erform ance assessm ents? F I RST V I E W : Traditional assessments are time-honored, reliable, and valid ways to evaluate student learning. Traditional assessments, which consist mostly of objective and essay classroom tests, are the best way to evaluate the knowledge that students have acquired. It may sometimes be boring or repetitive for students to memorize basic facts

AUTHENTI C ASSESSMENTS

533

and figures, but this basic knowledge provides the foundation for higher-order learning of concepts, principles, and relations among concepts. Regardless of how talented stu dents are, they need this foundation, which is created by hard work and cannot be eval uated as well with authentic assessments as it can be evaluated with traditional assessments. Students must be helped, by their teachers and their parents, to understand that the foundation they create while young will be there to their intellectual activities for their entire lives. Traditional testing increases student motivation and enhances learning, and it is part of a system that prepares students for the future. Compared to traditional assessments, alternative methods of assessment are unreliable and do not provide a clear picture of student learning that is comparable from student to student. Thus evaluations based on authentic assessments are unfair and potentially flawed. Traditional assessments are more objective and represent the most defensible measures of student learning. S E C O N D V I E W : Authentic and performance assessments are the only types of tests that meaningfully evaluate student learning and performance. Knowledge is fine, but the type of knowledge reflected in traditional assessments is often inert knowledge: Stu dents memorize and then repeat answers under time pressure, but weeks later they have often forgotten the knowledge. Furthermore, when they prepare for traditional tests, students never learn how to apply the knowledge to solve real-world problems.

In comparison, authentic assessments map student learning and performance onto real world performances and challenges that are relevant to students' lives outside of school. They challenge students to use their creative and practical talents as well as their analytical talents to expand their capabilities. In this way, these assessments encourage autonomy and self-directedness. Competent performance on authentic assessments means far more than simply getting 50 multiple-choice questions correct. T H I R D V I E W : A S Y NTH E S I S . Both traditional and authentic assessments are useful in evaluating students. It is true that authentic assessments are good learning and develop ment experiences for students, but relying solely on these assessments may allow stu dents to through school without acquiring the basic facts and figures that form the foundation for later thinking and accomplishments. Furthermore, authentic assessments suffer from a lack of reliability and validity in scoring; it is often difficult or even impos sible to identify what a correct answer consists of. Because of this inability to distinguish performances that do or do not show whether a student has learned important informa tion, authentic assessments may result in students progressing through school without learning essential information. Traditional assessments, however, may short-change the types of learning and integration students must do in life after graduation from school.

Clearly, both types of assessments are important and useful. Used in tandem, traditional assessments encourage students to study and learn the basic information they need, and performance-based assessments allow students to apply their knowledge and expand on this knowledge base to solve real-world problems. Both types of assessments, and the experiences they create, are essential. The goal for teachers is to incorporate both types of assessments into the curriculum, so students display a wide range of performances. Now that we have discussed at length the use of traditional and authentic assessments for evaluating student learning, we consider how the grades based on students' performance on these assessments should be determined and reported . •

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING •

Use authentic assessments to test students on skills and knowledge required to solve real-world problems and complete real-world tasks. Like traditional assessments, authentic assessments can be either well or poorly constructed; they may also reflect

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either a great deal or very little about student competence. At their best, authentic assessments represent an essential method for evaluating real-world performance. •

Recognize the diversity of authentic assessment options and take advantage of differ ent testing formats. Authentic assessments take many forms, from paper-and-pencil tasks to identification tasks to actual performances. Different types of competence can best be evaluated through different types of performances. Students will gravitate toward those formats that best match their patterns of abilities, preferences, and experiences.

•

Score authentic assessments, including portfolios and exhibitions, as objectively and rigorously as possible. This care will help ensure that they are truly fair evalua tions of student learning. A frequent criticism is that because authentic assessments are difficult to score, they are good in theory but fall short in practice. Expert teachers recognize and take steps to address this inherent pitfall when using authentic assess ment techniques.

Grading and Reporting Once you have planned your instruction, conducted your classes and activities, and designed and istered fair assessments, you must now master the com plex issues of grading and reporting to communicate student achievement to students, their parents, and the society at large (Gullickson, 2003). As a student yourself, you understand how important grades are to students and their parents. As students develop, grades become essential criteria for selection to specialized programs and schools. Because students agonize over their grades, it is imperative that as a teacher you implement accurate and fair grading policies. Grading is not a task to approach haphazardly : Expert teachers develop grading sys tems well in advance to ensure that their grading and reporting practices are sound. As Hng Xu learned, students are heavily invested in getting good grades, and they often complain if they perceive unfairness or any lack of carefulness in how grading was conducted. T H E I M P O RTA N C E O F G RA D ES TO S T U D E NTS

Before you choose a grading system to use in your classrooms, consider the effect of a grading system on student learning and motivation. that the importance you assign to dif ferent types of work-tests, quizzes, homework, reports-during grading will directly influ ence how much importance students assign to these activities when completing them. If you emphasize homework's importance by allowing student grades on homework to count for 20 percent of their final grade, students will believe their homework assignments are important. Conversely, if you verbally emphasize homework by stating how important it is and then fail to count it in computing your final grades, students will quickly realize homework is less impor tant than you say it is. In addition, if you act as though a grade is a final judgment of a student's ability, rather than simply a reflection of a student's performance at a particular point in time, you will encourage students to view bad grades as an irreparable disaster rather than as evi dence of the need for more focused hard work and improvement. Some (but not all) teachers allow students to redo homework or retake tests that led to low grades to emphasize that these poor performances are signs the students must work harder next time. In general, your grading system should emphasize in varying proportions the types of work and performances you believe are most important to maximize student learning. The right proportions naturally vary for different teachers, classes, and levels of students. In grading, expert teachers that words should equal actions. In other words, if teachers stress conceptual understanding in class, they must also stress it on tests, and give weight to this kind of understanding in computing final grades. The entire system, begin ning with what is taught and how different skills are stressed, should lead to an assessment program that evaluates students' performance on the skills that have been stressed. Ulti mately, grades should be computed in a manner that also emphasizes the same skills

G RADING AND REPO RTING

THINKING Based on your experience, describe three ways you could make the grading process less stressfu l for students. SUGGESTION:

Discuss your

grading procedures clearly and fully in advance, answer ques tions about the grading process thoroughly, and be open to student suggestions for changes to the process.

535

stressed in instruction. A smooth and consistently applied teaching, assessment, and grad ing system is essential to maintaining student enthusiasm and effort. G E N E RA L G RA D I N G G U I D E L I N E S

Expert teachers follow basic guidelines to ensure that the grades they assign are fair. As a teacher, you should base students' grades on multiple sources of information-on performance on dif ferent types of test questions, on performance on both oral reports and written ones, and on per formance on both homework and tests. Stressing one source of information at the expense of others biases the grading process in favor of those students who are most competent in that one particular mode of performance. Always check with other teachers and the principal and school s to ensure your grading systems comply with school policies.

THINKING A N A LY T I CA L LY Describe three problems that might result if you fail to explain the grading system to students. SU GGESTION:

Misunderstandings can lead to student compla ints to other teachers or even to the princi pal, involvement of students' parents, and students' earning lower grades than they might have if they had understood the system .

THINKING What might be the conse quences if you do not docu ment the reasons for fa iling a student? SU G GE STION :

Students and

their parents might take legal action and you would then be called on to document and substantiate your decisions. All records could potentially be made public.

• W H E N A N D H O W TO G RA D E Grade only when you have determined that a grade is really necessary. Perhaps assignments that would normally be graded can sometimes be left ungraded, or perhaps they can be graded by the students themselves. The form in which on grading is reported to students is also important. A simple B+ is not sufficient; students require and deserve more elaborate detailing where and why they made errors and how they can improve in the future. This may take either written or ver bal form. Research has shown little difference between verbal and written reports in their effects upon students (Wagner & Valtin, 2003) . More generally, help each student feel that he or she is capable of working toward learn ing goals, by stressing effort and improvement and by being encouraging. Effective teachers also that students may not always share the teacher's own views, opinions, or methods. When there is more than one correct answer to a question, these teachers reward students who disagree as long as the students defend their positions. There will always be some students who are more compliant, but it is important to evaluate skilled performance and not mere compliance.

Regardless of the specific grading system • E X P L A I N I N G T H E G RA D I N G S Y S T E M you use, explain the system clearly to the students, perhaps by distributing a written guide to the grading system. If your explanation takes an oral form, rehearse it often with the students. New teachers should review their systems with experienced teachers to assess the appropri ateness of the system. Evaluate your students at the start of a class to gain an idea of their prior level of training and level of understanding. Base all evaluations of students on evi dence that can be documented to another teacher, , or parent, if necessary. • D O C U M E N T I N G G RA D I N G No matter which grading system they use, expert teach ers rarely allow themselves to be either cajoled or browbeaten into raising a student's grade, whether by the student or by a parent. (The exception to this rule is if you discover an error in scoring or grading, you missed an answer on the back of a page, or you were otherwise in error.) These teachers keep their students informed of their performance relative to the other students in the class; otherwise, students may be surprised to learn they are doing poorly in comparison to classmates. Such a situation can create problems for you, not only with the student, but also with the istration and parents. Finally, as with any grading system, that you may be called on to document individual students' performance. Information on grades and the basis for these grades must be made available to students and parents who request this information, under the of the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 and the Educational Amendments Act of 1974 (also called the Buckley amendment). You must be prepared to defend all grading decisions with objective evidence.

R E L ATIVE I M PROV E M E NT V E R S U S A B S O L U T E P E R F O R MA N C E

All teachers must determine how to reward improvement in their classes. Suppose you begin the year with two students: Tim, who performed poorly at the beginning of the term but rose

536

C H AP TE R 14

CL A S S ROOM A S SE S SMENT S

to doing above-average work by the end of the term, and Jose, who began by doing above-aver age work and ended by doing the same level of above-average work as Tim. The two students' performances on the final examination were equivalent; they ended the year at the same level of competence. However, their averages over the course of the entire term are not equivalent, because Tim started out with lower grades. Tim showed significant improvement over the term, and Jose basically held steady at a B level of performance. Do the two boys deserve the same grade? If you have rewarded Tim with a higher final grade, you have been unfair to Jose, who scored just as high as Tim on the final. However, Tim seems to have worked harder to earn his ultimate level of competence. (Alternatively, Tim may have started out working less hard and ended up working equally hard.) Expert teachers often seek to reward effort so as to encourage further effort-although this practice is certainly not universal among effective teachers. If you give Jose a higher grade, you may insult Tim, who has worked hard to bring his performance up to the above-average level, despite beginning with a lower level of com petence in the class. What should you do in this situation? Although individual teachers will have different opinions regarding how to handle this case, one effective way is to assign two grades to each boy. The first grade represents the uncorrected absolute performance grade for the class; therefore, Tim's is a B- and Jose's is a B. The second grade reflects effort and improvement. For this grade, expressed as a number, Tim receives a 1 (meaning excellent), and Jose receives a 2 (meaning average) or even a 3 (meaning poor), depending on exactly how much effort the teacher perceives he made. If the school does not offer this type of grading policy, you might assign grades on the basis of absolute performance but couple them with extensive written that details your perceptions about effort expended in achieving the given performance. Some report cards have space for such comments. If not, you can design a comment sheet that you send home with each report card (or at other intervals). You can photocopy these sheets and then write in comments about each student's expenditure of effort and attitude in class. The idea is to provide information that goes beyond that reflected in the basic grade. This information will be useful to students, to parents, and to you when it is reviewed at a later time. In practice, teachers often incorporate an estimate of a student's effort into their calcula tion of the student's final grade. However, this system can be biased against students whom the teacher does not know well, or who are quieter and about whom the teacher has little information. A more formal system of separately rewarding absolute levels of performance, on the one hand, and relative improvement, on the other hand, is usually fairer than an often subjective judgment. C R I TE R I O N - R E F E R E N C E D A N D N O R M - R E F E R E N C E D G RA D I N G S YS T E M S

Earlier in this chapter, we discussed criterion- and norm-referenced grading. Criterion referenced grading evaluates the student's performance against a set of success or mastery cri teria. Norm-referenced grading compares each student's performance to that of the other students in the class.

A goal of the expert teacher: Totally im mersed in the edu cational process, students in a classroom enthusiastically offer answers to a difficult question.

CRITERION- REFERENCED SYSTEMS Many teachers-and particularly teachers in the lower grades-use a criterion-based grading system. In such a system, the teacher describes to the students which lev els of competence are associated with individual grades on each test, project, and assignment, and in the course in general. For example, the teacher might state that 80 percent correct answers on a test or homework assign ment will earn a B and then compute final grades based on the students' total progress toward meeting learning goals. In this type of system, every student theoretically can earn an A if he or she works very hard, although it •

GRADING AND REPORT ING

5 37

TEACHER

I NTERVI EW

FOCUS ON: AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIOS, AND INVOLVI NG STUDENTS I N ASSESSMENT CAROL STRICKLAND: EMPO RIA HIG H S CHOOL, EMPO RIA, KANSAS-G RADES 9- 12, COMMUNI CATION, ENGLIS H , FO RENSICS

Carol Strickla n d is a

assigned to work on teams as though

respect-a reflection of his culture.

veteran teacher with

they were business teams planning to

Many H ispa n ic kids a lso don't shake

more than 30 years of

introduce a new product or service. They

ha nds and are not accustomed to a

experience in the

must describe the product or service:

strong ha ndshake. I worked with h im

classroom. For the past five yea rs, she

What is it? How will it be made? How

after sch ool on some of these skills.

has taught a commun ication class fo r

much will it cost? How will they market

The employer was impressed with h is

students with limited English

it? Students are graded on the quality of

assertiveness. The successfu l experi

proficie ncy. She em phasizes preparing

their proposal and on their participation

ence motivated this student to

students to improve com m u n ication

in the process.

continue to do we l l . H e has been

skills as they enter the work world.

In other classes, students conduct

promoted three times at that

Strickland uses a variety of assessment

mockjob interviews. They are graded on

methods to ensure that each

their performance as wel l as on their

nica l col lege in gourmet cooking or

student's strengths emerge.

level of preparation and participation.

resta u rant management.

What are some methods you use to assess your students' progress? I use a variety of assessment methods. I give students tests, a n d they write reports. Students are graded o n their participation in class discussion. I also try to make my classes as "real world" as possible through the projects I assign and the way I grade them on their projects.

Can you describe some of these real-world projects? In the Applied Communica tion class I teach, students are

THI N KING How can you ensure that your criterion-based grading system is fair? SUGGE S T ION:

You can look at

other teachers' systems and ask them for on your own; ask students for input; consider alternative criteria and defend your choices.

resta u rant and plans to attend tech

The class participates in the grading, deducting points for poor posture or eye

Do your students create

We try to make the grading

portfolios of their work?

reflect the things that real employers are judging when they interview candidates. I 've had some wonderful success stories. One H ispanic stude nt, for

Students in the school-to-work program create a portfolio or notebook. Throughout the term, we work through severa l drafts to

example, learned interview skills that

create resumes. Students also have

got h im his firstjob, as a dishwasher

to fill out fou r or five d ifferent

Assessment shouldn't be a ba rrier. It shou ld be a way to help students lea rn .

in a loca l resta urant.

types ofjob application forms.

Like some other H is-

They collect their resumes and

panic students, he had

applications in a notebook. They

some trouble with eye

are graded on how well they fo llowed

. He a lways

the d irections on the form, as well

looked down out of

as grammar and content of their

deference and

a nswers.

is rare in practice that every student achieves this goal. For a course as a whole, an A might correspond to overall excellent performance and the completion of every assignment and report; a B might correspond to very good performance and the completion of all except one assignment or report; and so on. It is up to the individual teacher to determine the precise levels of performance that will translate into specific grades. When making these determinations, teachers must also t ake into schoolwide standards (which they should confirm with the principal), and must use defensible systems that make sense if questioned by a parent, other teacher, or . One way to h andle grading with a criterion-referenced system is to give students specific grades on many individual objec tives, rather than one overall grade, to show the extent to which a student has mastered each objective. With this approach, an overall grade in a given subject might not even be computed. • C O N T R A C T S YS T E M S One application o f a criterion-referenced grading system is called a contract system, in which the teacher creates a contract with the class and estab lishes specific standards that correspond to specific final grades. The key to a successful contract system is specific guidelines about the quality and quantity of individual pieces of work. The students may be involved in deciding exactly what the contract will consist of .

53 8

C HA PTE R 1 4

CLA S S ROOM A S SE S SMENT S

For my media class, the students keep a weekly notebook on what's happening

magazines, which we discuss at the begin

mockjob interviews. Sometimes,

ning of class. In a discussion, if a student

groups grade themselves on their per

in the media; they label and annotate

has read the material and is willing to

formance in sma ll-group discussions. I

the notebook. These annotations get

take a risk and share ideas, he or she gets

provide a checklist and ask each mem

them points every week, and the points

points. Even if they say the "wrong" thing,

ber to check off the contributions of

go toward their grade for the class.

at least they are contributing and giving

everyone in the group.

ideas to others. Students are motivated to

How do you individualize aueu

participate because they are rewarded for

What advice would you offer new

ments to encourage succeu for

taking risks.

teachers?

students at different levels? I have students with behavioral or

When I give assignments, we do as

My general advice to new teachers is

much of the work in class as possible, so

to be honest and be you rself. Kids will figure out quickly if you're phony or

learning disabilities included in my

that all students have time to complete

classes side by side with regu lar and

the work and show what they can do. I

have a fake attitude. It helps ifyou

gifted students. I also have to real ize

often give assignments that include

really like teaching and you let it show!

the limits on students' time. They

mu ltiple levels; students can earn extra

Many new teachers also need to be

remind me often that they have other

points for doing more work or more

more firm with students. Often, they try

classes besides mine ! Many of my stu

challenging work.

to make friends with their students, and

How do you get students involved

Teachers need to get the respect of their

in aueuments?

students by being fair and consistent.

do not enforce rules consistently.

dents are also working or may even have children of their own. That's why I include a variety of assess ment opportunities throughout the term, different ways for students to show they

Kids should feel some ownership in the assessment. I often ask students to

My specific advice about assess ments focuses on fa irness, too. Stu

are learning. In addition to tests, projects,

tell me what they think should be on a

dents should be able to see the

and reports, students receive points for

test. As they start to answer this ques

fa irness of a test, project, or grade,

taking part in discussions. If a student puts

tion they may not rea lize that they are

and understand the reason for it.

her head down and tunes out, she doesn't

reviewing what they've learned in

Don't use a test as a threat or punish

get points for the discussion. All the stu

class.

dents are able to participate by watching videos and reading daily newspapers and

ment fo r the students. Assessment

Students are involved in grading each other du ring some projects, such as

shouldn't be a ba rrier-it should be a way to help students learn.

Once explained completely to the students, the of the contract are explicit, and students know exactly what they must accomplish to receive a particular grade. Thus the requirements for earning a given grade are demystified, and students tend to have less anx iety about grades and evaluations. Table 14. 1 1 shows a contract between a ninth-grade Spanish teacher and her students. A good contract system should not be so lenient as to make it easy for students to receive the higher grades. Students receiving the highest grades should have completed a substantial amount of high-quality work that demonstrates clear understanding and mastery of the mate rial. Part of the attraction of a contract system is that students feel more in control of their grades and their destiny in a class. Students know that more hard work will pay off; when queried, stu dents working in classes using the contract system report a higher level of ownership of the tasks they must complete. Explicit criteria are essential to make the system work, as is the case with any criterion-referenced grading system. One difficulty with a contract system is its potential to result in disappointment for those students who complete all of the work with enthusiasm, but who lack the ability to do high quality work and, therefore, may receive a lower than expected final grade. Another difficulty is that a teacher may become overwhelmed with a high volume of written work to grade, but this is often considered a measure of success by all but the most overworked teachers.

G R ADING AND REPORTING

THI NKING C R EAT I V E LY Design a contract system for your educational psychology class. SUGGE STION :

Ideas include a

sampling of student requ ire ments from the following list. Choose four different requ ire ments that will then constitute the contract: four I O-page papers throughout the term, one portfolio of written work, five I O-minute quizzes, three I -hour exams, one performance

(teaching a class),

three lesson

plans, and so on.

539

TAB L E

1 4.1 1 Contract Offered to Students by a Ninth-Grade Spanish Teacher

To earn the stated grade, you must do all of the work described.

Grade of A: Regu lar attendance (doctor's note for absences) ; participate at least once per class; hand in a l l homework assign ments except two on time, with a grade of check-plus on all except two; take all tests and receive grade ofA- or better; complete four short papers on time; prepare, recite, and interpret one Spanish poem for class.

Grade of B: Regular attendance (doctor's note for absences ); participate in class at least three days per week; hand in three-fourths of all homework assignments on time, with a grade of check-plus on half of them; take all tests and receive grade of B- or better; compete three short papers on time.

Grade of C: Attend three-fourths of classes; participate once per week; hand in at least half of all home work assignments, with grade of check; take all tests except one and receive grade of C- or better; complete two short papers on time.

Grade of D or F: Attend class when you feel like it; never or rarely participate; hand in less than half of homework assignments; take half or fewer tests with grades of C- on them; complete one or no short papers.

• N O R M - R E FE RE N e E D S Y S T E M S Norm-referenced grading is more common in high school and college-level courses. With this system, called grading on the curve, you grade stu dents in comparison to other students, so that how others do affects a given student's grade. To use this grading approach, you would grade the tests and then determine the average grade (say, a 75 out of 100). Next, you would sort the papers from highest to lowest, and assign a grade to people scoring within a certain range of this middle grade. For example, the middle one-third of the class would receive a C. Students with scores above this middle range would receive a B if they scored in the group just above the middle third, and an A if they scored in the highest group. Similarly, students scoring below the middle group would receive a D or an F.

U S I N G T H E N O R M A L C U R V E . The statistical principle behind the concept of norm referenced grading is called the normal curve. As we discussed in Chapter 13 on standardized assessments, in a normal curve two-thirds (68 percent) of the distribution of scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean. In an exact application of the normal curve to grading, the middle two-thirds of the scores receive grades of C. This can be interpreted as a harsh standard, especially in a class in which many students are working hard and performing well. Thus a more typical use of grading on the curve is to establish a somewhat higher average grade than a C. In the past (the years from 1920 to 1960, for example), average grades of C were common, and a C was not viewed as representing a bad grade. However, grade inflation has pushed up the aver age grades awarded to students, so that today a C strikes most students as a poor grade indeed. P R O B L E M S W I T H G R A D I N G O N T H E C U R V E . One problem with grading on the curve is that often only one point (corresponding to one correct answer) Dn an entire test may separate students receiving a B- and a C+. Thus teachers often search for better break points between two grades than the arbitrary point determined by the "one-third get the average score" rule. For example, a teacher might give a B to a couple of additional students who score just at the break point between a C and a B, because their scores were four points higher than the next-lowest-scoring student . Another problem with grading on the curve (discussed in Chapter 13) is that sometimes a teacher has a small class or a class whose students are generally excellent or generally poor. In these situations, it is not meaningful to assign grades based on class distribution. For example, a class of all excellent students, if graded on a curve, can result in a student who would have scored a B in a large class of diverse students and might now score a C. In such circumstances, expert teachers do not grade on a curve, or else they use the scores and corresponding per formances of students in other classes on the same or closely related tests and assignments to determine a fair way to assign letter grades to the distribution in their class.

TOTA L - P O I N T G RA D I N G S Y S T E M S

One way for teachers to determine final grades is to base them on the total number of points a student has earned in a class. Such a total-point system resembles the contract system

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described earlier. To establish this system, the teacher decides how many points each test, paper, report, assignment, and so on, is worth. Theoretically, a student earning a perfect score on every assessment then earns every possible point. Some teachers even award some points for attitude, attendance, effort, and other criteria relevant to performance. When using this system, you should ensure that any two tests or assignments worth the same number of points cover the same amount of material and are approximately equal in difficulty. Two straightforward approaches are used to compute final grades by means of a point sys tem. First, add up the total number of points earned by each student, and then rank the stu dents. Assign letter grades based on the percentage of students receiving each letter grade that is customary for your classes and for the school as a whole. Alternatively, convert each score on each test and assignment to a percentage, and then appropriately weight and average the percentages, rank the students, and assign letter grades. (The weighting of percentages is dis cussed in the following section.)

THI NKING ."..

Have you ever been graded on a total-point system? Do you consider the system fair and effective at promoting learning? Why or why not? SUGGESTION:

Many students

l ike such systems because they are clear and straightforward, and because they encourage students to think in of "accumu lating pOints."

P E R C E N TA G E G RA D I N G S Y S T E M S

A percentage grading system consists of asg grades on the basis of the percentage of the material a student has learned. The teacher scores each test or assignment on a zero-to- 100 percent scale, representing the percentage of the knowledge a student has demonstrated. Thus a student might earn an 85 percent on one test on which she did well, and a 70 percent on a report on which she did less well. Typically, teachers using this system average all the grades they assigned to compute a final average, which they then translate into a letter grade. Most of us have probably been graded on a percentage system. It is a simple system for teachers to use. Unfortunately, it also has problems and can be unfair to students, for several reasons. First, some teachers fail to assign appropriate weight to different tests and assign ments when they compute a student's overall percentage score. (This same problem plagues other types of grading systems as well: It is a mistake not to assign different weights to dif ferent types of tests and assignments when computing grades.) Thus bigger tests carry the same weight as smaller reports or assignments, and good performance on a major test can be offset by poor performance on one minor assignment. Clearly, this scheme is not fair to stu dents who did well on the big test. Another potential problem with a percentage system is that it is not possible to know how much total knowledge a student has mastered in a specific area. The percentages look so sci entific that some teachers may be fooled into thinking the numbers possess a degree of accu racy they actually do not. Percentages are just estimates of student learning. When used appropriately, they can be interpreted as indicators of knowledge and can be weighted prop erly in computing the final grades-but they are not the final word on a student's learning. Another problem with percentages concerns the difficulty of the tests on which the per centage grades are based. A test on a given sample of material may be easy or hard, yielding different distributions of scores. Easy tests may yield all grades of 80 percent and higher, with most students scoring near the top; hard tests may result in a range of 40 percent correct to 100 percent correct, with students' scores spread out between the extremes. To use a percentage grading system fairly, you should average percentages only for assign ments or tests that are similar in difficulty and are weighted similarly in computing final grades. (Make decisions on relative weighting of tests and assignments on the basis of the comparative importance, length, and difficulty of the different types of tests and assign ments.) Averaging percentages is a popular grading system because it is simple to use and because teachers, parents, and students are familiar with it and believe it makes intuitive sense. In many cases, however, the total point system is often a fairer and more objective way to evaluate and grade students. Expert teachers are aware of many different types of grading systems, and they often cus tomize their system to fit the characteristics of their students and their classes in a given school year. Figure 14.2 provides an example of one creative expert teacher's grading system, which is designed to avoid the pitfalls of both criterion-referenced and norm-referenced sys tems and take advantage of the benefits of both. This system was well received by students, teachers, and s alike.

GRADING AND REPORTING

THINKING A N A LY T I C A L LY Name three ways you can ens.!-lre the fa irness of a percent age grading system. SUGGESTION :

Make tests all

the same general length with the same number, mixture, and level of diffic ulty of items.

541

FIGURE

1 4.2 Example of an Expert Teacher's Creative Grading Scheme

Grading Policy. No grading system that aims to translate the complex processes involved in learning into a single number or letter grade is perfect. Therefore, I use a unique and interesting policy for determining students' grades. I make two assumptions:

1.

I assume that some tests are harder than others so individuals with the same level of preparation will do worse on one than they might on another even if both are tests of the same material. Thus, if a test is so difficult that the highest scoring student does not achieve a perfect score (as is nearly always the case). then the highest student's score becomes

1 00 percent.

(In this case we are talking about classes containing numerous gifted students, and so we can be certain that at least some of the students have worked very hard and have the ability to

50 percent of the questions 50 percent correct becomes an A+. (Thus, functionally speaking, the highest

achieve highly.) For example, if the highest student answered only correctly, then

number of questions answered correctly becomes the total number of questions on the test, for the sake of computing grades.) The scoring system is therefore sensitive to test difficulty and the student is not penalized by an unreasonably difficult test because it is scaled down to the level of the top student's performance.

2.

I assume that the lowest ing grade on a test must demonstrate at least half of the know ledge demonstrated by the highest scoring student, after correction for chance guessing. ittedly, this is an arbitrary cutoff and I might have just as easily decided on a different figure (say,

30 percent or 70 percent). But there is an intuitive appeal to insisting that one

demonstrate at least half as much knowledge as the best student in order to a test. An example will help explain my system. Suppose the top student on a particular multiple-choice

30 out of 40 questions correctly. Someone without any knowledge could have 1 0 questions correctly simply by guessing (i.e., if there were four choices for each of

test answered answered

40 questions). Thus the lowest ing score that reflects at least half of the knowledge of the 30 correctly (after correction for guessing) is: 1/2 (30 - 1 0) + 1 0 20. Someone answering fewer than 20 questions correctly has failed to demonstrate at least half of the

the

student who answered

=

knowledge demonstrated by the highest scoring student, after correcting for chance. If you extend this line of reasoning, you will understand how final grades are determined: If you add up all of the questions that were correctly answered on all of the exams by the highest scoring student(s), and correct this score for guessing, then one-half of that figure becomes the lowest ing score for the course .

•

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING Take grades as seriously as your students do. Grades carry enormous significance for students, who prepare for, think about, and worry about them. Some critics believe that grades have taken on too much importance in our society. Nevertheless, you are generally expected to report on your students' achievement through grades, so you must learn to use grades appropriately and fairly. II Employ defensible, objective criteria when asg grades. Taking care with the criteria you use will help ensure fairness for all students. With the responsibility of asg grades comes power over students' lives, and expert teachers are careful to use this power wisely and constructively.

•

•

Assign grades separately to both effort/improvement and absolute performance. Some teachers believe only absolute performance should matter in grading; others believe that effort is most important. Given these different perspectives, beginning teachers should ensure that their approach is appropriate for the school in which they teach by consulting with other teachers and school s.

•

Review the various grading systems and speak to your principal and colleagues before choosing one. Do not make such decisions alone and without the input of colleagues and school officials, who can inform a beginning teacher about school policy.

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N G IT U P preferable to the other types of objective test items. Essay questions are more subjective than the other types of questions used on traditional tests. However, essay questions work best for measuring higher-order thinking, and if care is used in grading, they can be fair refle ctions oflearning.

W H Y U N D E R S TA N D I N G C L A S S R O O M A S S E S S M E N T S I S I M P O RTA N T T O T E A C H E R S

Classroom assessments provide to teachers and students, increase student motivation and learning, and result in students benefiting more from their time spent in school. • Formal assessments consist of information collected in a uniform manner on all students. Such assessments include tests, quizzes, book reports, and assigned presen tations. Informal assessments include observations teach ers make of students while they are participating in the classroom, doing work, and talking to the teacher or to other students. Both types of assessments are part of a teacher's assessment system. These observations and measurements are collected by teachers and used in making evaluations of students. • Formative assessment discovers strengths and weaknesses in prior learning; summative assessment is a final test of student learning in a particular area. Criterion-referenced grades represent a specific set of accomplishments; norm referenced grades represent how well a student has done compared to other students. •

A U T H E N T I C A S S E S S M E NTS

Authentic assessments are closer to real-world per formances than are traditional assessments. They ask students to use skills and knowledge to solve problems in the same manner as if the students were completing real-world tasks. • Several types of authentic assessment are possible. A portfolio is a collection of student work that demon strates the student's abilities, efforts, accomplishments, and growth in an area or areas. An exhibition is a public performance before an audience that may involve people who will judge the performance. Evaluations of portfolios and exhibitions are based on whether established standards have been met.

•

G RA D I N G A N D R E P O RT I N G

Traditional assessments are tests containing multiple choice, fill-in, true/false, sentence-completion, match ing, and essay questions. Teachers need to know how to design and write each type of test item to make tests reliable, valid, and fair. • In istering tests, the extent of coverage and the why and how of testing are key issues. Tests should cover the same material taught in class, with more items being devoted to what was stressed more heavily in class. A behavior-content matrix lists the topics the teacher covered and the types of thinking the students should be able to engage in for each topic. Frequent, shorter tests result in more and better learning and greater retention of material than do infrequent, longer tests. • Both objective tests and subjective tests are useful assessment tools. Multiple-choice items are usually

Grading should be conducted with great care because of the importance most students place on grades and the effect grades can have on student motivation. Both rela tive improvement and absolute performance are impor tant considerations in computing grades. • Contract systems are criterion-referenced grading sys tems in which students agree to complete a specified amount and type of work to earn a specific grade. Grading on the curve is a norm-referenced grading sys tem in which students are graded in comparison with other students. • Total-point grading systems allow students to earn points on each test, quiz, or assignment toward their final grade. A percentage grading system assigns grades on the basis of the percentage of total material a student has learned, but unfortunately may be used unfairly.

• Assessment system

• Contract system

T RA D I T I O N A L A S S E S S M E N T S •

All of the ways teachers gather information

on their students. Page 509

• Authentic assessments

Assessments that ask students to use

skills and knowledge to solve problems in the same manner as if the students were completing real-world tasks. Page 528

• Classroom assessment

Every type of information a teacher

takes in about students in the classroom-including test results, grades on homework and class presentations, and the informal conversations teachers have with their students over the course of the year. Page 509

•

Criterion-referenced grading system in which

the teacher creates with the class a contract that specifies stan dards that correspond to specific final grades. Page 538

• Criterion-referenced grading system

System in which a grade

represents a specific set of accomplishments, which can be identi fied for one student independently of the performances of other students (for example, getting 80 percent of the questions right). Page 5 1 1

• Distractors

Incorrect options following the stem in a multiple

choice question. Page 5 1 7

KE Y AND DE F INITIONS

543

• Evaluation Page 5 1 0

Uses to which measurements are put by teachers.

• Exhibition

Public performance before a n audience that may

• Norm-referenced grading system

involve people who will judge the performance. Page 532

• Formal assessments

Objective and rigorous methods for

• Objective tests Tests in which there is a single, known, correct answer. Page 5 1 7 • Percentage grading system has learned. Page 541

quizzes, book reports, and assigned in-class presentations. Page 509

• Portfolio

• Formative assessment

accomplishments, and growth in an area or areas. Page 531

ering the strengths and weaknesses in prior learning that reveal a

• Grading o n the curve

• Stem

thus how well others do affects a given student's grade. Page 540

• Informal assessments

• Subjective tests

for the same response. Page 5 1 7

• Summative assessment

talking to the teacher or to other students. Sometimes informa tion in written form that teachers obtain from some students. Page 509

• Measurements

Typical final exam type o f assessment;

a final test of student learning in a particular area. Page 5 1 0

• Total-point system

Grading system i n which final grades are

based on the total number of points a student has earned in a Data on student performance and learning that

class. Page 540

are collected by teachers. Page 5 1 0

Apply the concepts you have learned in this chapter to the following problems of classroom practice. 2. I N E L E M E N TA R Y S C H O O L

1. Your first-grade students have never taken a test before. You would like to explain what tests are all about, and you would like to teach these children good test-taking attitudes. Which steps can you take to accomplish this goal? 2. Your third-grade students become extremely anxious about taking tests. At present, you give one test every four weeks during the school year. What might you do to reduce student anxiety? 3. A parent of a fifth-grade student has complained to the principal about your unfair testing practices. What should you do to protect your reputation and defend your practices? 4. How can you decide what to include on a science test for your fourth-grade class? 5. At what point (in what grade) can you start asking essay questions of your elementary school-aged stu dents? At what point can you ask a fill-in question? A multiple-choice question? IN MIDDLE SCHOOL

Your seventh-grade class says that your tests are much harder than those given by the other seventh-grade science teacher. Upon doing some detective work, you learn your colleague has, in fact,

544

Tests in which there is n o one correct answer

and in which different teachers are likely to award different grades

Observations teachers make of students

while they are participating in the classroom, doing work, and

Question or incomplete statement that begins a multiple

choice item. Page 5 1 7

Norm-referenced grading system in

which students are graded in comparison with other students;

Type of authentic assessment consisting of a collection

of student work that demonstrates the student's abilities, efforts,

Assessment with the purpose of discov

student's developmental stage in the area being tested. Page 5 1 0

System in which grades are

assigned on the basis of the percentage of the material a student

obtaining information about student learning, such as tests,

I.

System that represents how

well a student has done compared with other students. Page 5 1 1

CHAPTER 14


3.

4.

5.

been giving much easier tests and awarding much higher grades. What should you do? Your eighth-grade students are obsessed with their test scores-so much so that they tease the low scorers in the class and talk incessantly about their scores. How can you help these students place tests into a healthier perspective? How can you design an authentic assessment for your ninth-grade language arts class? What might the assessment consist of? Some of your seventh-grade students have such severe writer's block that they are virtually unable to com plete an essay question. Which steps might you take to help them? Which steps might you take to ensure that authentic assessments are graded fairly and consistently?

IN HIGH SCHOOL

Two of your twelfth-grade biology students claim the last test was scored incorrectly. Upon looking at the test, you see that each of them lost credit for the same answers to a problem that other students were given credit for. What should you do? 2 A tenth-grade math student seems to have lost all motivation. When you speak to him and ask if he is studying hard for the final exam, he says there is no point because he is already doomed to fail, given the way points are totaled to compute the final grade. What should you do to help this student? I.

3. Your ninth-grade social studies students seem disin terested in their schoolwork. The subject matter just does not come alive for them. How can you use assess ment to motivate the students? 4. Describe an effective grading system for a class of dis advantaged-some socially, and some physically eleventh-grade students.

5. Your high school students never seem to think your tests are fair, regardless of how hard you work on them. Which specific steps can you take to change their perception?

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Bryant-Waugh, R., 107

Carlin, J., 36, 38, 59

Blandon-Gitlin, I., 298

Braine, M. D. S., 3 1 8

Buchanan, C . M . , 350

Carlo, G., 97

Blaney, N., 458

Brainerd, C.

Buchner, A., 40

Carlson, C. D., 67

Blank, R., 204, 449

Bransford,

Blatny, M., 8 5

J., 39, 46, 464

J. D., 8, 140, 2 7 1 ,

302, 323-324, 326, 379, 433

Buchsbaum, M. S., 126

Carlson, G. A., 1 09

Buckley, K. w., 243

Carlson, S. M., 62

Blau, Z. S., 2 1 4, 385

Brasher,

Buehner, M., 3 1 9

Carney, R . , 2 1

Blehar, M . , 93

Braver, T. S., 296

Bugental, D. B., 88

Carnine, D., 438

Bliem, C. 1., 6

Bray, M. A., 425

Bukowski, W. M., 82, 96

Carpenter, P. A., 285

Blomker, K. B., 9

Bray, N. w., 1 73

Bulik, C. M., 107

Carr, M., 2 1

Bloom, B . S., 1 25, 324,

Brayne, C. E. G., 1 84

Bulloch, K., 2 1 8

Carraher, D., 498

434-438, 441 Bloom, 1., 62, 64

J., 461

Brazil, N., 2 2 1

Bundy, D . A. P., 47, 1 3 6 , 1 4 1

Carraher, T. N . , 498

Brekelmans, M., 224

Bunge, S. A., 296

Carrion, V. G., 142

Bloom, P., 62, 64

Bretherton, I., 94

Burchinal, M. R., 1 4 1

Carroll, J . B . , 1 24, 135

Blumenfeld, H., 186

Brice, A. E., 52

Burden, R., 140

Cartledge, G., 423

Blumenfeld, P. c., 25, 87, 2 1 9,

Bridges, 1.

368 Blumenthal,

J. D., 1 7 1

Blythe, T., 1 3n, 22-23, 24n,

J., 94 Brigham, J. c., 300

Burgess, K. B., 96

Cartwright, R. M., 208

Burke, C. S., 341

Carullo,

Britt, C. 1., 4 6 1

Burkholder, R., 224

Caruso, D., 134

Britt,

J. J., 285

J., 461

Burns, H. J., 299

Carver, C. S., 287

140- 1 4 1 , 303, 383n, 444n,

Britt, P., 501

Burns, M. S., 271

Caryl, P. G., 1 26, 127

526

Broadhurst, P. 1., 364

Bursuck, W., 1 6 1

Casasanto, D . , 6 5

Boekaerts, M . , 2 7

Brocato, K., 3 7 1

Burton, R . B . , 58-59

Cascallar, E., 2 7

Bogen, J . , 1 90

Broder, 1. J., 1 25, 324

Bush, G. w., 473

Case, R., 46, 6.9

Boggiano, A. K., 356, 3 8 1

Brodkin, A . M., 1 84

Bushman, B. J., 259

Casey, B. J., 69

Bois, J., 88

Brody, 1. E., 1 79

Buskist, w., 236

Cashon, C. H., 43

Boland, 1. D., 1 89

Brody, 1. R., 87

Buss, D. M., 88

Caskie, G. I. 1., 1 4 1

Bolig, E. E . , 5 3

Brody, N . , 48, 1 2 1-123, 208

Bussey, K., 89

Caspi, A., 62, 77, 85

Bolin, F. S., 1 5

Broh, A., 382

Butler, R., 369

Cassidy, J., 94

J. 1., 1 3 1 , 1 3 5

Boller, K., 300

Brok, 224

Butterfield, E. c., 1 73, 1 74

Castej6n,

Bond, B. J., 1 34

Bromet, E. J., 142

Butz, D. A., 300

Castel, A. D., 333

Bond, 1. A., 86

Bronfenbrenner, u., 2 0 1 n,

Bong, M . , 27 Bongiovanni, A., 253

202n, 203n, 204, 206, 349, 383

Boodoo, G., 208

Bronstein, P., 384

Booth, S., 147

Brookhart, S. M., 508-509

Booth-LaForce, c., 96

Brooks, P. J., 64

Borko, H., 6, 10, 1 1 , 15, 431

Brooks-Gunn, J., 94, 1 09, 2 1 0,

Borkowski,

J. G., 2 1 , 25, 1 74

2 1 2, 2 1 4

Born, D . , 263

Brookshire, R., 5 0 1 , 529

Bornstein, M. H., 37, 2 1 9

Brophy, J. E., 2 3 , 144, 255, 256,

Borow, L, 1 79

370, 401, 439, 446, 454

Byrd-Craven, J., 59

Castellote,

Byrne, D., 3 7 1

Catsambis, S . , 142 Cattell, R . B., 1 24

Byrne, R., 9 1 Byrne, R. M.

J., 1 7 8

J., 3 1 8

Cabeza, R., 296 Cadinu, M., 380 Cain, K. M., 378 Cairns, H. S., 58 Caldara, R., 1 8 8 Caldwell, B. M., 1 39-140

Borsch, F., 459

Brophy, S., 433

Calfee, R. c., 445

Boruch, R. F., 289

Brosvic, G., 5 1 3

Calkins, S . D., 86

588

NA M E I N D EX

Catterjee, A., 1 78 Cavard, W., 143 Ceci, S.

J., 48, 1 37, 138,

200-204, 2 0 1 n, 202n, 208, 2 1 6, 2 1 9, 223, 225, 297, 3 0 1 , 336, 337, 349, 354, 439, 498 Cecil, c . , 354 Ceresnie, S., 86 Chabay, R. w., 359 Chadwick, A., 96

Chamberlain, A. M., 457-458

Coldiron, J. R., 142, 143

Covino, E. A., 392

Dawson, B., 94

Chance, P., 248

Cole, M., 136, 225, 3 2 1

Cox, R., 320

Day, B., 1 78

Charman, T., 44

Coleman,

Craig, I . w., 3 7

Day, J . D . , 25, 5 3

Chamess, N., 8

Coleman, M. c., 1 83, 184

Craik, F. I. M., 286, 287

Day, N. L., 141

Chasan-Taber, S., 1 90

Coleman, P. D., 69

Crain, R. L., 142

Deary, I. J., 1 2 1-123, 1 27, 2 1 6,

Chase, W. G., 8, 29 1 , 332-333

Coleman, S. R., 244

Crano, W. D., 370

Chaudhari, S . , 3 7

Coley, J. D., 498

Craven, R. G., 27

Deaux, K., 8 7

Cheah, C . S. L . , 8 2

Coley, R. L . , 93

Crawford, J. R., 2 1 6

DeBaryshe, B . D., 94-95

Cheesman, F. L., 104

Colin, V. L., 93

Crick, N. R., 259

de Boo, G. M., 1 8 1

Chein, J . M., 1 4

Collett, R . , 8 6

Cronbach, L. J., 447

DeBoysson-Bardies, B., 64

Chen, S., 94

Collier, c., 436

Crooks, T. J., 509, 5 1 2

DeCasper, A . J., 63

Chen, Z., 4 1 , 46

Collier, J. L., 436

Cross, G. M., 5 1 2

Deci, E . L., 352, 355, 356, 359,

Cheng, c., 87

Collier, V. P., 68

Cross, L. H., 5 1 2

Chemiss, c., 134

Collins, A., 275, 302, 304-305

Crouse, J., 2 1 2

Chess, S., 86

Collins, A. M., 10, 279, 288,

Crowder, R. G., 270, 272, 273,

Chi, M. T. H., 8, 1 0, 59, 333

J. M., 8 8

297, 302, 5 3 1

Chiodo, L., 142

Collins,

Chitale, A., 37

Collins, K., 2 8 1

J. J., 1 09

217

3 6 1 , 374 Decker, D . M . , 499 DeFries,

J. c., 37

de Gelder, B., 1 8 8

306 Crutchfield, R., 149

DeGrandprt:" R. J., 236

Csikszentmihalyi, M., 379, 442

DeJong, w., 368 de la Cruz, E., 1 5

Chiu, c., 377

Collins, M. A., 149, 355

Cuban, L., 1 29

Chomsky, N., 64

Collins, N., 94

Cubbins, L. A., 1 1 3

Delaney-Black, v., 142

Choudhury, S., 44, 69

Colom, R., 2 1 6, 2 1 7

Cuijpers, P., 1 1 3

Delclos, V. R., 271

Chouinard, R., 90

Compas, B. E., 109

Culatta, B., 68

Delgado, M. R., 237

Christakos, A., 97

Condry, J. c., 2 1 8

Cumbo, K . B., 6

DeLoache, J. S., 45 Dembo, M. H . , 349

Christensen, C. A., 1 7 8

Condry, S., 2 1 8

Cummins, D. D., 320-32 1

Christensen, L., 485

Connell, J. P., 94, 4 1 1

Cummins,

Christenson, S. L., 499

Connor, R. T., 1 88

Cunningham, A. G., 2 8 1

Demick, J., 145

Christian, K., 1 38, 46 1

Conroy, M., 258

Cunningham, C. E., 53

Dempster, F. N., 509, 5 1 2

Christoff, K., 296

Conto,

Cunningham, D.

Christou, c., 4 1 , 48

Cook, D. A., 485, 486

Churchill, J. D., 280 Cianciolo, A., 122

J., 76

J., 66, 222

J., 304, 305

Demetriou, A., 41, 46, 48

De Neys, w., 3 1 9-320

Curran, T., 298

Denison, R., 354

Cook, G., 276

Curwin, R. L., 396, 4 1 1

Denton, K., 1 04, 201

Cook, M., 5 1 3

Cushing, K . S . , 6, 1 0, 14- 1 5

De Pisapia, N., 296

Ciarrochi, J., 1 34

Cooley, C. H., 3 8 1

Cutler, B . L . , 300

DeRidder, L. M., 1 1 4

Cirese, S., 9 1

Cooney,

Cutts, R. I., 224

Derry, S., 302

Clark, B., 205

Cooper, E . H., 274

Czyzowska, D., 105

deSanchez, M., 140

Clark, c., 94

Cooper, H. M., 445

Clark, D. A., 1 10

Cooper, M., 9 1

Dakin, S . , 1 78

Clark, E., 425

Cooper, R., 457

Dale, A. M., 1 89

DeSimone, M., 297

Clark, E. v., 62-63

Cooper, R. J., 273

Clark, H. H., 62-63

Cooper, T. J., 59

Clark, M. c., 336-337

Copeland, D., 320

Clarke, c., 86

Copeland, W. D., 15

J. B . , 1 5

Clarke, D., 54

Coplan, R. J., 77, 82

Clarke-Stewart, K. A., 94

Corden, R. E., 456

Clasen, L. S., 1 7 1

Cording, M . , 253

Clements, B. S., 83, 40 1 , 402,

Cordova, D. I., 366

404, 408, 420

Corin, W.

J., 273

Clifford, M. M., 150

Corkin, S., 189

Clifton, R . K., 3 8

Como, L . , 2 7 , 28, 144

Clinkenbeard, P. R., 1 3 1 , 1 33,

Corpus, J., 3 5 1

1 35, 168, 446

Corroyer, D., 146

Clinton, W. J., 473

Cortese, M.

Cobb, P., 297

Cosmides, L., 320-321

J., 298

Daneman, M., 285 Daniels, D., 349 Darley, C. F., 1 1 2 Darling, N., 205, 206 Darling-Hammond, L., 6, 500 Darlington, R., 140 Darwin, C.

J., 273

Dasen, P. R., 47 Daugherty, S., 26 Davazoglou, A., 393, 403 Davenport, L . , 461 Davidson,

J. E., 1 7, 57, 167n,

168, 323, 326, 327, 332

Costello, E. J . , 1 84

Davis, E. P., 94

Cohen, L. B., 43

Costigan, K. A., 94

Davis, J. A., 199

Courtright, R. D., 1 66

Coie, J . D., 96

Covington, M., 24 1 , 349, 3 5 1 ,

Colangelo, N., 168

352

DeVries, R., 1 0 1 Dewey, J., 355, 442, 456 Dialdin, D. A., 248, 352 Diamond, D. M., 1 8 9 Diaz, D., 1 4 1 DiBasio, C. M., 86 Dickens, c., 1 68 Dickens, w., 208 Diekstra, R. F. w., 1 1 0 Dietmeyer, D. L., 25

Cohen, c., 2 5 1

Cohen, R. L., 280

1 70, 334, 336 Devine, T. G., 2 1 DeVo ge, J. G., 508-509

Davies, P., 379

Costa, A . L., 339

Cotton, K., 143

Detterman, D. K., 1 2 1 , 1 58,

Dienes, Z., 49

Costa, P. T., 149

Coupe, P., 278

DeSoto, M. c., 59

Davies, M., 1 34

Cocchiarella, M., 3 1 6

Cohen, R., 90

De Soto, J., 1 1 3

Dalton, D. w. , 462

Cogerino, G., 88

Cohen, R . J . , 482, 487, 493

Desimone, L., 6

Davinroy, K. H., 6

Dietrich, K. N., 86 Diggins, J. P., 83 Dihoff, R., 5 1 3

Davis, J. K., 145

Dillon, S., 2 1 0

Davis, K., 88 Davis, R. B., 449 Davison, G . c., 1 07, 1 08 Dawkins, M. P., 143

N A M E I N DEX

Dingler, K., 95 Dinkelman, T., 1 5 DiPietro, Dipietro,

J. A., 94 J. A., 88

589

DiStefano, c., 477

Eckensberger, L. H., 105

Extein, M., 134

Fivush, R., 1 89

Dittmann, R. w., 1 8 1-182

Economos, C. D., 109

Ey, 5., 1 09

Fjellstrom, G. G., 263

Dochy, F., 447, 475

Edgerton, R., 1 70

Eyres, S. J., 205

Flavell, E. R., 60

Dodson, J. D., 363

Edwards, M . R, 499

Eysenck, H. J., 1 26, 1 36- 1 3 7

Flavell, J . H., 3 9 , 6 0 , 273

Eysenck, M . , 277

Dolan, R J., 1 89

Eftekhari-Sanjani, H., 2 1 6

Doll, H. A., 1 08

Egbochuku, E. 0., 241

Dombrowski, S. c . , 477

Egeland, B., 93

Fabes, R. A., 76, 97

Donnely, 5., 95

Egger, H. L., 86, 1 8 3

Fadjukoff, P., 8 1 Fagley, N. 5., 104

D'Onofrio, B., 138

Eiferman, R R., 95

Doris, J., 1 3 6

Eisenberg, N . , 76, 97

Fagot, B. I., 88

Dornbusch, S. M., 143, 205,

Eisenberger, R, 248

Fahy, T., 1 4 1

206

Eisenbraun, K. D., 393, 395

Fairburn, C. G., 108

Dosher, B. A., 273

Elam, S. M., 393

Faircloth, B. S., 96

Douglas, J. D., 1 1 0

Elashoff, J. D., 370

Fairclough, S., 88

Douglass, A . B., 299

Elder, A. D., 530

Falchikov, N., 528

Douglass, T., 236, 2 4 1 , 253, 255

Elder, G. E., 85

Faloon, 5., 291

Douvan, E., 97

Elkind, D., 49

Farah, M. J., 1 88, 190

Downey, c., 1 76-177

Elliot, J., 6, 431

Farenga, S. J., 473

Downing, P., 188

Elliott, E . 5., 25

Downing, S. M., 5 1 7

Elliott, J . G., 52

Farkas, G., 209, 2 1 2 Farnham-Diggory, 5., 302

Dowson, M., 349

Ellis, D. A., 94

Farr, M. J., 8, 10, 333

Dozel, E., 282

Ellis, N. R, 173

Faterson, H. F. , 145

Drain, H. M., 1 8 8

Ellis, S., 206

Fay, R. E., 9 1

Drake, M., 248, 352

Embretson, S. E., 1 2 5

Feeney, A., 320

Drew, C. J., 1 7 l

Emmer, E . T., 83, 255-256,

Feinberg, A., 4 1 1

Drukker, M., 37

396, 40 1-402, 404, 408, 420

Feingold, A., 87, 90, 2 1 7

Dubas, J. 5., 2 1 9

Engel, P., 499

Fekken, G. c., 485

DuBois, D. L., 382

Engelhard, G., Jr., 2 1 6

Feldhusen, J . F., 168

Duchaine, B. c., 188

Engelhardt, J. L., 53

Feldlaufer, H., 350

Duchek, J. M., 298

Engelhart, M. B., 435

Feldman, D. H., 41, 46 Feltovich, P., 10

Duckworth, J., 1 4 1

Engle, R . w., 285, 330

Ducrey, G. P., 53

Ennis, R , 340, 341

Duff, S. J., 2 1 8

Entwistle, N . , 147

Fennema, E., 87, 220

Duffy, J . M., 1 34

Enzle, M. E., 356

Fensch, T. , 83

Feng, A. X., 1 66

Dugan, S., 28

Epstein, B., 5 1 3

Fernald, A., 58, 64

Duguid, P., 275, 302, 304-305

Epstein, J. L., 445

Fernald, L., 1 4 1

Duncan, G. J., 94, 1 99, 208,

Epstein, M., 5 1 3

Fernandes, c., 123

Epston, D., 6

Fernandez, G., 296

Duncker, K., 332

Erickson, D. K., 1 65

Fernandez- Ballart, J., 1 4 1

Dunn, J . , 64

Erickson, L. G., 146

Fernandez-Ballesteros, R , 1 39

Ericsson, K. A., 8 , 29 1 , 333,

Feron, F., 37

2 1 0, 2 1 2, 2 1 4

Dunn, K., 147 Dunn, L. M., 1 59

336, 397

Ferrara, R. A., 53, 1 70, 1 73, 379 Ferrari, M., 1 3 1 , 1 33, 1 35, 145,

Dunn, R., 147

Erikson, E. H., 77-82, 84

Dupuy, J.-P. , 323

Eron, L. D., 259-260

Durkin, D., 509

Ertmer, P. A., 1 5 , 27

Fetterman, D. M., 168

Durston, 5., 69

Espar, G., 1 4 1

Feuerstein, R., 5 3 , 140, 1 4 1 ,

Dweck, c., 25, 1 39, 377

Esselman, E. D., 287

Dweck, C. 5., 23, 25, 78, 256,

Estrada, P., 205

Fiese, B. H., 1 39

Ethington, C. A., 220

Fifer, W. P., 63

Dwyer, C. A., 499

Ettinger, A. 5., 1 4 1

Fillmore, L . w. , 22 1 , 222

d'Y'dewalle, G., 3 1 9-320

Etzioni, A., 105

Fine, E. M., 296

Dyk, R. B., 145

Eurich-Fulcer, R, 461

Dyne, L. v., 135

Eustache, F., 277

Fischer, K. w., 46, 48, 1 29

Evans, A. c., 1 7 l

Fischer, M. H . , 65

350, 376-377, 378

Eagan, M. w., 1 7 1 Eastabrook, J. M., 1 34 Easterbrooks, M. A., 94 Eaton, M., 349 Eaves, L. J., 86, 108 Eccles, J. 5., 78, 87, 2 1 9, 349, 350, 368, 370

590

168, 446

1 74, 339, 477

Fink, A., 1 24, 127

Evans, B . L., 1 66

Fischer- Baum, 5., 1 78

Evans, E. D., 253

Fischl, B., 1 89

Evans, G. w., 38, 1 4 1 Evans, J. St. B. T., 320, 323

Fischoff, B., 322 Fischoff, J., 86

Fleck, J. I., 327 Fleming, J., 1 82, 3 5 1 Fletcher, A. c., 205 Fletcher, c . , 87 Fletcher-Janzen, E., 477 Flinn, J. A., 87 Flood, D . G . , 69 Flowerday, T., 354, 355, 374-375 Flynn, J. R., 1 39, 208, 2 1 6 Fodor, J. A., 3 1 4 Fondell, M. M., 1 1 3 Foorman, B. R., 67 Forbes, R, 22 Ford, L . , 258 Foreso, R, 304-305 Forgas, J. P., 1 34 Forster, K. I., 1 7 5 Forsyth, S., 22 Forsythe, G. B., 1 3 1 , 1 3 5 Fox, L . H., 497 Foy, P., 220 Fransson, P., 296 Franze, S., 368 Frederick, c., 439 Freedle, R., 497 Freedman, S. W., 532 Freeman, D., 66 Freeman, F. N., 1 3 8 Freeman, Y., 66 Freiberg, H. J., 361 Freiberg, P. , 1 1 1 Frensch, P. A., 40, 1 25 , 149, 333 Freud, S., 88-89 Frey, K . 5 . , 3 7 3 , 3 8 1 Fried, C. B., 379 Friedman, D; , 323 Friedman, L., 220 Friedman, S., 94 Friedman, W. J., 273 Friedrich-Cofer, L., 259 Friend, M., 1 6 1 Frith, U., 62, 1 78, 1 84 Frombonne, E., 107 Fryer, R. G., 208-209 Fujita, T., 287 Fukui, I., 64 Fung, I. Y. Y., 460 Funke, J., 125 Funnell, M. G., 190 Furman, W., 96 Furnham, A., 89 Furst, E. J., 435

Evenstad, J. P. , 497

Fisher, J. D., 1 1 4

Gabby, P. , 298

Evertson, C. M., 83, 392, 40 1 ,

Fisher, W. A., 1 14

Gabriel, L. T., 1 70

Fitzgerald, H. E., 94

Gabrieli, J. D. E., 296

402, 404, 408, 420

N A M E I N D EX

Gagne, E. D., 277

Giedd, J. N., 69

Grady, C. L., 1 8 8

Guralnick, M. J . , 9 6 , 1 8 8

Gagne, F., 349

Giesen, H., 459

Graesser, A. c., 329

Gurrad, A. M., 251

Gagne, R. M., 2 8 1 , 440

Gigerenzer, G., 32 1 , 323

Graf, P. , 282-283

Gustafsson, J-E., 124

Gagnon, J. H., 9 1

Gijselaers, w. , 447

Graham, L., 264

Guthrie, E. R., 239

Galanter, E., 367

Gilhooly, K. J., 3 1 9-320, 326

Gralinski, J. H., 220

Gall, M. D., 441

Gill, P., 95

Granier-Deferre, c., 63

Gallagher, J. J., 1 66, 1 86

Gilligan, c., 1 04, 1 1 5 , 287

Granott, N., 46

Gallagher, S. A . , 1 6 6

Gills, S., 64

Grant, H., 377

Gallimore, R., 5 1 3

Gilman, B . , 1 3 0- 1 3 1

Grant, K . w., 109

Gallup, A., 393

Ginott, H., 4 1 5

Grant, V. v., 1 89

Galperin, c., 2 1 9

Ginsburg, G. S . , 384

Grantham-McGregor, S., 1 4 1

Gamez, E . , 3 1 8, 323

Girgus, J. S., 1 09

Gray, C. A., 205 Green, F. L., 60

Giudice, S., 69

Greenberg, M. T., 94

Ganellen, R . J . , 287

Glaser, R., 8 , 10, 333, 530

Greene, R. L., 273

Garaigordobil, M., 148

Glenn, J., 5 0 1 , 528

Greenfield, P. M., 47, 224,

J., 42 1-423

Glick, J., 1 36, 3 2 1 Gliner, J. A., 485-487

Garcia, T., 1 20, 1 2 1 , 1 29, 1 30,

Gluck, J., 152

497-498 Greeno, J. G., 1 0, 1 1 , 288, 297, 302, 336

Gobet, F., 8

Greenough, W. T., 37, 280

Garcia-Coli, c., 86

Goddard, H. H., 1 36

Greenwald, A. G., 288

Garcia-Mila, M., 42, 45

Goddard, R., 350

Gregory, R. J., 475, 477, 482,

Gardner, H. I . , 9 , 1 3n, 22-23,

Godden, D. R., 290

143, 1 4 5 , 147, 148

24n, 38, 1 26-129, 1 28n, 1 34,

493 Greif, E. B . , 1 0 5 Grenda, c., 392, 396, 403, 407,

140- 1 4 1 , 149, 166, 1 75, 208,

Goel, v. , 3 1 7 Goff, L. M., 300

526, 528

Golan, S., 500

Grietemeyer, T., 376

Gardner, W., 206

Golann, S. E., 149

Griffin, M. M., 305 Grigorenko, E. L., 6, 46, 47, 49,

4 1 4, 424

Garet, M., 6

Goldenberg, c., 370

Garfield, P. E., 1 08

Goldsmith, D., 94

Garland, A. F., 1 1 0

Goldstein, D. G., 323

1 4 1 , 145, 146, 1 68 , 1 75,

Garner, M., 2 1 6

Goleman, D., 1 34

323-325, 332, 43 1 , 446-447

Garnier, 5 1 3

G6mez, L . , 66

Gringlas, B., 383

Garon, T., 1 78

Gong, J., 142

Grisham-Brown, J., 501, 529

Garrett, J., 4 1 7

Good, c . , 379

Grissmer, D. W., 203

Garwood, P. , 364-365

Good, T. L., 143, 144, 255-256,

Groen, G. J., 59

370, 40 1 , 446, 454, 459

52-54, 1 3 1 , 1 33, 1 35-1 39,

Grogger, J., 204, 449

Gay, J., 1 36, 3 2 1

Goodenough, D. R . , 1 4 5

Gazzaniga, M. S., 1 90

Goodlad, J. I., 142, 143

Gear, A., 248

Goodman, D. P., 494

Gearhart, M., 533

Goodman, J. B., 264

Grossman, H., 87

Geary, D . c . , 59, 8 8 , 2 1 6, 2 1 8

Goodnow, J. J . , 3 7 , 8 8

Grossman, S . H . , 87

Geidd, J. N., 1 7 1

Goodrich Andrade, H. L . , 1 29,

Gross-Tsur, v. , 1 78

Geissler, P. W., 1 36

271

Gelman, R., 40, 46

Gordon, E. w., 208, 4 1 8-419

Gronlund, N. E., 4 3 3 , 473, 5 1 2, 5 1 4, 5 1 7, 5 1 8, 5 2 1 , 524, 528-529

Grotzer, T. A., 55, 1 38, 3 1 3, 339 Gruber, H. E., 149

Gelman, S . A., 49, 60, 8 7

Gordon, P., 65

Gruenenfelder, T. M., 2 1

Genesee, F., 22 1

Gordon, T., 4 1 5, 4 1 6

Grusec, J. F., 252

Gentile, D. A., 259

Gorman, c., 248

Grzegorek, J., 368

Gentner, D., 45

Goshen-Gottstein, Y., 188

Guentuerkuen, 0., 2 1 8

Gerbino, M., 26

Goswami, U., 46

Guerra, N., 259-260

Gernsbacher, M. A., 2 1 6, 2 1 8

Gottesman, I . I . , 138

Guidubaldi, J., 1 4 1

Gerrig, R. J., 65

Gottfredson, D. c., 1 23, 208

Guilford, J. P., 1 26, 148

Gerwels, M . c . , 396, 401-402

Gottfried, A. w., 2 1 8, 3 5 1

Guillery-Girard, B . , 277

Getzels, J. w., 442

Gottman, J. M., 96, 188

Guitar, B., 1 8 7

Gewertz, c., 499

Gouveia, M., 207

Guitierrez, R., 143

Ghatala, E. S., 2 1

Gove, F. L . , 93

Guiton, G., 142, 143

Ghezzi, P. M., 246-247

Gow, L., 275

Gulikers, J., 530

Ghiselin, B., 149

Goyette, K., 225-226

Gullickson, A. R., 535

Gialams, V., 381

Grabner, R. H., 127

Gunnar, M. R., 94

Gibbs, J. c . , 104, 1 1 0

Gracek, J., 3 1 2 , 3 1 6, 3 1 8-3 19,

Gunther, N., 37

Gick, M. L., 335

340

Hagan, R., 88 Hagen, E. P. , 1 2 1 Haier, R. J., 1 26, 1 27 Hakuta, K., 56, 65, 66, 67, 2 2 1 , 222 Haladyna, T. M., 5 1 7 Haley, A., 138 Hall, B. w., 5 3 1 Hallahan, D. P., 1 62n, 1 80, 1 8 5 Hallam, R., 50 1 , 529 Halpern, D. F., 87, 208, 2 1 6, 2 1 8, 2 1 9, 3 1 3 Hambleton, R. K., 494, 501 Hambrick, D . Z . , 330

Goebel, R., 1 8 8

303, 383n, 444n, 473, 5 0 1 ,

Gathercole, S. E., 59

Haerte, E., 221

Hains, S. M. J., 63

Girotto, V., 320

Gandara, P., 221

Garcia, E. E., 66, 221, 222

Hadders-Algra, M., 1 4 1 Haden, C. A., 59

Gamoran, A., 143, 144

Garbarino,

Hacker, D. J., 460

Gur, R. c., 2 1 6, 2 1 8

N A M E I N DEX

Hamel, R., 1 26 Hamilton, C. E., 94 Hamilton-Giachritsis, c., 259 Hamm, J. V. , 96 Hammond, M. A., 188, 205 Hammond, W. R., 42 1-423 Hamner, T., 1 04 Hamond, N. R., 1 89 Hampson, E., 88, 2 1 8 Hampton, J. A., 3 1 2, 3 1 5 Handler, M. w., 4 1 0-4 1 1 Handley, H. M., 2 1 9 Hanming, F., 204, 449 Hannafin, M. J., 449, 46 1 , 462 Hansen, P., 90 Happe, F. , 62 Hardman, M. L., 1 7 1 Harla-nd, T., 54 Harman, G., 323 Harnisch, D. L., 220 Harold, R. D., 87, 2 1 9 Harp, S., 355 Harris, A., 497 Harris, J. R., 37 Harris, M. J., 370 Harrow, A. J., 437 Hart, B . , 2 0 5 , 222 Harter, S., 78-79, 8 1-82, 3 8 1 Hartley, K., 354 Hartup, W. w. , 82, 9 6 Hasher, L., 277 Hashtroudi, S., 300 Hatch, T. , 128n Ha, R. M., 199 Hausmann, M., 2 1 8 Hawkins, W. L., 356 Hawryluk, J., 2 1 8

591

Jerison, H. J., 124, 126, 127

Haxby, J. V., 188

Hewitt-Gervais, C. M., 53 1

Hovrath, D., 383

Hay, D. F. , 96

Hewson, P. W., 9

Howard, E., 3 7 1

Jerman, 0., 59

Hayes, J. R , 149, 3 3 1

Hewstone, M., 300

Howe, M . J. A., 336, 353

Jeynes, W , 199, 384

Hayne, H., 1 89, 300

Heyduk, R G., 366

Howes, c., 94, 95

Ji, L.- J., 65

Haynes, O. M., 2 1 9

Heyman, G . D . , 378

Howsepian, B. A., 25

Johns, M., 380

Haynes, S. N., 475

Hidi, S., 354

Hoy, A. W, 258, 350

Johnson, B., 473, 485

Haywood, H. c., 140

Hiebert, E., 303

Hoy, W K, 258, 350

Johnson, c., 1 96, 206, 208, 2 1 5, 2 2 1 , 224

Hazan, c., 94

Higgins, J. P. T., 1 84

Hoyle, R. H., 25, 368

Head, K, 127

Hightower-Parker, c., 497

Hu, H., 1 4 1

Headden, S., 67

Hilberg, R S., 224

Hu, P. N., 1 1 3

Johnson, D. D., 457, 473

Healy, E., 89

Hild, M., 3 1 7

Huang, H . , 63

Johnson, D. W, 457, 459

Heaps, c., 298

Hill, E. A., 64

Huberman, B. A., 323

Johnson, J., 475, 497

Heath, A., 108

Hill, J. P., 96

Hudson, J. A., 301

Johnson, L. G., 97

Heath, S. B., 165, 224-225

Hill, W H., 435

Huesmann, L. R., 259

Johnson, L. M. P., 459

Heatherton, T. F., 190

Hines, M., 88

Huesmann, R., 259-260

Johnson, M. H., 69 Johnson, M. K., 2 7 1 , 277, 298,

Johnson, C . T., 423

Hebl, M., 29

Hinson, J. T., 395, 396

Hughes, c., 62

Hedges, L. v., 2 1 6

Hiripi, E., 1 84

Hughes, F. P., 95

Hedlund, J" 1 3 1 , 135

Hirsch, B.

Hughes, R, Jr., 204

Johnson, R. T., 457, 459

Hedrick, A. M., 59

Hiscock, M., 2 1 8

Huisman, D., 126

Johnson, S., 297, 497

Hegarty, M., 1 0

Hisley, J" 439

Humphreys, L. G., 166, 370

Johnson, T. R., 94

Hegel, G., 340

Hittner, J. B., 1 1 3

Hunt, E. B., 1 25, 223, 324

Johnson-Laird, P. N., 3 1 7, 3 1 8,

Heider, E. R., 65

Ho, D. Y. F., 373-374

Hunter, D. M., 501

Heider, F. , 376

Hoard, M. K, 59

Hupp, S. D. A., 247

Johson, c., 196

Heinonen, K., 85

Hodapp, R N., 1 7 1

Hurlemann, R . , 189

Jolij, J., 126

Heinze, H.-J., 282

Hodges, L., 430-432, 438, 446,

Hurley, E. A., 457-458

Jones, K., 493

Heirdsfield, A. M., 59

J" 382

449

300

320

Hurtado, N., 58

Jones, M., 3 8 1 Jones, M. S., 2 1

Heit, E., 3 1 7

Hoepner, L., 1 4 1

Hustedt, J . T., 140

Heitman, J . L . , 333

Hoerr, T., 1 29

Huston, A. c., 89, 259

Jones, P. B., 69

Heitman, R J., 82

Hoffman, A. M., 395

Hwang, J.-S., 89

Jones, P. E., 62

Helmreich, R. L., 248, 356

Hoffman, L. W., 204

Hyde, J. S., 87, 90, 2 1 6-2 1 8 ,

Joram, E., 1 0

Helwig, C. c., 7 8

Hogan, D., 1 8 2

Henderlong, J " 352, 360

Hogan, K, 450

Henderson, A. S., 1 1 0

Hogan, M. J" 1 34

Henderson, V. L., 23, 25, 350,

Hogarth, R. M., 323 Hoge, M., 37

378

220

Joseph, D. M., 2 7 1 Joussemet, M., 352

Iiams, M., 67-68

Joyce, B., 3 1 6

1m, c., 28

Juan-Espinosa, M., 139, 2 1 6

Inch, R , 2 1 8

Juang, L . P., 27

Ingvar, M., 296

Juel-Nielsen, N., 1 3 8

Hollister, L. E., 1 1 2

Iran-Nejad, A., 354

Juergen-Lohmann, J., 459

Henley, N . M., 279

Holloway, S. D., 205

Irwin, D. E., 273

Jukes, M., 47

Hennig, K., 104

Holowka, S., 63

Ivry, R. B., 1 90

Jung, R. E., 1 2 7

Henry, A . , 273

Holstein, C. B., 105

Henry, D., 259-260

Holton, D., 54

Iyengar, S., 3 5 1 , 375

Henson, R. N., 282

Holyoak, K. J., 46, 335

Izquierdo, E., 68

Herbener, E., 85

Holzinger, K. J., 138

Herbert, J" 381

Honey, K, 1 1 3

Hendry, G. D., 284-285

Hollingshead, A. B., 199

Henin, A . , 236

Herman, C. P. , 1 07-1 0 8

Hong, L., 3 4 1

Herman, J. L., 500, 5 1 0, 533

Hong, Y., 377

Hernandez, D. J., 1 98

Hong, Y.- Y., 88

Hernandez-Avila, M., 1 4 1

Honzik, C . H., 2 3 7

Heron, A., 47

Hooker, E., 9 1

Herrerra, 1., 384

Horgen, K B., 1 09

Herrington, A., 528

Horiuchi, T., 287

Herrington, J., 528

Horn, J. L., 1 24

Herrmann, D.

Horn, J. M., 1 3 7

J" 299

Herrnstein, R J., 140, 208

Hornblower, M., 67, 68

Hersh, C . A . , 2 5 8

Horowitz, F. , 1 6 8

Hershberger, S. L., 1 4 1

Horvath, J . A . , 6-7, 1 3 1 , 1 3 5

Hespos, S. J., 64

Horwitz, B., 1 8 8

Hess, R. D . , 205

Houang, R T., 2 1 6

Hetherington, E . M., 95

Houlfort, N., 352

Heubeck, B. G., 1 8 1

Hovermill, J., 6 , 431

Heward, W L., 185

Hovland, R, 89

592

N A M E I N D EX

Iwanicki, E. F., 392

Jacklin, c. N., 88, 2 1 7 Jackson, A . , 1 4 1

Jusczyk, P., 63 Jussim, L., 370 Kagan, J., 85, 86, 88, 146 Kahneman, D., 260, 32 1-322 Kail, R . v. , 46, 59, 3 1 8, 320

Jackson, c., 90

Kako, E., 65

Jackson, P. , 148

Kalkman, D., 349

Jacobson, L . , 369, 474

Kamin, L., 1 36-1 3 7

Jacquet, A . -Y., 63

Kaminski, E., 90

Jaffee, S. R., 62

Kan, 1. P. , 1 78

Jamis, M., 300

Kane, M. B., 530

January, D., 65

Kanner, L., 1 84

Jarvenpaa, A.-L., 85

Kaplan, A. S., 107

Jarvin, L., 1 52, 446-447

Kaplan, B., 5 8

Jaycox, L. H., 1 1 0

Kaplan, C. A., 332

Jefferson, G. L., 4 1 0-4 1 1

Karelaia, N., 323

Jelinek, M., 8 5

Karp, S. A . , 1 4 5

Jensen, A . R., 123, 126, 135, 166, 208 Jenson, J., 348, 379 Jenson, W. R., 425

Karpov, Y. v., 302 Kashani, J. H., 109 Katz, A. N., 287 Katz, J. J., 3 14

Katz, P. A., 3 8 1

Kipling, R , 148

Kulik, C. c., 454, 509

LePore, P. c., 143, 144

Kauffman, J. M., 1 62n, 1 80,

Kirby, s. N., 203

Kulik, J. A., 294, 44 1 , 454, 509

Lepper, M., 352, 360, 375 Lepper, M. R., 248, 3 5 1 , 352,

Kirk, S., 1 86

Kuperminc, G. P., 94

Kaufman, A. S., 1 2 1 , 477

Kirker, W S., 287

Kupersmidt, J. B., 96

Kaufman, J. M., 1 64, 164n

Kirschner, P. A., 530

Kurtines, W., 105

185

359, 366, 368, 370 Lerch, J. P., 1 7 1

Kaufman, N. L . , 477

Kisilevsky, B. S., 63

Kurtz, B., 21

Leritz, L. E., 148

Kaufman, R , 140

Kitayama, S., 82, 373, 498

Kushelev, M., 280

Lerner, R. M., 85

Kyllonen, P., 1 23

Lesgold, A. M., 15, 302, 329,

LaBar, K. S., 296

Leslie, A. M., 62

Kaye, W H., 107

Klahr, D., 57

Kazdin, A. E., 1 84, 246-247

Klassen, A. D., 9 1

Kazi, S., 46

Klebanov, P., 2 1 0, 2 1 2, 2 14

Kea, C. D., 423

Klein, K. L., 188

LaBerge, D., 1 78

Keane, M. T . , 204, 2 7 7 , 449

Klein, S., 88-90

LaBorde, A. P., 1 1 0

Kearins, J. M., 59

Kleinke, C. L., 28

Keavney, M., 352

Kling, J., 2 1 2

Kecskemeti, M., 6

Kling, K. c., 486

Kee, D . W , 2 1 8

Knapp, M . , 305

Keenan, J. M., 287

Kneer, R , 464

Kehle, T. J . , 425

Knight, C. c., 4 1

Keil, E c . , 4 1 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 3 1 4

Knight, G . P. , 97

Keith, T. Z., 1 24

Knox, P. L., 104

Kellaghan, T., 473

Knuth, E., 6, 431

Keller, H. R., 423

Kobak, R. R, 94

Labouve-Vief, G., 48 LaBrie, M., 247 Lagace-Seguin, D. G., 82

336-337 Lester, G., 1 75-176, 1 7 8 Leszczynski, J. P. , 87 Leung, E, 374 LeVay, S., 9 1 Leventhal, T., 2 1 2

Lagerspetz, K., 259

Levers, S., 2 1

Lam, A., 1 9 7

Levin, J. R , 2 l

Lamadrid-Figueroa, H., 1 4 1

Levin, M. E., 2 1

Lamb, M. E., 83, 93 Lambert, M. c., 423 Lamborn, S. D., 206 Lamme, V. A. E, 1 26

Levine, M., 1 2 1 Levinson, K. L., 1 88 Levitt, S., 208-209 Levy, B., 63

Keller, M., 105

Koenig, 0., 296

Lamon, S. J., 220

Kelley, W M., 190

Koeske, R D., 59

Land, S. M., 449, 461

Kellman, P. J., 38

Koestner, R , 352, 359

Landesman Ramey, S., 140

Levy, J., 1 90, 224

Landry, S. H., 205

Lewin, B., 15

Kelly, c., 225

Koh, c., 135

Kelly, J. E, 205

Kohlberg, L., 1 0 1-1 05, 1 1 5

Lange, G., 38

Keiman, M., 1 75-176, 1 7 8

Kohn, A., 247, 248

Langer, E. J., 3 1 3

Kember, D., 275

Kokkinos, c., 393, 403

Lanzi, R. G., 140

Kemner, c., 1 26

Kokko, K., 8 1

LaPointe, L. L., 62

Kemple, v., 64

Kokot, S., 165

Lappan, G., 2 1 6

Kempler, T., 439

Kolligian, J., Jr., 207

Larkin, J. H., 1 0, 15, 125, 324

Kendall, D. c., 236

Koman, L. A., 186

Lask, B., 107

Kendier, K. S., 1 0 8

Komatsu, L . K . , 3 1 6

Lauth, G . W , 1 8 1

Kennedy, J . E , 294

Komsi, N., 85

Lave, J., 302, 498

Kennedy, S., 108

Koper, C. S., 208

Layton, C. A., 1 79

Kenny, D. A., 136

Korebrits, A., 37

Lazar, I., 140

Kenrick, D. T., 88

Korf, R , 32 1 , 329, 330

Lebeer, J., 140

Kensinger, E. A., 1 89

Kornhaber, M . , 1 29

Lecanuet, J.-P., 63

Kosslyn, S. M., 278, 296

Lederer, J. M., 459

Keskivaara, P., 85

Kotovsky, K., 3 3 1

LeDoux, J . E., 190

Kesseis, R P. c., 296

Kounin, J. S., 1 73, 397,

Ledru, L., 63

Kester, L., 530

400-40 1 , 403 Kowalski-Jones, L., 1 1 3

Ketcham, K., 299, 300

Kozhevnikov, M., 10, 145

Khan, M., 274

Krain, A. L., 236

Khattab, N., 26

Kramer, R , 105

Khattri, N., 530

Krank, H. M., 4 1 6

Khouzam, H. R . , 1 8 1

Krapp, A., 354

Kiesner, J., 380

Krashen, S., 222

Kigar, D. L., 127

Krathwohl, D. R , 435-437

Lee, K., 62, 63, 2 1 0, 2 1 2, 2 1 4 Leech, S. L., 1 4 1 L e Fevre, D . M . , 460 Leggett, E. L., 23, 25, 377, 378 Lehman, S., 354 Leichtman, M. D., 349 Leiderman, P. H., 205, 206

Kray, J., 40

Kimball, M. M., 2 1 9

Krechevsky, M . , 1 29, 1 4 1

Kimura, D., 2 1 8

Krekling, S., 2 1 6

Lekes, N., 352

Leyens, J. P., 259 Li, J., 1 3n, 24n, 1 4 1 , 303, 526 Liberman, I . Y. , 1 78 Lichtenberger, E. 0., 477 Lichtenstein, S., 322 Lichter, E. L., 8 9 Lidz, C. S., 52 Liggitt-Fox, D., 9 Lin, S., 377 Lin, X., 433 Lincoln, A., 289 LindQw, J. A., 2 1 9

Linn, R. L., 473, 500, 5 1 4, 5 1 8

Lee, J. S., 66

Krebs, D. L., 104

Lewis, J., 1 25

Linn, M. c., 90, 2 1 6

Lee, G., 89

Kim, J., 89

Lewinsohn, P. M., I I I

Lindsay, D. S., 300

Lee, C. L., 197

Kihistrom, J., 135

Levy, G. D., 87

Liker, J. K., 354

Kerrins, J. A., 6

Kessler, R c., 108, 1 84

Levy, D. A., 3 2 1

Leighton, J. P., 3 1 2 Leinhardt, G., 9 , 1 0, 1 1

King, C. M., 459

Kremer, H. L., 396

Lemmon, H., 2 1 6

King, R. c., 284-285

Kremer-Hayon, L., 396

Lenroot, R K., 1 7 1

Kinney, P., 1 4 1

Krueger, R . E, 486

Lens, W., 352, 359

Kinnish, K., 1 88

Krumm, S., 3 1 9

Leonard, J., 3 1 8-3 1 9

Kinnunen, L . H . , 9 1

Kuhn, D . , 42, 45, 49, 57

Kintsch, W, 280

Kuiper, N. A., 287

Leondari, A., 381 Lepage, M., 296

Linton, M., 298 Lipman, M., 339 Lipschultz, R. E., 373 Lipson, M. Y., 2 8 1 Lipton, M., 142 Liston, c., 69 Litcher, L., 142 Liu, T., 127 Livingston, c . , 1 0, 1 1 , 15, 43 1 Livingston, K . , 1 8 1 , 182 Lloyd, J. W , 1 80 Lo, Y., 423 Locke, J . L., 3 9 , 64 Lockhart, R. S., 286 Lockheed, M. E . , 2 1 9 Lockl, K., 273 Loe, S. A., 423

N A M E I N D EX

593

Michie, P. T., 2 7 3

Loehlin, J. c., 1 3 7, 208

Malone, B. G., 408

Mayes, L. c., 1 4 1

Loewenstein, J . , 45

Mal, R. S., 300

Mazur, J., 236

Mickler, S. E., 1 14

Loftus, E. F., 279, 299, 300

Mandler, J. M., 43

McCabe, D. P., 333

Midgley, c., 350

Lohman, D., 1 24, 125

Manges, C. D., 449

McCafferty, S. G., 56

Midthassel, U. V., 392

Lolordo, V. M., 237

Mangun, G. R., 190

McCaffery, L. K., 477

Mignano, A. J., 395, 407, 442

Long, B. T., 83

Mann, T. c., 142

McCartney, K., 94

Mignano, A. J. Jr, 405n, 406n

Long, J. D., 395, 396

Mann, V. A., 1 78

McCaslin, M., 459

Milam, G., 323

Lopez, D. F., 152

Manning, B. H., 263

McClelland, D. c., 3 7 1 , 373

Miley, W. M., 146 Miller, D. G., 299

Lord, S., 350

Manor, 0., 178

McClelland, J. L., 149, 284

Lovaas, O. 1., 1 84

Maqsud, M., 1 05

McClelland, P., 201n, 202n,

Lovett, S. B., 278

Marcia, J. E., 8 1 , 82

203n, 383

Miller, D. L., 140 Miller, G. A., 273, 367

Low, R., 276

Margrett, J., 87

McCloskey, L. A., 89

Miller, K. F. , 45

Loxterman, J., 355

Marion, R., 9

McCloskey, M. E., 1 78, 300

Miller, L. S., 224, 226

Lu, Z.-L., 273

Marjoribanks, K., 141

McCombs, B. L., 349, 385

Miller, P. M., 1 04

Lubart, T. 1., 1 3 1 , 148-150, 333

Mark, L. S., 366

McCormick, C. B., 287

Miller, S., 368

Lubienski, S. T., 2 1 3

Marklund, P., 296

McCrae, R. R., 149

Miller-Loncar, C. L., 205

Lubinski, D., 2 1 6-2 1 7

Markman, E . M . , 38, 5 8 , 70

McCrudden, M., 354

Mills, C. J., 1 79

Luchins, A. S., 332

Markovits, H., 320

McCune, v. , 147

Milner, B., 1 89

Luckasson, R., 1 70, 1 7 1 , 332

Markus, H. R., 25, 82, 373, 498

McDermott, J., 10, 1 25, 324

Mineka, S., 241

Lucy, J. A., 65

Marland, S. P. , 1 66

McDermott, K. A., 500

Mirski, A., 105

Ludwig, J., 140

Marrero, H., 3 1 8, 323

McDermott, K. B., 298, 300

Mischel, w. , 28-29, 263, 360

Luiselli, J. K., 4 1 0-4 1 1

Mars, R. B., 296

McDowell, L., 475

Mishkin, M., 296

Luker, K., 1 1 4

Marsh, H. w., 27, 2 1 6

McEwen, B . S . , 2 1 8

Mistry, J . , 47

Lukose, R., 323

Marshall, H. H., 447-448

McGaugh, J. L., 296

Mitchell, J. J., 96, 3 8 1

Lunneborg, c . , 1 25

Marshall, S., 143

McGill, K., 273

Mitchell, M., 354, 355

Lupart, J. L., 1 79

Martin, C. L., 88

McGue, M., 1 3 8

Mitchell, P., 1 65

Luria, A. R., 1 88, 290-29 1 , 3 2 1 ,

Martin, J . , 277

McGuffin, P., 37

Miyake, K., 94

Martin, M. 0., 220

Mcinerney, D., 349

Moallem, M., 10

Lutchmaya, S., 63

Martin, N. K., 393

McKeachie, W. J., 441

Moen, P., 20 1 n, 202n, 203n,

Lutz, D., 43, 45, 46

Martinez-Pons, M., 26

McKenna, J., 300

Lynch, E., 498

Martins, S., 277

McKeown, M., 355

Moffat, S. D., 88

Lynn, R., 208, 2 1 7

Marton, F., 147

McKoon, G., 277, 284

Moffitt, T. E., 62

Lyon, P. J., 2 1 8

Masarik, K., 6 , 43 1

McLanahan, S., 95

Moltz, H., 9 1

Lyons, N . , 1 04

Masharov, M., 65

McLaughlin, H. J., 253

Monaghan, P. , 320

Lytton, H., 88

Masia, B. B., 437

McLaughlin, M. w., 95, 423

Money, J., 1 7 1

Maslich, A., 355

McLaughlin, T. F., 247, 251

Montalidi, D., 296

Maslow, A. H., 36 1 , 37 1-373

McLeod, D., 89

Moore, D. W. , 460

Mason, D. A., 144

McMahan, c., 89

Moore, J. L., 302, 336

MacKay, D. G., 1 89

Masten, A . S., 96

McNamara, T. P., 276, 278

Moran, S., 1 29

Masters, K., 107

MacKinnon, D., 148

McNatt, B. D., 370

Morelli, G. A., 94

Matazarro, J. D., 477

Mackintosh, N. J., 2 1 6

Martland, J. M., 142, 143

Morgan, G. A.,.485, 486, 487

Matheson, C . c., 94, 95

Medin, D. L., 3 1 4-3 16, 498

Morgan, M., 368-369

Mathews, S . , 424

Meece, J. L., 25, 368

Morganfield, B., 224

Matlin, M., 283-285

Megargee, E. 1., 485, 486

Mori, M., 1 26

Matsuba, M. K., 1 04

Meichenbaum, D. H., 263, 264

Morison, P., 96

Matsumoto, D., 82

Morisset, C . E . , 205

MacWhinney, B., 57

Meinschaefer, J., 2 1 8

Matsumura, L., 5 1 3

Meisels, S . J., 499

Morrison, F. J., 1 38, 461

Madaus, G. F., 473

Matthews, D. B., 362

Meissner, C. A., 300

Morrison, R. G., 46

477

Maass, A., 380 Mabry, L., 502 Maccoby, E. E., 88, 2 1 7

Mackowiak, K., 1 8 1 MacLean, c., 1 08 Maclellan, E., 256 Macrae, C. N., 1 90

Madigan, S., 273

383

Mau, W. c., 208

Meister, c., 459, 460

Morse, L. W., 2 1 9

Maehr, M., 350

Maughan, B., 1 84, 421

Mellon, P. M., 370

Mortimore, P. , 42 1

Maulden, J., 1 1 4

Melo, B., 188

Mortola, P., 42

Maercker, A., 152

Maxwell, S. E., 53

Menaghan, E. G., 1 1 3

Moscovitch, M., 1 8 8

May, D . c . , 499

Mendoza-Renton, R., 29

Moses, L. J., 62, 3 1 3

Mayer, E., 188

Menken, K., 501

Moshman, D., 48, 273

Mayer, G. R., 2 5 1 , 26 1 , 42 1

Mennis, A., 95

Moss, H. A., 86

Mayer, J . D., 1 34

Mercado-Garcia, A., 1 4 1

Mostafapour, E. F. , 2 2 1

Mayer, R., 10, 355

Mercy, J., 421-423

Mote, A., 37

Mayer, R. E., 1 7, 1 38, 334, 336,

Mervis, C. B., 3 1 5

Mott, F. L., 1 1 3

Messer, B., 3 8 1

Mottram, L. M . , 425

Madon, S., 370

Magen, N., 1 0 Mager, R . F. , 433 Magnuson, K., 1 99, 208, 2 1 0, 212 Mahaffey, A . L., 87 Maier, S. F., 257 Main, D. S., 3 8 1 Main, M., 93 Maisog, J. M., 1 8 8

594

339 Mayer, R. G., 149

Messick, S., 145, 148

Mouchiroud, c., 333

Mayes, A . R . , 296

Metz, J., 9 1

Mousavi, S., 276

N A M E I N DEX

Mruzek, D. w., 2 5 1

Ng, E E-Y., 8 9

Osborne, J . , 380

Pearlstone, Z., 289-290

Mueller, E. C, 96

Ngrosho, D., 47

Oscanyan, E , 339

Pedro, I . , 207

Mueller, K., 3 5 1

Nicaise, v., 8 8

Osecka, T., 8 5

Peioxito, E , 2 0 7

Muldoon, O . T., 3 8 1

Nicholls, J. G . , 3 7 7 , 378

Osmundson, E., 5 1 0

Pellegrini, A . D., 95

Mulholland, J., 90

Nickerson, R. 5., 23, 140, 3 1 3,

Ostrov, J. M., 259

Pelletier, L . G., 355, 374

Mulkey, L. M., 142

339

Ostry, D. J., 63

Peng, K., 48 Pennington, B. E, 2 1 9

Mullis, I . V. 5., 220

Niemczynski, A., 1 05

Otiv, M., 37

Mulmi, R . A., 289

Nierman, A. J., 87

Otsuka, A., 1 9 1

Penrod, S. D., 300

Mumford, M. D., 148

Nightingale, N., 349

Ouellette, J. A., 276

Peplau, L. A., 97

Murphy, G. L., 54, 3 1 4, 3 1 6

Nijhuis, J., 447

Ousten, J., 42 1

Pepper, K., 3 7 1

Murphy, M. A . , 247

Nisan, M., 104, 369

Over, D. E., 323

Perachio, N., 2 1 8

Murphy, M . M . , 1 4 1

Nisbett, R . E., 48, 65, 498

Owens, E. W., 464

Perera, E P., 1 4 1

Murphy, P. , 326

Nock, M. K., 1 84

Owens, M., 108

Peressini, D., 6, 43 1

Murray, C, 140, 208

Noice, H., 275

Owen-Smith, A., 3 8 1

Perez, J.-I., 1 4 8

Murrelle, E . L . , 8 6

Nokes, C, 4 7 , 54, 1 36, 138

Oxelson, E., 66

Perkins, D. N., 23, 55, 1 29, 1 38,

Murtaugh, M., 1 72

Nolen-Hoeksema, 5., 109

Murthy, R. 5., 142

Nordvik, H., 2 1 6

Padilla, J . N . , 4 1 6

Perkins, P. G . , 509, 5 1 2

Murton, E , 147

Norem, J. K., 90

Musket, S., 25

Norman, D. A., 272, 283

Musonda, D., 3 1 6

Norman, P. A., 1 08

Mwamwenda, T. 5., 45

Norton, B., 270, 272, 276, 289

Mwangi, M. w., 89

Nosofsky, R. M., 323

Naceur, A., 354 Nakayama, K., 1 8 8 Nantel-Vivier, A., 352 Naples, A. J., 324 Narayanan, N. 5., 296 Narvaez, D., 355 Nash, M . , 298

Padilla-Walker, L. M., 94 Page, R. N., 143

Perkins, P. N., 329 Perlmutter, M., 38, 94

Page, S. E., 341

Perloff, R., 208

Paige, J. M., 326

Perner, J., 49, 62

Paik, 5., 3 8 1

Novak, J. D., 3 1 6

Painter, K . M . , 2 1 9

Nowell, A., 2 1 6

Paivio, A., 278

Nunes, T., 498

Pajares, E , 26

Nurius, P., 25

Palincsar, A. 5., 281, 342, 459

Nuthall, G., 449

Pallas, D. M., 94

Nyberg, L., 296

Palmer, S. E., 278

Nystrand, M., 143, 144

2 7 1 , 3 1 3, 335, 339, 340, 342

Perry, M., 22 1 Perry, T. B . , 9 6 Perry-Jenkins, M., 204

Palomares, N . A., 89 Palumbo, P., 370

Nastasi, B. K., 450

Oakes, J., 142-144

Panayiotou, G., 393, 403

Nathan, P. w. , 189

Oberauer, K., 320

Pandit, A., 37

Nation, K., 1 79

Oberg, M., 225

Pantle, A. J., 274

Nazos, P., 1 8 2

Oberlander, J., 320

Papalia, D., 1 87-1 8 8

Neal, D., 473

Obodo, B. 0., 241

Papason, B., 501

Neal, K. w., 402

O'Brien, M., 168

Papousek, M., 64

Neale, J. M., 107, 108

O'Brien, P. P., 3 1 8

Paris, S . G., 2 8 1

Neale, M., 108

O'Brien, W. H., 475

Parisot-Carbuccia, D., 277

Needels, M., 305

O'Callaghan, P. M., 247

Park, C R., 189

Neely, T. L., 87

Ochse, R., 148

Park, 0., 3 1 6

Neihart, M., 168

O'Connor, J. E., 15

Park, 5., 2 1 9 Parke, R. D., 79, 93, 94, 252,

Perry-Smith, J. E., 149 Pesonen, A.-K., 85 Petersen, A. C, 109 Peterson, C , 1 89 Peterson, P. L., 2 1 9 Petersson, K. M., 296 Petitto, L. A., 63 Petri, H. L., 296 Petrill, S. A., 1 23 Peveler, R . C, 1 08 Pezdek, K., 298 Phelps, E. A., 237, 276 Phillipps, B. K . , 248 Phillips, D. A., 322-323, 373, 382 Phillips, M . , 2 1 2, 472, 475

Neisser, u., 139, 208

O'Connor, M. E., 108

Nelson, J. E., 1 7 1

Ogbu, J . U., 139, 498

Nelson, K., 62, 301

Ogonowski, M., 1 0

Parker, J . , 8 2

Nelson, L. J . , 82

Ohman, A., 241

Parker, J. D. A., 1 34

Nelson, M., 433

Okagaki, L., 136, 1 4 1 , 165

Parkes, J., 5 1 2

Nelson, T. 0., 60, 1 2 1

Okamoto, Y., 46

Parkman, J. M., 59

Ness, D., 473

O'Kane, G., 1 89

Parten, M., 95

Neubauer, A., 1 24, 127

Okatcha, E, 1 3 6

Parziale, J . , 46, 4 8 , 1 29

Neubauer, A . C, 1 24, 127

Oke, A., 1 34

Pascual, L., 2 1 9

Neuper, C , 1 27

Olivier, D. C, 65

Pascual-Leone, J., 48

259

Piaget, J . , 39, 4 1 , 42, 45-5 1 , 56, 6 1 , 62, 70-7 1 , 77, 97, 99, 101, 1 15

Neuse, J., 273

Oller, D. K., 39

Pastorelli, C, 26

Newby, T. J., 1 5

Olsson, A . , 2 3 7

Pathey-Chavez, G . , 5 1 3

Newcomb, A. E, 8 2 , 96

Oltman, P. K., 145

Patrick, B. C, 439

Newcomb, M. D., 1 1 3

Omelich, C , 24 1

Patterson, C J., 263

Newcombe, N., 2 1 9

O'Neil, R., 79

Patterson, G. R., 94-95

Newell, A., 280, 3 1 8, 329, 330

Oppenheim, D., 94

Paus, T., 69

Newell, E M . , 464

Oregon, I., 2 2 1

Pavlov, I . P., 2 3 8

Newman, H. H., 138

Orlansky, M. D., 1 8 5

Payne, A . , 96

Pick, M., 3 1 9 Pickerall, J., 299 Piekema, C, 296 Pierce, W. D., 248 Pierroutsakos, S. L., 45 Pike, R., 3 8 1 Pillard, R . C , 9 1 Pinker, S., 64 Pinkerton, J. L., 22-23 Pinquart, M., 2 7 Pintozzi, E J., 221 Pintrich, P. R., 26, 27, 147, 255, 3 5 1 , 352, 449 Pipp, S. L., 48 Piran, N., 1 0 8

Newman, S. E., 302

Ornstein, P. A., 59

Payne, D. G., 299

Newman, T. M., 1 79

Orton, S. T., 1 78

Peake, P. K., 29

Pitts, R., 104 Pizarro, D. A., 1 34 Platsidou, M., 4 1 , 46, 48

N A M E I N DEX

595

Plomin, R., 37, 1 37, 138

Ramus, F. , 1 78

Reynolds, M. R, 1 24

Rosenberg, M., 207

Plucker, J. A., 148

Randhawa, B. S., 501

Reznick, R. J., 86

Rosenshine, B. V., 438, 447,

Policastro, E., 149

Range, L. M., I I I

Reznitskaya, A., 1 5 2

Polikoff, M. S., 473

Rankin-Erickson, J., 385

Rholes, w., 3 8 1

Rosenthal, J . , 370 Rosenthal, R., 369, 370, 474,

459, 460

Polivy, J., 1 07-108

Ranson, K., 94

Ricciardelli, L. A., 66

Polk, T. A., 3 1 8

Raphael, T., 303

Rice, K., 368

Pollard, A., 1 5

Rapoport, J . L., 1 8 1

Richards, T., 150

Polnick, B., 497

Rapp, B., 1 78

Richardson, R. c., 253

Rosnow, R. L., 484-485

Pomerantz, E. M., 89

Rappaport, S. L., 1 8 8

Richardson-Klavehn, A . , 277,

Ross, B. H., 3 1 4, 3 1 6

Pommerenke, K., 323

Rasch, B. W., 1 8 2

Pope, J. E., 385

Raskin, E., 145

282 Richland, L. E., 46

484-485, 487 Rosete, D., 1 34

Ross, c., 382 Ross, D., 259

Popper, K. R, 32 1

Ratcliff, R., 277, 284

Ricks, S. S., 93

Ross, D. F., 2 1 8

Porter, A . c., 6, 473

Rath, S., 27

Riegel, K. F. , 48

Ross, K. A., 2 1 Ross, S., 259

Post, T. A., 1 5

Rathburn, A., 201

Rifkin, B., 46, 70

Potts, G. R., 287

Ratner, H. H., 142

Righart, R., 1 8 8

Rosser, P. , 497

Pourkos, M., 105

Raudenbush, S. w., 370

Rindermann, H., 1 24

Rossion, B., 1 8 8 Rotello, C . M . , 3 1 7

Powell, J . S., 5 8 , 64-65

Rauh, V., 1 4 1

Ringel, B. A . , 2 1

Prabhakaran, v. , 296

Ravid, D., 1 0

Rips, L . J., 279, 3 1 7-3 1 9

Roth, W. T., 1 1 2

Pradere, D., 300

Rawson, H. E., 386

Risley, T., 205, 222

Rothbart, M. K., 85

Premack, D., 249

Raye, C. L., 298

Rist, M. c., 276

Rothenberger, A., 1 8 1-182

Press, c., 280

Rayman, M. c., 146

Rist, R, 370

Rotter,

Pressley, M., 2 1 , 22, 27, 28,

Rayner, R, 240-241

Ritter, P. L., 205, 206

Rouhani, S., 1 05

167, 167n, 1 73, 1 74, 26 1 ,

Rea, M . M., 1 1 0

Roazzi, A., 498

Rovee-Collier, c., 300

355, 385, 450

Read, J. D., 299

Roberts, D. F., 205, 206

Rovine, M., 93-94

Pressman, E. K., 94

Reder, L. M., 298, 303

Roberts, M . J., 40, 32 1

Rowe, R, 1 84

J. B., 28

Pretz, J. E., 324

Redl, F., 420

Roberts, N., 296

Rozencwajg, P., 146

Prewett, P. N., 477

Redlich, F. c., 199

Roberts, R D., 1 34

Ruban, L. M., 1 79

Pribram, K. H., 367

Redman,

Robinson, H. A., 293

Rubenstein, c., 95

Price, J., 1 8 2

Reed, D., 497

Rochelle, J., 1 0

Rubin, D . c . , 294, 298 Rubin, K. H., 82, 96, 97

J., 43

Prieto, M. D., 1 3 1

Reed, E. S . , 423

Rocher, S., 89

Prince, D., 3 7 1

Reed, S. K., 279, 280, 3 1 3 , 323

Rocklin, T., 236

Ruble, D. N., 88, 373, 3 8 1

Prince, R , 1 3 6

Reed, T. E . , 1 26

Rodriguez, M. c., 5 1 7

Rudowicz, E . , 332

Pring, R., 435

Reeder, G. D., 287

Rodriguez, M . L., 29, 360

Ruffman, T., 43

Prins, P. J. M., 1 8 1

Rees, E., 1 0

Rodriguez, R . , 6 8

Rumelhart, D . E . , 283, 284

Pritchard, R, 22

Reese, M., 68

Roe, A., 149

Runco, M. A., 1 48

Pritzker, S. R., 148

Reeve, A. L., 530

Roediger, H. L., 298, 300, 333

Rushton, J. P., 208

Proffitt, J. B., 3 1 4-3 16, 498

Refior, S. K., 94

Roediger, H. L., III, 2 8 1 ,

Prom, E., 86

Reghi, M., 275

282-283, 300

Russell, D . , 370 Russell, W. R., 189

Pulkkinen, L., 81

Reilly, A. H., 2 1 8

Roeser, R , 368

Ruthsatz, J. M., 1 70

Pullen, P. L., 164, 1 64n

Reimer, J., 104

Roessner, V., 1 8 1- 1 82

Rutter, M., 421

Putnam, R. F. , 4 1 0-4 1 1

Reis, H. T., 79

Rogers, C. R, 361

Ryan, L. M., 1 4 1.

Putnick, M., 349

Reis, S. M., 126, 165, 1 68, 1 79,

Rogers, S. M., 91

Ryan, R. M., 352, 355, 359,

Puttler, L. I., 94

219 Reisberg, D., 236, 283

Rogers, T. B . , 287 Rogoff, B., 37, 38, 4 1 , 50, 59,

Qian, Z., 225

Reiser, B. J., 278

Qin, Z., 457

Reisetter, M., 375

Quartz, K. H., 142

Rohde, P., I I I

Reitman, D., 247

Quinn, B. T., 189

Roid, G., 477

94, 206, 302

Reitman, J. S., 294

Romagnano, L., 6, 43 1

Quinn, P. c . , 3 1 2

Render, G. F., 4 1 6

Qullian, M . R , 279

Romaine, S . , 2 2 1

Renninger, A. K., 39, 57, 354

Romeu, P. F., 294

Renninger, K., 354

Romney, D. M., 88

Renzulli, J . S . , 1 26, 1 4 8 , 1 65,

Roopnarine, J. L., 95

Raftopoulos, A., 4 1 Raggatt, P., 63 Rahman, Q . , 9 1 Raikkonen, K., 85 Rainard, B., 1 5 Ralph,

J., 2 1 2

Ramey, C. T., 140, 1 7 1 Ramey, S. L., 140 Ramirez, C. M., 222 Ramsey, E . , 94-95

596

1 66, 1 68 Reschly, A . , 499

Ropers, H.-H., 1 7 1 Rosabianca, A., 380

3 6 1 , 374, 439 Ryder, w., 298 Sa, W. c., 320 Sabbagh, M. A., 62 Sabbato, T., 4 1 8-4 1 9 Sabers, D . S . , 1 0 , 1 4- 1 5 Sachau, D. A., 379 Sachdev, P., 69, 7 1 Sadker, D., 88-90, 4 1 7 Sadker, M . , 88-90, 4 1 7 Sadler, P. M., 5 1 7 Saenz, D. S . , 2 5

Rescorla, R. A., 239-241

Rosch, E. H., 3 1 5, 3 1 6

Resnick, L . B., 288, 297, 302

Rose, L. c., 393

Rest, J . R , 104, 105

Rose-Krasnor, L., 96

Sahakian, B.

Rey, J., 4 1 1

Rosen, B., 462-463

Salakhova, A. D., 63 Salas, E., 3 4 1

Reyna, c., 376

Rosen, S., 1 7 8

Reyna, V. F., 464

Rosenbaum, P. L., 53

Reynolds, C. R., 497

Rosenberg, F., 207

NA M E I N D E X

Saffran, J. R., 64

J., 69

Salat, D. H., 189 Salmond, C. H., 69

Salomon, G., 329, 335

Schrausser, D. G., 1 2 7

Shelton, S. T., 341

Smith, B. P., 1 86

Salovey, P., 1 34

Schraw, G., 273, 354, 355,

Shenfield, S. D., 52

Smith, D. D., 1 4 1 , 1 7 1 , 332

Shepard, L. A., 499

Smith, D. R., 302, 336 Smith, E. E., 23, 279, 285, 3 1 6,

Salthouse, T. A., 1 26

374-375

Saltzman, K. M., 142

Schukar, R., 1 06

Sherbourne, C. D., 1 1 0

Samango-Sprouse, C. A., 1 7 1

Schultz, G . F. , 386

Sheridan, T., 199

Sameroff, A. 1., 94

Schultz, K., 1 58, 1 6 1 , 168, 1 72,

Shernoff, D. 1., 442

Samuels, S. T., 1 78 Sanbonmatsu, L., 2 1 2

1 78, 1 8 1 Schultz, T. R., 1 0 1

339 Smith, T., 1 52, 2 1 0, 2 1 2, 2 1 4

Shernoff, E. S . , 442

Smith, K. E., 205

Shi, 1., 1 27

Smith, L., 168 Smith, M. H . , 226-227

Sanchex, G., 1 0

Schulze, R . , 320

Shibazaki, M., 1 9 1

Sandefur, G., 95

Schunk, D. H., 26, 27, 255, 26 1 ,

Shields, T., 1 3 8

Smith, M. L . , 499

Shiffrin, R. M., 14, 272

Smith, P. , 1 2 3

Sanders, D., 53-54

262, 330, 3 5 1 , 352, 360, 449

San Miguel, V. F., 86

Schwade, M., 22

Shil, T. S., 1 86

Smith, P. A., 258

Sansone, c., 379

Schwartz, B., 242, 375

Shimada, M., 1 9 1

Smith, P. B . , 2 8

Santosh, T . P., 1 8 1- 1 82

Schwartz, D. 1., 433

Shoben, E. T., 279

Smith, T., 2 5 1

Sapir, E., 65

Schwartz, H. c., 3 1 4-3 1 6

Shoda, Y. , 2 9 , 360

Smith, T. w. , 199

Sapp, M., 241

Schwartz, 1., 141

Shook, S. c., 247

Smithey, M. w. , 392, 402

Sarason, S. B., 136

Schwartz, M., 2 1 9

Shors, T., 363

Smolensky, P., 283

Saraswathi, T. S., 47

Schwarz, N., 329

Shrager, 1., 59

Snapp, M., 458

Sattler, T. M., 1 2 1 , 497

Scott, G., 148

Shulman, G. 1., 10

Snarey, T. R., 1 04, 105

Saudino, K. T., 86

Scoville, W. B., 1 89

Shupe, A. K., 94

Snidman, N., 85, 86

Saunders, W. M., 67

Scribner, S., 225

Sibitani, A., 1 9 1

Snook, S. A., 1 3 1 , 135

Sawin, D. B., 53, 93

Sebastian, R. T., 259

Sickmund, M., 394, 394n

Snow, c., 221

Saye, T., 450

Sebrechts, M. M., 2 1 9

Siegel, B., 1 26

Snow, R. E., 144, 370, 446, 447

Siegler, R. S., 41, 46, 49, 57, 59,

Snyder, c., 205

Scardamalia, M., 1 6

Seddon, G. M . , 435

Scarr, S., 1 3 7

Seeley, T. R . , I I I

Sceery, A., 94

Segal, E., 332

Signorelli, N., 89

Schacter, D. 1., 1 89, 282-283,

Segal, N. L., 1 4 1

Sikes, T . , 458

Snyder, T., 500

Segers, M., 447

Sikil, R. T., 142

Sodian, B., 2 1

Schadron, G., 89

Sehulster, 1. R., 298

Silbereisen, R. K., 27

Sohn, M. H., 14

Schaeken, w. , 3 1 9-320

Seidel, S., 1 29

Silberg, T. L., 86

Sokolove, S., 4 1 7

Schaie, K . w., 48, 1 3 9

Selbst, M., 248

Silva, P. A., 77

Solomon, T., 93

Schank, R. c., 2 7 1 , 283, 301

Self-Brown, S. R., 424

Simon, D. P., 10, 1 25, 324

Solso, R. 1., 284-285

Schanzenbach, D. W., 473

Seli, H., 349

Simon, H. A., 8, 1 0, 1 25, 280,

Schauble, L., 45

Seligman, M. E. P. , 1 09, 24 1 ,

294, 298, 300

Scheitler, S., 22

257, 258

Scher, M. S., 278

Sellers, E. B., 205

Snyder, E., 88

63

303, 321, 324, 326, 329-333,

Snyder, H., 394, 394n

Somberg, B. 1., 1 26 Sommers, S. R., 341 Song, A., 1 97

338 Simon, T., 1 2 1 , 122, 477

Song, 1., I l l n Sorger, B., 188

Schiefele, U., 78, 354

Selman, R., 97, 1 1 5

Simonton, D. K., 149

Schiffer, F., 190

Sensales, G., 224

Simpson, E. T., 437

Sowell, E. T., 208

Schifini, A., 67

Sentelle, T., 423

Singer-Freeman, K. E., 46

Spalding, T. 1., 3 1 6

Schiltz, c., 1 88

Sera, M. D., 65

Singh, K., 87

Spanoudis, G., 4 1 , 48

Schindler-Zimmerman, T., 224

Sergio, L. E., 63

Singh, N. N., 258

SpeaJ:ITIan, c., 1 22-124

Schleifer, M., 1 0 1

Serpell, R . , 4 7 , 1 3 6 , 1 65, 498

Sio, U. N., 332

Spear-Swerling, L., 49, 1 73,

Schliemann, A. D., 498

Sethi, S., 248, 352

Skae, E., 89

1 75, 1 78, 323-324, 339, 442,

Schlisselberg, G., 58

Setzer, L. A., 68

Skarbrevik, K. 1., 2 1 9

447

Schmader, T., 380

Shade, B., 225

Skinner, B. F. , 64, 244

Speitz, A. 1., 205

Schmahl, C. M., 224

Shafer, T., 67-68

Skrtic, T. M., 178

Spelke, E. S., 2 1 6, 2 1 8, 2 1 9

Schnaas, L., 1 4 1

Shakespeare, W., 147

Skurnik, 1., 329

Spence, 1. T., 248, 356

Schneider, B. H., 219, 442

Shalev, R. S., 1 78

Slade, L., 43

Spencer, S., 379

Schneider, S., 5 1 0

Shankweiler, D . , 1 78

Slaney, R. E., 368

Spencer, T. T., 296

Schneider, w. , 14, 2 1 , 22, 38,

Shapiro, P., 300

Slavin, R. E., 142-144, 457-458

Sperry, R. w., 1 89, 190

Sharp, A., 339

Siobin, D. 1., 64

Spindler, A., 259-260

Schnitzer, G., 140

Sharp, D. w., 136, 32 1

Slomski, T. A., 296

Spinella, M., 146

Schoenbach, c., 207

Shavelson, R. 1., 10, 433

Siotta, T. D., 10

Spoehr, K. T., 273

Schoenfield, A. H., 342

Shaver, P. R., 94

Siovic, P., 322

Springer, C. T., 2 1

Schoeni, R., 204

Shaywitz, B. A., 1 78, 2 1 9

Sluyter, D. T., 134

Squire, L. R., 277, 280, 296

Schofield, T. w. , 46 1

Shaywitz, S. E., 1 78, 2 1 9

Small, M . Y. , 278

Sroufe, L. A., 93, 94

Scholte, S., 1 26

She, H. c., 2 1 9

Smedler, A . c . , 2 1 6

Stack, S., I I I

Schon, D., 1 5

Shea, D . L . , 2 1 6

Smelter, R . w. , 1 8 2

Stahl, S . A . , 146

Schooler, c., 1 38, 207

Shea, T. M., 255, 420

Smetana, T. G., 79

Stainback, S., 1 6 1

Schott, B . H . , 282

Shearer, B., 1 29

Smith, A., 370, 421

Stainback, w. , 161

Schrauben, B., 147

Sheets, R. H., 224

Smith, A. E., 370

Stanis, T. J., 280

59, 273, 333

N A M E I N DEX

597

Tulving, E., 273, 277, 287,

Stankov, L., 1 34

Stromswold, K., 64

Thomas, c., 501

Stanley, J. c., 88, 1 68, 2 1 6-2 1 7

Strough, J., 87

Thomas, E. L., 293

Stanovich, K. E., 1 78, 320, 329

Stubbs,

Thomas, J.

Stark, R . E., 63

Sugrue, K., 300

Thomas, K. M., 69

Turk, D. J., 190

Starr,

Sui, J., 287

Thomas, L. E., 273

Turkheimer, E., 1 3 8

Starr, R . H., 86

Sulzer-Azaroff, B., 2 5 1 , 2 6 1

Thomas, M. H., 276

Turner, C. F. , 91

Staub, F., 9

Sundgot -Borgen, J., 107

Thomas, R. M., 46

Turner, D. G., 9 1

J. M . , 2 1 6, 2 1 7

J., 370

J., 87

289-290, 336 Turiel, E., 99, 1 0 1

Sun die, J. M., 88

Thomas, W. P. , 68

Turner, L. A., 21

Surprenant, A. M., 272, 273

Thompson, L. A., 45, 1 5 8

Turner, S . , 256-257

Stayer, c., 1 7 1

Sutherland, K . S . , 258

Thompson, L. P. , 299

Turner, T. J., 301

Stayton, D. J., 93

Sutherland, P. , 47

Thompson, R. A., 78, 85, 94

Turvey, M. T., 273

Steblay, N., 299

Sutton, R. E., 4 1

Thompson, R . F. , 273, 296

Tversky, A., 32 1-322

Steele, C. M., 208, 2 1 7,

Suzuki, L. A., 47

Thompson, S. c., 87

Twenge,

Svoboda, c., 354

Thompson, S. K., 259

Tyler,

Tzschach, A., 1 7 1

Staudinger, U . M . , 48, 79, 1 50-152

379-380, 380n Steele, J., 3 8 1

Swank, P. R., 205

Thompson, T., 25

Steelman, L . c., 142

Swanson, H. L., 15, 59

Thompson-Schill, S. L., 1 78

J., 28, 207 J. L., 501

Stefanou, c., 5 1 2

Swanson, R . L., 248

Thomson, D. M., 290, 336

Underwood, B. J., 289

Stein, B. S., 140, 323-324, 326

Sweller, J., 276

Thorkildsen, T. A., 224

Underwood, M. K., 87

Steinberg, L., 205, 206, 252

Swerdlik, M. E., 482, 487, 493

Thorndike, E. L., 244, 249

Undheim,

Stelmack, R. M., 1 26, 127

Swets, J. A., 140

Thorndike, R. L., 121

Ungerleider, L. G., 1 88

J. 0., 1 24

Stemler, S., 6, 431

Swinson, J., 253

Thornton, L., 107

Urbina, S., 208, 485, 486, 496

Stemmler, M., 109

Switzky, H. N., 386

Thorpe, G., 2 1 7

Urichuk, L., 94

Stenning, K., 320

Sylvester, R., 277, 279

Thurstone, L. L., 123

Usai, c., 350

Tiedemann,

Uylings, H. B. M., 37

Stephen, c., 458 Stephens, P. , 395 Stern, E., 9 Stern, P., 139 Stern, y. , 69 Sternberg, R. J., 5-7, 1 3n, 15, 1 7, 22-23, 24n, 43, 45-50, 52-55, 57-59, 64-65, 70, 79, 97, 1 2 1-123, 1 25, 1 26, 129- 1 3 1 , 1 33-138, 1 40- 1 4 1 , 145, 146, 148-150, 1 52, 165, 166, 167n, 1 68, 1 73, 1 75, 1 78, 1 79, 208, 294-295, 303, 3 1 2, 3 1 7, 3 1 9-327, 328n, 331-334, 336, 337, 339-34 1 , 383n, 43 1 , 436, 442, 444n, 446-447, 456, 478n, 526 Stevens, A., 278 Stevens, A. L., 10 Stevens, R. J., 438, 447 Stewart, C. B., 287 Stewart, D. D., 287 Stichter, J. P. , 258 Stiggins, R., 502 Stipek, D.

J., 220, 3 8 1

Stodolsky, S. S., 448 Stone, B.

J., 258

Stough, L. M., 396, 402, 420 Stowe, H. B., 60 St-Pere, F., 349 Strand, S., 1 23 Strandberg, T. E., 8 5 Strange, A., 378 Strange, B. A., 1 89 Strauss, S., 1 0 Streitmatter, J., 90 Strickland, c., 538-539 Stroh, L . K . , 2 1 8

Tabachnick, B. R., 9 Taeschner, T., 64 Talarico, J. M., 294 Talbert, J. E., 423 Tallent -Runnels, M. K., 1 79 Talukder, E., 95

Tinklenberg, J. R., 1 1 2 Tinsley, B. J., 93

Todd, P. M., 3 2 1 , 323

Tang, D., 141

Toglia, M. P., 299

Tannen, D., 2 1 9

J., 1 65, 1 66

Tantufuye, E., 47 Tapasak, R . c . , 423 Tarbox, R. S. F., 246-247 Tardif, T., 285

J., 258

Tassi, F. , 2 1 9 Tauber, R. T., 242 Taylor, A., 62 Taylor, c., 165 Taylor, M. G., 87 Teague, G., 3 7 1 Tellez-Rojo, M. M., 1 4 1 Tenent, A., 460 Tennyson, R., 3 1 6 Terhune, K. W. , 3 7 1 Terman, L. M., 1 38, 166 Teuber, H. L., 189 Thagard, P., 3 1 7 Tharp, R. G . , 224, 226 Thatcher, R. w., 69 Their, K., 4 1 1 Theodore, L . A . , 425 Thiessen, E. D., 64 Thomas, A . , 8 6

Timms, M., 5 1 0

Todd, J., 273

Tang, c . , 1 26

Thoma, v., 282

Tillema, H. H., 396

Tobin, R., 320

Tanfer, K., 1 1 3

Tarter, C.

Tietjens, C. L., 408

Titterington, J., 273

Tanaka, J. R., 1 88

Tannenbaum, A.

J., 2 1 9

Tolan, P., 259-260 Tolman, E. c., 237 Toner, J. G., 273 Tooby, J., 320-3 2 1 Torestad, B., 2 1 6 Torff, B., 332, 446 Torgesen, J. K., 1 78 Torquati, J . c . , 94 Torrance, E. P., 148 Torsheim, T., 395 Torstveit, M. K., 107 Tossel, J. w. , 1 7 1 Tottenham, N., 6 9 Trabasso, T., 46-47, 3 1 9 Treadway, M., 300 Trevarthen, c., 1 90 Triandis, H. c . , 135 Triezenberg, H. L., 499 Trivers, R. L., 86 Trompenaars, E., 2 8 Trost, M. R., 88 Trzesniewski, 25, 139 Tsai, S . 1., 220 Tsai, w. -Y., 1 4 1 Tsunoda, T., 1 9 1 Tu, Y.-H., 1 4 1 Tuch, D . S . , 1 89

Valcarcel, M. V., 10 Valdes, R., 5 1 3 Valencia, R. R., 47 Valenzuela, M. J., 69, 7 1 Valeri-Gold, M., 22 1 Valian, V. v., 220 Vallerand, R. J., 355, 374 Vallies, J., 247 VanAcker, R., 259-260 Vandell, D., 96 Van der Kouwe, A. J. W., 1 89 VanLehn, K. A., 10 VanNoy, M., 370 van Os, J., 3 7 Vansteenkiste, M., 352, 359 VanTassel-Baska, J., 166 Van-Voorhis,

F. L., 444

Van Voorhis, F. L., 445 Vaughn, B. E., 93 Vazsonyi, A. T., 94 Vederhus, L . , 2 1 6 Vellutino, F. R . , 1 78 Verfaellie, M . , 300 Vernon, P. A., 1 26, 1 27 Vernon, P. E., 1 24 Vezeau, c., 90 Villegas, A. M., 499 Vivaldi, A., 353-354 Volkmar, F. R., 1 84 von Aster, M. G., 1 78 Von Eckardt, B., 276, 324 von Rosen, K., 1 05 Vosburg, J., 224 Voss, J . F. , 1 5 Vye, N. J . , 2 7 1 Vygotsky, L. S., 5 1-54, 56, 57,

6 1 , 62, 70, 7 1 , 26 1 , 263, 302,

Weinraub, M., 383

Williams, R. L., 247

Yairi, E., 1 8 7

477

Weinstein, C. S., 395, 402,

Williams, T., 2 2 1 , 370

Yang, H.- Y., 94

Williams, W. M., 13n, 22-23,

Yang, J., 127

Waddington, C. H., 38 Wade, c., 9 1 , 3 8 1 Wagenaar, W., 298 Wagner, R. K, 23, 1 25, 1 3 1 , 1 35, 1 78, 325 Walberg, H. J., 220 Walden,

J., 287

405n, 406n, 407, 442 Weinstein, R. S., 442

24n, 48, 55, 1 3 1 , 1 35, 1 38,

Yang, S. -Y., 1 36

Weir, c . , 379

1 40- 1 4 1 , 200, 203, 208,

Ye, H. H., 63

Weissberg, R. P. , 1 34

2 1 1 n, 2 1 6, 2 1 9, 303, 383n,

Yekovich, C. w., 277

Welch, E., 499

439, 444n, 526

Yekovich, E R., 277

Welch, S. L., 108

Williamson, S., 203

Yeo, R. A., 127

Welk, D. S., 53-54

Willis, c., 59

Yerkes, R. M., 363 Yerys, B. E., 298

Waldron, M., 1 3 8

Wellman, H. M., 49, 60, 273

Willis-Yorker, c., 6, 43 1

Wells, E . M., 1 7 1

Walker, A., 67-68

Willoughby, T., 274

Yeung, A. S., 2 1 6

Wells, K. B., 1 1 0

Wilson, G., 246-247

Yoon, K. S., 6, 368

Walker, J. E., 255, 420 Walker, L. J., 104

Wendkos-Olds, S., 1 87-188

Wilson, G. D., 91

Young, J., 480-481

Wenger, E., 302

Wilson, J. Q., 105

Young, M. E, 304

Walker, P., 147

Wenke, D., 333

Walker, P. M., 300

Wilson, K. D., 188

Young, P., 86

Wenke, J., 1 25

Walker, R. A., 69

Wilson, v., 2 1 7

Youngblade, L . M., 204

Werfelman, M., 1 78

Wilss, L. A., 147

Ysseldyke, J. E., 499

Werner, E. E., 47

Winne, P. H., 2 6 1

Yuen-Yee, G. c., 275

Werner, H., 58

Winter, D. G., 370-37 1 , 373

Yung, B. R., 42 1-423

Walkiewicz, M., 370 Wall, S., 93 Wallace, G. L., 1 7 1 Wallace, P. B., 149 Wallis, R., 28 Walsh, J., 509 Walston, J., 201 Walters, G. c., 252 Walters, R . H . , 252 Waltzman, D., 58 Wambold, c., 1 73 Wan, W., 377 Wang, A. Y., 276 Wang, Q., 89 Wang, Z., 63 Wapner, S., 145 Ward, T. B., 1 8 1 Warren, B., 1 0 Warren, J. M., 1 99 Warren, J. R., 499 Wason, P. c., 3 1 7 Wasserman, R., 8 6 Waterhouse, L., 1 34 Waters, E., 93, 94 Watkins, D., 147, 275 Watson, D. R., 273 Watson, J . B . , 236-237, 240-24 1 , 243 Watson, R. I., 373 Wattenberg, W. W. , 420 Waugh, N. c., 272 Waxman, H. c., 464 Weber, E. K., 408 Weber, K. P., 25 1 Wechsler, D., 477 Weems, C. E, 142 Wehmeyer, M., 2 1 9 Weil, M., 316 Weiland, N. G., 2 1 8 Weiner, B., 376, 377n

Winters, L., 533

Yurgelun-Todd, D., 37-38

West, J., 201

Winzenz, D., 336-337

Yzerbyt, V. Y., 89

West, R. E, 320

Wippman, J., 94

West, S. G., 259

Witelson, S. E, 127

Westen, D., 487

Witkin, H. A., 1 45

Werner-Wilson, R.

J., 224

Wethington, E., 20 1 n, 202n, 203n, 383, 384

Wittgenstein, L., 3 1 5 Wittlinger, R. P., 289

Wexler, B. E., 37

Wittmann, W. W., 320

Whalley, L.

Wittrock, M . c., 334, 336, 339

J., 2 1 6, 2 1 7

Wheelock, A., 142

Wixson, K. K, 2 8 1

Zaidel, E., 1 90 Zakriski, A. L., 87 Zan, B . , 1 0 1 Zane, N., 197 Zanobini, M., 350 Zaragoza, M. S., 298, 300 Zeider, M . , 241

Wolf, D., 5 0 1 , 528

Zeigler, A. J., 208

140-1 4 1 , 303, 383n, 444n,

Woloshyn, V. E., 22

Zentall, S. S., 264

526

Wolters, c., 26, 27

White, N., 13n, 22-23, 24n,

White, R. w., 3 5 1

Wong, B . Y. L . , 264

Zetlin, A., 1 72 Zhang, K., 63 Zhang, L., 28

White, S . , 1 78

Wood, E., 274

White, T. L . , 384

Wood, L. M., 1 34

Whitesell, N., 3 8 1

Wood, R., 25

Zhang, Q., 127

Whitten, S., 329

Woodruff, T. J., 1 4 1

Zhang, Z . , 6 5

Whorf, B. L . , 6 5

Woodside, D. B . , 1 07

Whyatt, R. M., 1 4 1

Woodson, J . c . , 189

Wickett,

J. c., 1 26, 1 2 7

Wigfield, A., 78, 87, 2 1 9, 349, 368 Wiggins, G., 5 0 1 , 528

Woodword, A . L . , 3 8 Wooley, c., 6, 43 1 Worsham, M. E., 83, 40 1 , 402,

Zhang, L.-E, 145, 165

Zhao, D., 1 2 7 Zhu, Y., 287 Zientarski, w., 509 Zigler, E., 1 1 0, 140, 1 7 1 , 1 73 Zimmerlin, D., 433 Zimmerman, B. J., 26, 2 6 1 ,

404, 408, 420

329, 360

Wigle, S. E., 449

Worthen, B., 5 0 1 , 502

Wiig, E. H., 1 88

Wright,

Wilcox, B. L., 1 73

Wright, K., 1 0 1

Wild, T. c., 356

Wright, M. J., 1 79

Zohar, A., 42

Wilhelm, 0., 320

Wright, R., 86, 1 0 5

Zola, S. M., 296

Wilkinson, I. A. G., 460

Wubbels, T. P., 224

Wilkinson, L. c., 2 1 9

Wynn, R . L., 8 7

J. c., 87

Zimmerman, M., 322-323, 373, 382

Zucker, R. A., 94 Zuckerman, B. S . , 89 Zuckerman, D . M., 8 9

Willcutt, E. G., 2 1 9 Xie, X., 6 3

Zuckerman, G., 5 2

Willford, J. A., 1 4 1

Xie, Y., 225-226

Zulich, J., 1 5

Williams, E . M . , 40, 46

Xu, E, 62

Zuo, Y. L., 139

XU, J., 508-5 1 0, 5 1 2 , 514

Zweier, D., 86

Willerman, L., 1 3 7

Williams, E K, 501 Williams, J . G . , 1 84

Xue, Y., 2 1 2

N A M E I N DEX

599

Note: Boldface type indicates key and pages on which they are defined. Abilities. See also Gifted children analytical, 1 3 1 , 1 32, 447 beliefs about, 376-383 creative, 1 3 1 , 1 32-133, 447 diverse, development of, 447 exceptional, motivation and, 353-354, 383-386 perceptions of, as influences on achievement, 379-3 8 1 perspective-taking, 97, 98, 1 16 practical, 1 3 1- 1 32, 1 33-1 34, 447 primary mental abilities, 123, 1 29 Ability grouping, 49, 1 42-144, 1 54 advantages and disadvantages of, 1 43-144 implications for teaching, 144 types of groups for, 142-144 Absence seizures, 1 86 Absent-mindedness, 298 Abstract thinking, 45 Acceleration for gifted children, 1 68 Accessibility, 289 Accommodation, 42, 49-50, 72 ability, 1 60, 499-50 1 , 503 Achievement. See also Classroom assessments; Traditional assess ment tests assessment and, 5 1 2 gender-based differences in, 90 motivation and, 5 1 2 need for, 3 7 1 perceptions o f ability as influences on, 379-3 8 1 socioeconomic status and, 200-208 Achievement gap, 209-2 14 Achievement motivation, 373-374, 387 Achievement tests, 482-483, 503 ethnicity and, 209-2 1 4 Acquired immune deficiency syn drome (AIDS), 1 1 3-1 14 Acquisition and performance phase, instructional events ing, 440 Acronyms as memory strategy, 2 1 , 293 Acrostics as memory strategy, 2 1 , 293 Active listening, 4 1 7, 426 Adaptation

as component of intelligence, 1 22, 1 32 in reasoning process, 3 2 1 i n triarchic theory of intelligence, 132 Addictions, 24 1-242, 265 Additive bilingualism, 66, 72, 222, 232 Adolescence achievement in, parenting styles and, 206 cognitive development in, 45 depression in, 109-1 1 0 friendship' development in, 96-97 identity development in, 8 1-82, 84-85 moral development in, 85, 102 personal development in, 78-79, 80 pregnancy during, 1 1 4 psychosocial development of, 78-79 signs of substance abuse in, 1 12 violent behavior in, I I I Adoption studies, 1 37-1 38 Adulthood, personal development in, 79, 80 Advance organizer, 307 Advance organizers, 290 Affective domain, 435, 437, 467 Affiliation, need for, 3 7 1 Affirming the consequent, 320 African Americans. See Ethnic diversity Agitated depression, 1 09-1 1 0 Alcohol use as addiction, 242 fetal alcohol syndrome, 1 85 Algorithms, 329-330, 343 buggy, 58-59 Allocated time, 395, 426 Alternate-forms reliability, 485-486 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 302 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 1 70, 1 72 American Psychological Association, learner-centered psychological

principle collection developed by, 450-45 1 , 452-453 Amnesia, 1 88-1 89, 1 92 Analogical representations, 278, 307 Analytical abilities, 1 3 1 , 1 32, 447 Androgyny, 87, 1 1 5 Anorexia nervosa, 1 07, 1 08, 1 1 5 Anterograde amnesia, 1 89, 1 92 Antitheses, 48, 72 Anxiety, 363, 387 test, 366 Aptitude-by-treatment interactions, 446-447, 467 Aptitude tests, 480-481 Arbitrariness of language, 62 Arousal, 363-367, 387 implications for teaching, 367 optimal levels of, creating, 364-366 performance and, 363-364 Articulation disorders, 1 88 Asian Americans. See also Ethnic diversity motivation of, 225-226 Aspirations of expert learners, 25-26 Assertive discipline, 253, 4 1 5-4 1 6, 4 1 7, 426 Assessment. See Authentic assess ments; Classroom assessments; Traditional assessment tests Assessment sntems, 509, 543 Assimilation, 42, 49-50, 72 Associative play, 95 At-risk children, 1 4 1-142, 1 59, 1 92 Attachment, 93-95, 1 1 5 implications for teaching, 98, 99 types of, 93 Attention, social learning and, 260 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor der (ADHD), 1 8 1 - 1 82, 1 92 Attitudes, changes in, classroom management and, 393 Attributions, 376, 387 Authentic assessments, 50 1-502, 503, 528-535, 543 characteristics of, 529-53 1 evaluating performance on, 532-533 exhibitions, 532, 544 implications for teaching, 534-535

601

Authentic assessments (continued) portfolios, SO l , 53 1-532, 538-539, 544 traditional assessments versus, 533-534 types of, 528-529 Authoritarian parenting style, 205-206 Authoritative parenting style, 205-206 Autistic disorder (autism), 62, 1 84, 1 92 Autobiographical memory, 298 Automaticity, 333, 343 Automatic mental processes, 32 Automatization, 14- 1 7, 32, 1 78 Autonomy versus shame and doubt stage, 78, 80, 1 1 5 Availability heuristic, 289, 32 1-322, 343 Aversive stimulus, 24 1 , 265 Avoidant attachment, 93, 1 1 5 Babbling, 63 Backward-reaching transfer, 336, 343 Basic adult sentence structure, 63 Behavioral approaches to learning, 265 Behavioral disorders, 1 82-184 Behavioral influence techniques for classroom management, 420-42 1 Behavioral modification, 254-256, 265. See also Cognitive behavioral modification implications for teaching, 256-257 to increase desired behaviors, 255-256 methods of behavioral condition ing, 256-257 Behavioral theories of learning, 235-265. See also Classical condi tioning; Operant conditioning; Social learning; Social learning VIew cognitive-behavioral modification and, 262-264, 265 ethics of behavioral approaches and, 247-248 importance of understanding, 237 learned helplessness, 257-258 learned optimism, 258 Behavioral theories of motivation, 358-360, 362 Behaviorist view of sexual and gen der development, 88-89

602

Beliefs about ability and self-efficacy, 376-383 Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, 48 1 Between-class grouping, 142- 1 44, 1 54 Bias gender, 2 1 5, 232 memory and, 299 test, 496-497, 504 Bilingual education, 66-68, 72, 221-222, 232 Bilingualism, 65-68, 72 additive, 66, 72, 222, 232 advantage of, 52 subtractive, 66, 73, 222, 232 Bimodal distributions, 490, 503 Biological sex differences, 2 1 5-2 16 Biological theories of intellectual disability, 1 7 1 o f intelligence, 1 26-127 of language development, 64-65 of memory, 296 of sexual and gender development, 88 Birth control, 1 14 Blocking, 298 Bobo dolls, 259 Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, 128 Bounded rationality, 338 Brain development, 69 health disorders and, 1 85-1 86 hemispheric specialization problems, 1 89-1 9 1 intelligence and, 1 26-127 memory and, 296 size of, 127 Buggy algorithms, 58-59 Bulimia nervosa, 1 07-108, 1 16 California Achievement Test, 482 Canalization, 38, 72 Case studies, 30-3 1 , 32 Categorical clustering, 2 1 , 292 Categorical syllogisms, 320 Central tendency measures, 489-490 Cerebral palsy, 1 86, 1 92 Challenges faced by teachers, 1 9 student responses to, 377-378 Character development. See Moral development Characteristic features, 3 1 5-3 16, 343 Cheating, 1 0 1 , 3 2 1

S U BJ ECT I N DEX

Child-directed speech, 64-65 Children's memories, 301 Chronological age (CA), 479-480 Chunking, 274, 307 Classical conditioning, 237-243, 265 addictions and, 24 1-242, 265 aversion in classroom and, 241 controlling in the classroom, 241 discovery of, 238 generalization and discrimination and, 240-241 implications for teaching, 242-243 mechanisms of, 238-240 operant conditioning compared with, 243 phases of, 240 Classroom assessments, 507-543, 543 authentic. See Authentic assess ments formal and informal, 509, 544 formative and summative, 473, 5 10-5 1 1 , 544 goals of, 5 1 2-5 14 grading and. See Grading implications for teaching, 5 1 4 importance to teachers, 508-5 14 involving students in, 535-536 motivation and learning and, 5 1 2 norm-referenced versus criterionreferenced, 5 1 1-5 12, 540 of student achievement, 5 1 0 as student , 5 12-5 1 3 as teacher , 5 1 3-5 1 4 teaching and learning about, 529 traditional. See Traditional assessment tests Classroom dynamics, culture and, 224-227 Classroom management, 39 1-426, 426 age-related issues in, 41 1-4 1 2 changes i n society and schools and, 393-395 constructive criticism for, 400-40 1 contingency contract systems for, 425, 426 creating momentum and ensuring smooth transitions for, 398, 399 generating enthusiasm and keeping lessons interesting for, 399-400 goals of, 395-396 group consequence systems for, 424 implications for teaching, 396, 402-403, 4 1 3, 425-426

importance of understanding, 392-396 leading and following and, 4 1 2--4 1 3 maintaining control and. See Maintaining control multicultural issues in, 228-2 3 1 overlapping and, 397-398, 399, 427 planning and, 403-407, 4 1 1--4 1 2 procedures for, 407 rules for, 407-4 1 1 student involvement for, 398-399 teaching and learning about, 401--402 token reinforcement systems for, 424-425, 427 with-it-ness for, 397, 399, 427 Clustering, categorical, 2 1 , 292 Cognitive Abilities Test, 478 Cognitive approaches, 269-307, 307. See also Memory; Retrieval; Standard memory model understanding importance of, 270-27l Cognitive-behavioral modification, 262-264, 265 Cognitive development, 35-7 1 , 72 in adolescence, 45 brain development, 69 canalization and, 38, 72 comparison of approaches to, 6 1 continuous versus stagelike patterns of, 39--40 domain-general versus domainspecific, 40, 72 expertise and, 70 gender differences in, 2 1 6-2 1 7 implications for teaching, 40--4 1 importance to teachers, 36-37 information processing theories of. See Information-processing the ones language development and. See Language development maturation versus learning and, 37-38, 236 Piaget's theory of. See Piaget's theory of cognitive development school culture and, 225 student interaction and, 54-55 teaching and learning about, 56 theory of mind, 62 Vygotsky's theory of. See Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cogni tive development Cognitive domain, 434--436, 467

Cognitive frameworks, 297-298 Cognitive performance parenting styles and, 205-206 sex differences in, 2 1 6-2 1 7 Cognitive structures, 39--40 Cognitive styles, 1 44-146, 1 54 field independence versus field dependence and, 145, 1 54 mental self-government and, 1 46 reflectivity versus impulsivity and, 1 46 Cognitive theories of motivation, 360-36 1, 362 Communication for maintaining control, 4 1 4-4 1 5 as property o f language, 62 Communication disorders, 187-1 88, 1 92 Competence, perceptions of, 3 8 1 Completion items, 523 Comprehension, verbal, 57-58 Computer(s) effective versus ineffective uses of, 461-464 instructional methods with, 462--463 integrating into daily classroom life, 464 limitations of computer-assisted learning and, 464--465 in student-centered teaching, 460-464 Computer-assisted instruction, 46 1-464, 467 limitations of, 464--465 Concept(s), 3 1 3-3 17, 343 characteristic features of, 3 1 5-3 1 6 defining features of, 3 1 4-3 1 5 implications for teaching, 3 16-3 1 7 teaching, 3 1 8-3 1 9 Concept maps, 3 1 6, 343 Concrete operational stage, 44-45, 49, 72 Condition-action sequences, 280, 308 Conditional knowledge, 277, 28 1 , 307 Conditional syllogisms, 320 Conditioned emotional responses (CERs), 24 1 , 265 Conditioned response (CR) , 238-240, 265 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 238-240, 265 Conditioning. See Classical condi tioning; Operant conditioning

Conduct disorders, 1 83-184, 1 92 Confidence intervals, 493--494, 503 Connectionist model, 283-285 Conservation, 44, 72 Constructivism, 449, 467 Constructivist approaches, 307. See also Student-centered approach to learning, 302-306 to memory, 297-302 teaching and learning about, 303 Construct-related validity, 487--488, 503 system, 543 Content knowledge, 8, 9 Content validity, 487, 503 Context, 307 constructivist, 449-450 teaching, 1 1 Contingency, 239-240 Contingency contracts, 251, 265 Contingency contract systems, 425, 426 Continuous reinforcement, 249, 250, 265 Contraception, 1 14 Contract systems, 538-540 Control locus of, 356-357, 388 maintaining in classroom. See Maintaining control perceptions of, 3 8 1 self-determination and, 374 Control groups, 3 1 , 32 Conventional morality, 1 02-1 03, 1 1 6 Convergent thinking, 148, 1 54 Cooing, 63 Cooperative learning, 457--459, 467 criticisms of; 459 effective approaches for, 458-459 Cooperative play, 95 Correlations, 32 negative, 30, 32 positive, 30, 32 Counterconditioning, 242, 265 Creative abilities, 1 3 1 , 1 32-133, 447 Creative-productive giftedness, 165 Creativity, 148-1 50, 1 54. See also Insight confluence approach to, 149 of expert teachers, 1 7- 1 8 implications for teaching, 1 49-150, 151 investment theory of, 149, 1 54 mystical approach to, 148 psychometric approach to, 148

S U BJECT I N D EX

603

Creativity, (continued) social-psychological approaches to, 149 Criterion-referenced grading sys-

tems, 5 1 1-5 1 2 , 537-538, 543 Criterion-referenced tests, 475, 503 Critical periods, 64, 72 Critical thinking, 3 1 3, 340, 343 Criticism as component of intelligence, 1 22 constructive, 400-401 Crystallized intelligence, 1 24, 1 54 Culture, 1 98, 232. See also Diversity; Multicultural education; Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development attachment and, 94 bilingualism and, 65-68 classroom dynamics and, 224-227 enculturation process and, 302-303, 307 gender roles and, 87 hemispheric specialization, 1 90- 1 9 1 identity status and, 8 1-82 intelligence and, 1 36-1 3 7 learning styles and, 147 memory development and, 59-60 motivation and, 225-226 Piaget's theory of cognitive development and, 47 procedures and, 407 rules and, 408-4 10 sex differences related to, 2 1 8-2 1 9 thinking and, 225 Culture-fair tests, 498, 503 Culture-free tests, 498, 503 Culture-relevant testing, 497-498 Curriculum compacting, 168 Cystic fibrosis, 185 Death from suicide, 1 1 0-1 1 1 violent, 393-394 Decay theory, 294, 307 Decision making, 337-338 Declarative knowledge, 1 70, 277-279, 306, 307 Deductive reasoning, 3 1 7, 320-3 2 1 , 343 Deficiency needs, 37 1-372 Defining features, 3 14-3 15, 343 Denying the antecedent, 320 Depression, 1 09-1 1 1 Descriptive research, 30-3 1 , 32 Development

604

cognitive. See Cognitive develop ment; Piaget's theory of cogni tive development; Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cogni tive development domain-general and domain specific, 40 gender. See Gender development of language. See Language development moral. See Moral development personal. See Personal development sexual. See Sexual development social. See Social-emotional development socioeconomic status and, 203-204 Developmental crises, 77, 1 16 Developmental risks, 1 06-1 14 consequences of sexual activity, 1 1 3-1 14 drug use, 1 1 1-1 1 3 eating disorders, 1 07-109 major depression, 1 09- 1 1 1 violent behavior, I I I Deviation IQ scores, 480, 503 Diabetes mellitus, 185 Dialect(s), 22 1 , 232 Dialectical thinking, 48, 50, 72, 340, 343 Dialogical thinking, 340, 343 Differential Abilities Scale, 477 Differential Aptitude Tests, 480-48 1 , 503 Difficult babies, 86 Direct instruction, 53-55, 72, 438-446, 467 asking good questions in, 44 1 implications for teaching, 448 lecturing and explaining in, 438-44 1 limitations of, 447-448 meeting needs of diverse students and, 446-447 recitation and questioning in, 44 1 -443 seatwork and homework in, 443-446 Direction as component of intelli gence, 122 Direct reinforcement, 260, 265 Disabilities. See Exceptional children;

specific disabilities Discipline, assertive, 253, 4 1 5-4 1 6, 4 1 7, 426 Discovery learning, 454-455, 467 Discrimination, 198, 232, 240-24 1 , 337, 343

S U BJ ECT I N DEX

Disequilibrium, 42, 72 Dispersion measures, 490-49 1 Dispositional attributions, 376, 387 D istract ors 5 1 7, 543 Distributed learning, 276, 307 Divergent thinking, 148, 1 50, 154 Diversity. See also Group differences; Multicultural education adapting instruction for diverse students and, 447 constructivism and, 449 ethnic. See Ethnic diversity gender. See Gender differences language, 220-223. See also Bilingual education; Bilingualism socioeconomic. See Socioeconomic status (SES) Domain-general development, 40, 72 Domain-specific development, 40, 72 Drug use as addiction, 242 by parents, damage caused to chil dren by, 1 85 prevention programs, 1 1 3 sexually transmitted diseases and, 1 14 signs of, 1 1 2 by students, 1 1 1-1 1 3 types o f drugs, 1 12 Dynamic assessment environment, 52, 72 ,

Early childhood cognitive development in, 43-44 depression in, 1 09-1 1 0 friendship development during, 96 language acquisition-in, 63 personal development in, 78, 80 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K), 2 1 2-2 1 3 Easy babies, 86 Eating disorders, 1 07-109 anorexia nervosa, 1 07, 108 bulimia nervosa, 1 07-1 08 obesity, 1 08-109 symptoms of, 1 08 Educational performance. See also Achievement ethnic diversity related to, 209-2 1 4 mentoring and, 2 1 4 Educational psychology, 29-3 1 , 32. See also Research descriptive research, 30-3 1 , 3 2 experimental research, 3 1 , 32 implications for teaching, 3 1

Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1 975, 1 59, 1 92, 385-386 Efficiency, 1 4-17 automatizing well-learned skills and, 14- 1 7 o f expert teachers, 1 1 , 14- 1 7 planning, monitoring, and evaluating and, 1 5- 1 6 Egocentricity, 43-44, 7 2 Elaboration, 274, 307 Elaborative rehearsal, 274, 307 Elementary schools attachment theory and, 99 challenges faced by teachers, 19 creativity in, 1 5 1 gender development and, 92 morality theories in, 1 06 play and friendship development in, 1 00 school/classroom rules, 409 Emotional and behavioral disorders, 1 82-184, 1 92 Emotional intelligence, 1 34 Empathy, 104, 1 16 Encoding, 271-276 long-term memory in, 272, 274, 275 nature of, 27 1-272 selective, 327, 328 sensory in, 272-273, 275, 308 short-term memory in, 272, 273-274, 275 Encoding specificity, 290, 307, 336, 343 Enculturation, 302-303, 307 Engaged time, 395, 427 English as a Second Language (ESL), 22 1-222, 232 English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), 2 2 1 Enrichment for gifted children, 1 68 Enthusiasm, generating, 399-400 Entity view of intelligence, 23, 32, 377, 387 Environment. See also Learning environments children at risk, 141-142 influences on intelligence, 1 39-1 41 matching to temperament, 86 person-environment interaction, 86 Epilepsy, 1 85-1 86 Episodic memory, 277, 306, 307 Equilibration, 41-42, 72 Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, 77-8 1

evaluating, 82 implications for teaching, 83 stages of development, 77-80 Essay tests, 524-527 developing, 524-527 evaluating, 526-527 Ethics of behavioral learning approaches, 247-248 Ethnic diversity, 208-2 1 5, 232. See also Multicultural education implications for teaching, 2 14-2 1 5 school culture and, 224-227 test performance related to, 209-2 14 test score differences related to, 209-2 14 Ethnicity, 198, 232 Evaluation, 544 of authentic assessment, 532-533 automatization and, 1 6- 1 7 o f Erikson's theory o f psychosocial development, 82 of essay tests, 526-527 by expert teachers, 1 5- 1 7 of learning strategies, 2 1-23 of Marcia's theory of identity achievement, 82 of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, 46-47 of student achievement, 5 1 0 of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, 56 Exceptional children, 1 57-192, 1 92 at-risk children, 1 4 1-142, 1 59, 1 92 with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 1 8 1-182, 1 92 with communication disorders, 1 87-1 88, 1 92 with emotional and behavioral disorders, 1 82-1 84, 192 gifted. See Gifted children with health disorders, 1 85-1 86 hemispheric specialization and, 1 89-1 9 1 importance o f understanding, 1 58-1 59 with learning and memory deficits, 1 88-1 89 learning disabled. See Learning dis abilities (LD) mentally retarded. See Intellectual disability motivating, 353-354, 383-386 with perception deficits, 1 88 with sensory impairments, 1 86-1 87, 1 92

special education services for. See Special education Executive cognitive style, 146, 1 47 Exemplars, 3 1 6, 343 Exhibitions, 532, 544 Expectancy X value theory, 36 1 , 387 Experimental groups, 3 1 , 32 Experimental research, 3 1 , 32 Expert knowledge, 8-1 1 memory versus, 8 organization of, 1 0- 1 1 about teaching context, 1 1 thinking versus, 8 types of, 8-1 0 Expert learners, S , 20-29, 32 ability to delay gratification and, 28-29 cognitive development and, 70 educational psychology and, 29-31 high aspirations of, 25-26 high perceived self-efficacy of, 26-27 implications for teaching, 29 incremental view of intelligence and, 23-25 learning strategies of, 20-23 pursuit of tasks to completion and, 27-28 responsibility for self and actions and, 28 Expert problem solvers, 332-333 Expert teachers, 4-20, 32 advantages of expertise of, 1 8- 1 9 becoming, 22-23 characteristics of, 6-8 classroom management, 396-403 cognitive development and, 70 creative insight of, 1 7- 1 8 developing expertise i n teaching, 7-8 educational psychology and, 29-3 1 , 32 efficiency of, 1 1 , 1 4- 1 7 expert knowledge of, 8-1 1 implications for teaching, 20 lesson plans of, 1 1 , 12-13 novice teachers versus, 6, 1 1-13, 1 6-17 planning by, 1 5-17, 430-43 1 Explicit memory, 282-283 Explicit teaching, 342 Expository teaching, 440, 467 Externalizing behavior disorders, 1 83-1 84 External personality patterns, 28, 32 Extinction, 240, 265

S U BJECT I N DEX

605

H.M. case, 1 89 Hollingshead Index, 199 Homework, 443-446 amount of, 444-445 effective, 443-444 Homosexuality, 9 1 , 1 16 adolescent identity and, 85 Horizontal decalage, 4 1 , 72 Hormones, sex differences related to, 218 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 1 14 Humanistic theories of motivation, 36 1-362 Hypothesis testing, 64, 72 IDEAL Problem Solver program, 140 Identity achievement, 8 1-82, 1 1 6 Identity diffusion, 8 1-82, 1 1 6 Identity foreclosure, 8 1-82, 1 1 6 Identity moratorium, 8 1-82, 1 16 Identity status, 8 1-82 Identity versus role confusion stage, 78-79, 80, 1 1 6 Ill-structured problems, 326-327, 343 "I" messages, 4 1 5, 4 1 7, 427 Imitation, language acquisition through, 64-65 Implicit memory, 282-283, 307 Impulsivity, 1 25, 146, 147, 1 54 Incentives, 349, 387 Incremental view of intelligence, 23-25, 32, 377, 387 Incubation, 332, 344 Individual differences, 1 1 9-1 53, 1 5 7- 192. See also Exceptional children in cognitive styles, 1 45-146 in creativity, 148- 1 50 importance of understanding, 120- 1 2 1 i n intelligence. See Intelligence in learning styles, 1 46-147 meeting needs of different students and, 446-447 in personality, 147 in planning for teacher-centered teaching, 432 in wisdom, 1 50-1 52 Individualized educational programs ( IEPs), 1 60, 1 6 1-163, 1 92, 385-386 Individualized instruction, 45 1-454, 468 Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act ( IDEA), 1 59-160, 1 82-1 83 Inductive reasoning, 123, 3 1 7-3 1 8, 3 2 1 , 344 Industry versus inferiority stage, 78, 80, 1 1 6 Infancy cognitive development in, 43 language acquisition in, 63 personal development in, 78, 80 temperament in, 86 Infantile amnesia, 1 89, 192 Informal assessments, 509, 544 Information processing, speed of, 124-125 Information-processing theories, 57-60 comparison with other approaches to cognitive development, 6 1 implications for teaching, 60-6 1 memory skills and, 59-60 quantitative skills and, 58-59 verbal skills and, 57-58 Infused instruction, 339, 344 Initiative versus guilt stage, 78, 80, 1 16 Inquiry methods, 456, 468 Insight experts' ways of thinking about problems and, 1 7- 1 8 processes key to, 327-328 redefining problems and, 1 7 Insight problems, 327-328, 344 Instrumental conditioning. See Operant conditioning Instrumental Enrichment program, 140 Integrity versus despair stage, 79-8 1 , 80, 1 1 6 Intellectual disability, 1 70-174, 1 92 causes of, 1 7 1 challenges to learning, 1 74-1 9 1 characteristics of, 1 73-1 74 implications for teaching, 1 74 levels of, 1 7 1- 1 73 levels of for, 1 7 1- 1 73 Intelligence, 1 2 1-144, 1 54. See also Gifted children; Intellectual dis ability ability grouping and, 142-144 biological theories of, 1 26-1 2 7 characteristics of, 122 children at risk, 1 4 1 - 1 42 contemporary systems theories of, 1 27-1 35 controversies concerning, 1 35-144

crystallized, 1 24, 1 54 culture and, 1 36-1 3 7 defining, 1 2 1 emotional, 1 34 entity view of, 23, 32, 377, 387 environmental influences in, 1 39-1 4 1 fluid, 1 24, 1 54 heritability of, 137-1 4 1 , 1 54 incremental view of, 23-25, 32, 377, 387 individual differences in, 1 2 1-144 modifiability of, 1 38-1 4 1 , 154 modification of, 1 38-1 4 1 multiple intelligences and, 127- 1 29, 1 66-167 other kinds of, 1 34-135 programs to improve, 1 39-1 4 1 psychometric theories of, 1 22-126, 1 54 triarchic theory of, 5, 33, 1 23, 1 29-1 34, 1 54 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 1 2 1 , 1 54, 477-480, 503 biological theories and, 126-127 giftedness and, 1 66 increases in, 1 39 intellectual disability and, 1 70 Intelligence tests, 477-480 culture and, 1 36-1 3 7 heritability and, 138 Interactive images as memory strategy, 2 1 , 292 Interest tests, 481 Interference theory, 294, 307 Intermittent reinforcement, 249 Internal-consistency reliability, 486 Internalization; 5 1-52, 72 Internalizing behavior disorders, 183 Internal personality patterns, 28, 32 Interpersonal intelligence, 128 Interrater reliability, 486 Interval schedule of reinforcement, 249, 250, 265 Intervention, 54-55, 72 Intimacy versus isolation stage, 79, 80, 1 16 Intrapersonal intelligence, 128 Intrinsic motivation, 149, 1 54, 35 1-358, 388 combining with extrinsic motiva tion, 361 development of exceptional abili ties and, 353-354 impact of extrinsic motivation on, 356

S U BJ E C T I N DEX

60 7

Intrinsic motivation (continued) implications for teaching, 357 research on, 35 1-353 student interests and, 354-355 Investment theory of creativity, 149, 1 54 Involving students in assessments, 535-536 for classroom management, 398-399 Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, 482 Jigsaw, 458-459, 468 Joplin Plan, 143, 1 54 Judicial cognitive style, 1 46, 147 Kanner's syndrome, 1 84, 192 Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC II), 477 Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT), 477 Keywords to facilitate retrieval, 293 as memory strategy, 2 1 Knowledge conditional, 277, 28 1 , 307 declarative, 1 70, 277-279, 306, 307 of expert teachers. See Expert knowledge procedural, 1 70, 277, 279-280, 306, 308 Knowledge-acquisition components in triarchic theory of intelligence, 130 Kohlberg's theory of moral develop ment, 10 1-105 evaluating, 1 04-105 levels of, 10 1-104 Language acquisition devices (LADs), 64, 72 Language development, 62-68 bilingualism and, 65-68, 72 comparison of theories of, 64-65 implications for teaching, 68 properties of language and, 62-63 stages of, 63 theories of language acquisition, 64-65 thought and, 65 Language diversity, 220-223 dialects and, 22 1 , 232 implications for teaching, 223 socioeconomic status and, 222-223 Standard English and, 220-22 1 teaching non-native speakers of

608

English and, 22 1-222. See also Bilingual education; Bilingualism Law of effect, 244-245, 265 Learned helplessness, 257-258 Learned optimism, 258 Learning, 72, 265 constructivist approach to, 302-306 cooperative, 457-459, 467 discovery, 454-455, 467 distributed, 276, 307 maturation versus, 37-38, 236 motivation and, 5 1 2 nature of, 236 phases of, instructional events ing, 440-44 1 rote, 2 1 , 274-276, 308 situated, 302-306, 308 social, 259-262 Learning deficits, 1 88-1 89 Learning disabilities (LD ) , 1 75-1 8 1 , 1 92 causes and kinds of, 1 78-1 79 defining, 175 implications for teaching, 1 80- 1 8 1 problems with special services and, 1 75-1 77 reading disabilities, 1 75, 178 teaching students with, 1 79-180 Learning environments for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 1 82 constructivist, 449-450 Learning goals, 378-379, 388 Learning objectives, 433-434, 468. See also Taxonomies general, 433 limitations of, 434 specific, 433 test construction and, 5 14-5 1 6 using, 433-434 Learning Potential Assessment Device ( LPAD), 477 Learning preferences. See Learning styles Learning strategies evaluating, 2 1 -23 of expert learners, 20-23 general strategies, 24 Learning styles, 130-1 3 1 , 1 46-147, 154 adapting lectures to, 44 1 multicultural education, 147 Least restrictive placement, 1 60- 1 6 1 , 192 Lecturing, 438-44 1

S U BJ E C T I N DEX

adapting for different learning styles, 441 strengths of, 438 techniques for, 439-441 weaknesses of, 438-439 Legislative cognitive style, 1 46, 147 Lesson plans, 10- 1 3 components of, 10-1 1 expert versus novice, 1 1 , 1 2-13 sample, 1 2-13, 383, 440, 444 Levels-of-processing model, 286-288, 308 Linear syllogisms, 3 1 9-320 Linguistic determinism, 65, 72 Linguistic intelligence, 1 27, 128 Linguistic relativity, 65, 72 Listening, active, 417 "Little Albert" case, 240-241 Locus of control, 356-357, 388 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 127, 1 28 Long-term memory, 272, 274, 308 conditional knowledge and, 277, 281, 307 declarative knowledge and, 1 70, 277-279, 306, 307 encoding, 272, 274, 275 implications for teaching, 28 1-282 procedural knowledge and, 1 70, 277, 279-280, 306, 308 types of knowledge stored in, 277 types of storage in, 276-282 Low-road transfer, 335, 344 Mainstreaming, 1 6 1 , 1 92 Maintaining control, 4 1 4-423 behavioral influence techniques for, 420-42 1 coping with violence and, 42 1-423 good communication and, 4 1 4-4 1 5 implications for teaching, 423 responding to student misbehavior and, 4 1 5-420 Maintenance rehearsal, 274, 308 Major depression, 1 09-1 1 1 , 1 1 6 suicide and, 1 1 0-1 1 1 symptoms of, 1 09-1 10 Marcia's theory of identity achieve ment, 8 1-82 evaluating, 82 implications for teaching, 83-84 Marland Report, 1 66, 1 92 Marriage, same-sex, 9 1 Maslow's hierarchy o f needs, 37 1-373 Massed learning, 276, 308

Mastery orientation, 356, 388 Mastery-oriented beliefs, 25, 3 2 Matching items, 5 1 8-520, 522 Matthew effect, 1 78 Maturation, 72 learning versus, 37-38, 236 student choice, 374-375 Mean, 489-490, 503 Meaningfulness of language structure, 62-63 transfer and, 336 Means-end analysis, 329-330, 344 Measurements, 5 10, 544 Median, 490, 503 Mediated learning experiences (MLEs), 53-55, 72 Memorization, 274-276 strategies for, 2 1 -23 Memory, 1 23, 270, 308 biology of, 296 connectionist models of, 283-285 constructivist approaches to, 297-302 culture and, 59-60 episodic, 277, 306, 307 expert knowledge versus, 8 explicit, 282-283 implicit, 282-283, 307 kinds of, 306 levels of processing model of, 286-288, 308 long-term. See Long-term memory memorization strategies, 2 1 -23 metamemory and, 273, 308 retrieval and. See Retrieval rote learning, 2 1 , 274-276, 308 semantic, 277, 306, 308 short-term, 272, 273-274, 275, 308 standard model of. See Standard memory model stores of, 28 1-282 working, 285-286, 308 Memory deficits, 1 88-1 89 Memory distortions, 298-299 Memory skills, development of, 59-60 Menstruation, 2 1 8 Mental age (MA), 479-480, 503 Mental imagery, 278

Mental Measurements Yearbook, 476-477 Mental models, 320 Mental representations, 276, 308 Mental retardation. See Intellectual disability Mental self-government, 146

Mental set, 332, 344 Mentoring, school performance and, 214 Metacognition, 1 2 1 , 1 54, 308, 3 1 3 Metacognitive processes, 1 5-16, 32 Metacomponents in triarchic theory of intelligence, 129 Metamemory, 273, 308 Method of loci, 2 1 , 292 Metropolitan Achievement Test, 482 Middle childhood cognitive development in, 44-45 depression in, 1 09- 1 1 0 friendship development during, 96 moral development in, 10 1-102 personal development in, 78, 80 Middle schools attachment theory and, 99 challenges faced by teachers, 1 9 creativity in, 1 5 1 gender development and, 92 morality theories in, 1 06 play and friendship development in, 1 00 school/classroom rules, 409 wisdom training in, 1 52 Mild intellectual disability, 1 72 Minimum-competency tests, 499, 503 Minority groups, 1 98, 232 Misattribution, 299 Misbehavior, responding to, 4 1 5-420 Mnemonic devices, 2 1 , 291-294, 308 Mode, 490, 503 Modeling, 265 in cognitive-behavior modification, 263 of creativity, 1 49-150 potential for, 26 1-262 in social learning, 259, 265 successful models for, 26 1 for teaching thinking, 342 Moderate intellectual disability, 1 72 Modifiability, 1 38-1 4 1 , 1 54 Modification of behavior. See Behavioral modifi cation of intelligence, 1 38-1 4 1 Momentum, creating, 398, 399 Monitoring automatization and, 1 6- 1 7 b y expert teachers, 1 5- 1 7 Moral development, 99-1 06 adolescent, 85, 102 Gilligan's theory of, 1 04 implications for teaching, 1 05-1 06

importance to teachers, 76-77 Kohlberg's theory of, 1 0 1-105 Piaget's theory of, 99- 1 0 1 Moral dilemmas, 1 0 1 , 1 16 Morality of cooperation, 1 0 1 , 1 16 Moral realism, 1 00, 1 1 6 Mother-child relationship attachment and, 93-95 IQ and language development related to, 205 Motivation, 347-387, 388 achievement, 3 73-374, 387 across curriculum, 364-365 arousal level and, 363-367 assessment and achievement and, 512 attribution theory and, 376, 387 behavioral theories of, 358-360, 362 beliefs about ability and selfefficacy and, 376-383 cognitive theories of, 360-36 1 , 362 constructivism and, 449 culture and, 225-226 development of exceptional abilities and, 353-354 of exceptional children, 353-354, 383-386 extrinsic, 149, 1 54, 3 5 1-358, 387 gender differences in cognitive performance and, 2 1 7 humanistic theories of, 361-362 implications for teaching, 362 importance of understanding, 348-350 intrinsic, 1 49, 1 54, 3 5 1-358, 388 self-esteem versus self-efficacy and, 38 1-382 social learning and, 260-26 1 , 266 social learning theories of, 3 6 1 , 362 student-centered teaching, 449-465, 468 student goals and, 367-368 student interests and, 354-355 student needs and, 370-376 students with special needs, 383-386 teaching and learning about, 350 of today's students, 357-358 Multicultural education, 223-2 3 1 , 232 avoiding group stereotypes and, 227-228 bilingualism and, 65-68 classroom applications for, 228-2 3 1 compatibility o f cultural and school values and, 224-227

S U BJ ECT I N DEX

60 9

Multicultural education (continued) implications for teaching, 230 Piaget's theory of cognitive devel opment and, 47 rationale for, 224 Multimodal distributions, 490, 503 Multiple-choice items, 5 1 7-5 1 8, 5 19-520 Multiple intelligences, 127- 1 29, 166-167 Multiplicity of language structure, 63 Muscular dystrophy, 185 Musical intelligence, 128 Mystical approach to creativity, 148 Nakao-Treas Prestige Scores, 199 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) , ethnic diversity and, 2 1 0-2 12, 2 1 3 National Board o f Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), 500 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM ) , 302 National Educational Goals , 313 National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) , 1 1 2 Native Hawaiians, school culture and, 225 Naturalist intelligence, 128 Nature, in language acquisition, 64-65 Need(s) , 3 70-376 achievement motivation and, 373-374 change over time, 349-350 implications for teaching, 375-376 Maslow's hierarchy of, 3 7 1-373 self-determination and control and, 374 Need for achievement, 3 7 1 , 388 Need for affiliation, 371, 388 Need for power, 370-3 7 1 , 388 Negative correlations, 30, 32 Negative reinforcers, 246, 253, 265, 358-359 Negative transfer, 334-335, 344 Negative utility, 338 Neonatal neural development, 69 Neo-Piagetian views comparison with other approaches to cognitive development, 6 1 implications for teaching, 5 0 nature of, 47-48

61 0

Neural development intelligence and, 1 26-127 neonatal, 69 Neutral stimulus, 237, 265 No Child Left Behind Act of 200 1 , 1 60- 1 63, 1 92, 473 No-lose method, 41 8-420, 427 Norm(s), 475, 504 Normal distributions, 49 1 , 503, 540 Normative scores, 475, 504 Norm-referenced grading systems, 5 1 1-5 12, 540, 544 Norm-referenced tests, 475, 504 Novice teachers expert teachers versus, 6, 1 1- 1 3 , 1 6- 1 7 lesson plans of, 1 1 , 1 3 Number, 123 Nurture, in language acquisition, 64-65 Obesity, 1 08-109 Objective tests, 5 1 7, 544 evaluating items in, 522-523 questions for, developing, 5 1 7-524 Object permanence, 43, 72 Observed scores, 493-494, 504 Odyssey program, 140 Omnibus tests, 478 One-word utterances, 63 Open schools, 468 Operant(s), 243, 265 Operant conditioning, 243-258, 265-266 classical conditioning compared with, 243 consequences of behavior, 2 5 1 , 253 discovery of, 244-245 implications for teaching, 256-257 mechanisms of, 245-254 punishment and, 25 1-254, 266 recognizing in classroom, 245 schedules of reinforcement for, 249-25 1 , 266 Organic intellectual disability, 1 7 1 Organization, transfer and, 336-337 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 478 Overconfidence, 322, 344 Overextension errors, 63, 72 Overlapping, 397-398, 399, 427 Overregularization, 64, 72 Paired-associates recall, 289, 308 Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model, 283-285, 308

S U BJECT I N D EX

Parallel play, 95 Paraphrase rule, 4 1 7, 427 Paraphrasing, 22 Parent(s). See also Mother-child rela tionship child-directed speech of, 64-65 special education and, 160 Parenting styles, 204-206 Partial reinforcement, 249-250, 266 Partial seizures, 1 85-1 86 Pedagogical-content knowledge, 9, 10 Pedagogical knowledge, 8-9 Pegwords as memory strategy, 2 1 , 292 Percentage grading systems, 54 1 , 544 Percentile scores, 493, 504 Perceptual deficits, 188 Perceptual speed, 1 23 Performance absolute, relative improvement ver sus, 536-537 arousal level and, 363-364 cognitive. See Cognitive perform ance educational. See Educational per formance Performance components in triarchic theory of intelligence, 130 Performance goals, 378-379, 388 Performance-oriented beliefs, 25, 32 Permissive parenting style, 205-206 Persistence, of memory, 299 Personal development, 76-86 in adolescence, 78-79, 80 Erikson's theory of, 77-8 1 importance to teachers, 76-77 Marcia's theory of identity achievement and, 8 1-82 teaching and learning about, 79 temperament in, 84-86 Personality individual differences in, 147 internal and external patterns of, 28 patterns of, 28, 32 Person-environment interaction, 86 Perspective-taking abilities, 1 1 6 development of, 97 implications for teaching, 98 Petit mal seizures, 1 85-1 86 Piaget's theory of cognitive develop ment, 39-40, 4 1-5 1 comparison with other approaches to cognitive development, 57, 61

evaluating, 46--47 implications for teaching, 49-5 1 levels of performance in differentiating, 4 1 limitations of, 49 mechanisms of cognitive development and, 41-42 moving beyond Piaget, 5 1 Neo-Piagetian views, 47-49, 50, 6 1 stages of cognitive development and, 42--45 theory of mind, 62 Piaget's theory of moral development, 99- 1 0 1 Planning of authentic assessments, 530 automatization and, 1 6- 1 7 b y expert teachers, 1 5- 1 7, 430-43 1 Planning for classroom management, 403--407, 41 1--4 1 2 school environment and, 405-406 student characteristics and histories and, 406--407, 4 1 1-4 1 2 students' developmental ages and maturity levels and, 404-405 Planning for student-centered learn ing, 45 1 Planning for teacher-centered teaching, 432-438 flexibility in, 43 1 individual differences in, 432 learning objectives and, 433-434 limitations of, 432--433 taxonomies and, 434--438 Play implications for teaching, 98, 1 00 stages of, 95 Populations, 484--485, 504 Portfolios, 50 1 , 53 1-532, 544 advantages of, 532 creating, 53 1-532 types of, 53 1 Positive correlations, 30, 32 Positive reinforcers, 246, 253, 266, 358-359 Positive transfer, 334-335, 344 Positive utility, 338 Postconventional morality, 102, 103-104, 1 16 Postformal thinking, 48, 72 Power, need for, 370-37 1 PQ4R, 293-294, 308 Practical abilities, 1 3 1-1 32, 1 3 3-1 34, 447 Practical intelligence, 1 3 5

Practical Intelligence for School (PIFS) program, 140- 1 4 1 , 303-305 Praise, 247, 255-256 Praxis Series, 499-500 Preconventional morality, 10 1-102, 103, 1 1 6 Predictive validity, 486-487 Pregnancy during adolescence, 1 1 4 Premack principle, 249, 266 Prenatal period intellectual disability and, 1 7 1 nutrition in, 1 4 1 responsiveness in, 6 3 Preoperational stage, 43-44, 49, 72 Preparation for learning phase, instructional events ing, 440 Preschool programs, 140 attachment theory and, 99 creativity in, 1 5 1 gender development and, 92 morality theories in, 1 06 play and friendship development in, 100 Presentation punishment, 252, 253, 266 Primary mental abilities, 1 23, 1 29 Primary reinforcers, 246, 248-249, 266 Principles, 32 of educational psychology, 30 Proactive interference (inhibition), 295, 308 Problem(s) experts' ways of thinking about, 1 7-18 ill-structured, 326-327 ownership of, 4 1 6-420 redefining, 1 7 well-structured, 326 Problem finding, 48, 50, 72 Problem isomorphs, 33 1-332, 344 Problem solving, 323-334, 344 expertise in, 332-333 impediments to, 332 implications for teaching, 333-334 steps in, 323-326 strategies for, 329-332 types of problems and, 326-328 Procedural knowledge, 1 70, 277, 279-280, 306, 308 Procedures, 407, 427 Productions, 280, 308 Productive validity, 504

Productivity of language, 63 Programmed instruction, 468 Propositional networks, 278-279, 308 Prototypes, 3 1 5-3 16, 344 Psychometric approach to creativity, 148 Psychometric theories of intelligence, 122-1 26, 1 54 critique of, 126 general intelligence factor and, 1 22-123 hierarchical models, 1 24 implications for teaching, 126 primary mental abilities and, 123, 129 time constraints and, 1 24-125 Psychomotor domain, 435, 437-438, 468 Psychosocial theory, 77-8 1 , 1 1 6 Public Law 94- 142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act), 1 59, 1 92, 385-386 Public Law 99-457, 1 59, 1 92 Public Law 1 0 1 -476, 1 59-160, 192 Pull-out programs for gifted children, 1 67-168 Punishment dangers of, 254 motivation and, 359 in operant conditioning, 25 1-254, 266 removal, 252, 253, 266 Puzzle boxes, 244 Pygmalion effect, 370 Quantitative skills, development of, 58-59 Questions for direct instruction, 441 methods of questioning and, 441-442 for objective tests, developing, 5 1 7-524 responding to, 442-443 Sternberg's Seven-Level Model of teacher responses to, 443 Random assignment, 3 1 , 32 Random samples, 485 Range, 490, 504 restriction of, 487 Ratio schedule of reinforcement, 249-250, 266 Raw scores, 491--492, 504 Reaction range, 1 39, 1 54

S U BJECT I N DEX

61 1

Readiness tests, 499, 504 Reading disability, 1 75, 1 78, 1 92 Reality and value appraisal, 420-42 1 Reasoning, 3 1 7-323, 344 deductive, 3 1 7, 320-3 2 1 , 343 fallacious, 32 1-323 inductive, 1 23, 3 1 7-3 1 8, 32 1 , 344 syllogisms and, 3 1 8-32 1 , 344 Recall task, 306, 308 Recall tasks, 288 Reciprocal teaching, 459-460, 468 Recitation, 44 1 , 468 Recognition tasks, 289, 306, 308 Referral for special education services, 164-165 Reflective, 1 5-16, 1 54 Reflective thinking, 7, 32 Regrouping, 143, 154 Rehearsal, 60, 72, 273, 308 Reinforcement continuous, 249, 250, 265 direct, 260, 265 negative, 253 positive, 246, 253, 266 schedules of, 249-25 1 , 266 self-reinforcement, 260 vicarious, 260, 266 Reinforcers, 246, 266 choosing, 246-247 effectiveness of, 248-249 motivation and, 358-359 nature of, 246 negative, 246, 253, 265, 358-359 positive, 246, 253, 266, 358-359 primary, 246, 248-249, 266 secondar� 246-247, 248-249, 266 Reliability, 485-486, 504 of assessments, 5 1 0 o f tests, 485-486 Removal punishment, 252, 253, 266 Representational thought, 43, 72 Representativeness heuristic, 322, 344 Representative samples, 485 Rereading, 22 Research descriptive, 30-3 1 , 32 experimental, 3 1 , 32 on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, 35 1-353 Resistant attachment, 93, 1 1 6 Response(s) conditioned, 238-240, 265 unconditioned, 238-240, 266 Response cost, 253, 266 Responsibility of expert learners, 28

61 2

Restriction of range, 487 Retarded depression, 1 09-1 10 Retention, social learning and, 260 Retrieval, 288-296, 308 facilitating, 289-294 failure of, 294-296 implications for teaching, 296 mnemonic devices, 2 1 , 29 1-294, 308 nature of, 271-272 tasks used to assess memories and, 288-289 Retrieval cues, 289-290, 308 Retroactive interference (inhibition), 294-295, 308 Retrograde amnesia, 1 89, 1 92 Reversible thinking, 45, 72 Rewards, extrinsic, motivation and, 355-357, 359-360 Role playing for teaching thinking, 340 Rote learning, 2 1 , 274-276, 308 Rubrics, 502 Rules, 407-4 1 1 , 427 broken, responding to, 4 10-4 1 1 Samples, 484-485 Satiation, 253, 266 Satisficing, 338, 344 Scaffolding, 53-55, 72 Schedules of reinforcement, 249-25 1 , 266 Schema-based view, 89, 1 16 Schemas, 42, 72, 308 nature of, 297-298 of Piaget, 42-45 in schema-based view of sexual and gender development, 89 Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) gender differences in performance on, 2 1 6-2 1 7 predictive value of, 486-487 Reasoning Test, 482-483 socioeconomic status and, 200-202 Subject Test, 482-483 School(s) changes in, classroom management and, 393-395 single-sex versus mixed-sex, 89-90 violence in, coping with, 42 1 -423 Scripts, 301-302, 308 Seashore Tests of Musical Aptitude, 48 1 Seatwork, 443-446, 468 asg, 445-446 effective, 443-444

S U BJ ECT I N DEX

Secondary reinforcers, 246-247, 248-249, 266 Second-order relations, 45, 72 Secure attachment, 93, 1 1 6 Seizure disorders, 1 85-1 86, 1 92 Selective combination, 327, 328 Selective comparison, 328 Selective encoding, 327, 328 Self, 86, 1 16 Self-actualization, 36 1-362, 388 Self-concept, 82, 1 16, 38 1-382, 388 Self-control, ing, 420 Self-determination, 36 1-362, 374-375, 388 Self-efficacy, 26, 32, 38 1-382, 388 beliefs about, 376-383 perceived, of expert learners, 26-27 Self-esteem, 82, 1 16, 381-382, 388 socioeconomic status and, 206-207 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 86 Self-government, mental, 1 46 Self-instruction, 263-264, 266 Self-management, promoting, 396 Self-monitoring, 368-369, 388 Self-reference effect, 287-288, 308 Self-reflective perspective taking, 97 Self-regulation, 26 1-262, 266 Self-reinforcement, 260 Semantic memory, 277, 306, 308 Sensorimotor stage, 43, 72-73 Sensory impairments, 1 86-1 87, 192 Sensory , 272-273, 275, 308 Sentence structure, in language development, 63 Serial-position curve, 295-296, 308 Serial recall, 288, 308 Severe and profound intellectual disability, 1 72 Sex differences, 2 1 5-220, 232. See also Gender differences Sexual development, 87-92, 1 1 6 adolescent, 84-85 behaviorist view of, 88-89 biological perspectives on, 88 consequences of sexual activity, 1 1 3-1 1 4 Freud's theory o f psychosexual development, 88 gender identity versus, 87 homosexuality and, 91 implications for teaching, 92 single-sex versus mixed-sex schools, 89-90 social learning theories of, 89 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 1 1 3-1 1 4

Short-answer items, 520-522 Short-term memory, 272, 273-274, 275, 308 Situated learning, 302-306, 308 Situational assistance, 420 Situational attributions, 376, 388 Situational interest, 354-355 Slow learners, 1 72 Slow-to-warm-up babies, 86 Social agreement, 1 00- 1 0 1 Social-emotional development, 93-99 attachment and, 93-95, 98, 99 development of perspective-taking, 97, 98 friendship in, 96-97, 98 implications for teaching, 98 importance to teachers, 76-77 play and, 95, 98 Social-exchange theory, 320-3 2 1 Social-informational perspective, 9 7 Social intelligence, 1 35 Social learning, 259-262, 266 discovery of, 259-260 implications for teaching, 262 mechanisms of, 260-262 Social learning view, 89, 1 1 6 of gender development, 89 of motivation, 3 6 1 , 362 of sexual and gender development, 89 Social-psychological approaches to creativity, 149 Societal perspective taking, 97 Society, changes in, classroom man agement and, 393-395 Sociocultural theory, 5 1-57, 73. See also Vygotsky's sociocultural the ory of cognitive development Socioeconomic status (SES), 199-208, 232 achievement and, 200-208 cognitive performance and, 205-206 determinants of, 20 1-203 ethnic diversity and, 308 family size and, 203-204 implications for teaching, 207-208 language use related to, 222-223 low, motivating students and, 384-385 parenting styles and, 204-206 school achievement and, 200-208 self-esteem and achievement and, 206-207 Sociolinguistics, 224-225 Solitary play, 95

Spatial intelligence, 1 28 Spatial visualization, 123 Special education, 1 59-165, 192 for children with learning disabili ties, 1 75-1 77 inclusion programs versus, 1 58, 1 6 1 , 1 63, 1 76-1 77, 1 92 major laws and legal rights and, 1 59-1 63 motivating students in, 385-386 referring students for, 1 64-165 types of services and, 1 63-1 64 Spectrum disorder, 1 84 Spina bifida, 1 85 Split-half reliability, 486 Spontaneous recovery, 240, 266 Spreading activation, 283-284, 308 SRA Achievement Series, 482 Stand-alone programs, 344 for teaching thinking, 339 Standard deviation, 490-49 1 , 504 Standard English, 220-2 2 1 , 232 Standard error of measurement, 493-494, 504 Standardized tests, 47 1-503, 504. See also SAT of achievement, 482-483 istering, 475-476, 503 of aptitudes and interests, 480-48 1 costs and benefits of, 473-474 criterion-referenced, 475 cultural issues concerning, 497-498 format of, 5 1 7-524 group, 477-479 implications for teaching, 483 importance of understanding, 472-474 individual, 477 of intelligence, 477-480 misuses of, 499-50 1 nature of, 474-476 new directions for, 50 1 -502 norm-referenced, 475 omnibus, 478 preparation for, 475-476 quality of, assessing, 484-488 scores on. See Test scores test bias and, 496-497 Standard memory model, 27 1-283 encoding in, 2 7 1-272, 2 7 1-276 explicit versus implicit memory in, 282-283 implications for teaching, 28 1-282

long-term storage in, 27 1-272, 274, 275, 276-282 retrieval in, 271-272 sensory in, 272-273 short-term memory in, 273-274 working-memory model versus, 285 Standard scores ( z-scores) , 494, 504 Stanford Achievement Test, 482 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 477, 478 Stanine scores, 494, 504 Static assessment environment, 73 Statistical significance, 30, 32 Stems, 5 1 7, 544 Stereotypes, avoiding, 227-228 Stereotype threat, 379-3 8 1 Sternberg's Seven-Level Model of teacher responses to student questions, 443 Stimulus conditioned, 238-240, 265 neutral, 237, 265 unconditioned, 238-240, 266 Stimulus discrimination, 240-24 1 , 245, 266 Stimulus generalization, 240-24 1 , 245, 266 Storage nature of, 27 1-272 in standard memory model, 27 1-272, 274, 275, 276-282 Strange situation, 93, 1 1 6 Stratified random samples, 485 Strong Vocational Interest Bland, 48 1 Student(s) expert. See Expert learners helpless, 377�378 involving. See Involving students Student-centered approach, 449-465, 468 computers in, 460-464 constructivism in classroom and, 449 cooperative learning in, 457-459 creating constructivist learning environments for, 449-450 discovery approaches for, 454-456 group discussion in, 455-456 groupwork in, 456-457 implications for teachers, 466 individualized instruction in, 45 1-454 inquiry methods for, 456 learner-centered psychological principles and, 450-451

S U BJECT I N DEX

61 3

Student-centered approach

(continued) limitations of, 464-465 planning for, 45 1 reciprocal teaching for, 459-460 teacher-centered approaches versus, 465-466 Student goals, 367-370 effective, 368-369 enhancement of motivation by, 367-368 implications for teaching, 370 importance of teacher and expectations and, 369-370 Student groupwork, 456-457, 468 Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD), 458, 468 Study skills courses, 22 Stuttering, 1 87-188 Subject(s), 3 1 , 33 Subjective tests, 5 1 7, 544 Subjective-utility theory, 338 Substance abuse by parents, damage caused to chil dren by, 185 by students, 1 1 1-1 1 3 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services istration (SAMSHA), I I I Subtractive bilingualism, 66, 73, 222, 232 Successive approximations, 255-256, 266 Suggestibility, 299 Suicide, 1 1 0-1 1 1 Summative assessment, 473, 5 1 0-5 1 1 , 544 Sunk-cost fallacy, 323 ing self-control, 420 Syllogisms, 3 1 8-32 1 , 344 Symbolic representations, 278, 308 Syntax, 63, 73 Synthesis, 48, 73 Systems theories of intelligence, 1 27-135 critique of, 135 multiple intelligences and, 1 27-129 triarchic theory of intelligence, 1 29-1 34 Task(s), pursuit to completion, 27-28 Task-mastery goals, 368, 388 Taxonomies, 434-438, 468 affective domain and, 435, 437 cognitive domain and, 434-436

61 4

psychomotor domain and, 435, 437-438 Teacher(s) attachment to students, 94 challenges faced by, 1 9 expert. See Expert teachers and expectations of, importance of, 369-370 novice. See Novice teachers Teacher-centered approach, 432-448, 468 direct instruction methods for. See Direct instruction planning in. See Planning for teacher-centered teaching student-centered approach versus, 465-466 Teaching, 429-467 importance of understanding, 430-431 reciprocal, 459-460, 468 student-centered. See Student centered approach teacher-centered. See Direct instruction; Planning for teacher-centered teaching Teaching context, knowledge about, 11 Teaching for thinking, 338-342 essential and teachable thinking skills, 341 group projects for, 340-34 1 methods for, 338-341 modeling and explicit teaching for, 342 role playing for, 340 Teen pregnancy, 1 14 Telegraphic speech, 63, 73 Temperament, 84-86 infant, 86 Temporal contiguity, 238-239, 266 Test(s). See Standardized tests; Test scores; Traditional assessment tests Test anxiety, 366 Test bias, 496-497, 504 Test-retest reliability, 485-486 Test scores ethnic diversity related to, 209-2 14 grade equivalent, 494-495 implications for teaching, 495 on intelligence tests, 479-480 normative, 475, 504 percentile, 493, 504 raw, 49 1-492, 504 standard, 494, 504

S U B J ECT I N DEX

statistical concepts underlying, 488-49 1 true, 493-494, 504 Theory, 30, 33. See also specific theo ries Theory of mental self-government, 1 46, 1 54 Theory of mind, 62 Theory of multiple intelligences, 1 2 7-1 29, 1 54 Theory of primary mental abilities, 1 23, 1 29, 1 54 Theses, 48, 73 Think-aloud protocols, 22, 33 Thinking, 3 1 1-343 abstract, 45 concept formation and, 3 1 3-3 1 7 convergent, 148, 154 creative, 1 48-150 critical, 3 1 3, 340, 343 culture and, 225 decision making, 337-338 dialectical, 48, 50, 72, 340, 343 dialogical, 340, 343 divergent, 148, 1 50, 154 expert knowledge versus, 8 importance of understanding, 3 1 3 insightful. See Insight language and, 65 postformal, 48 problem solving and. See Problem solving reasoning and, 3 1 7-323 reflective, 7, 1 5-16, 3 2 reversible, 4 5 , 7 2 speed of, 1 24-125 teaching and learning about, 3 1 4 teaching for, 338-342 transfer and, 334-337, 344 triarchic, 5 Thinking styles. See Cognitive styles Third-party perspective taking, 97 Thought, representational, 43 Three-ring model of giftedness, 167 Time allocated versus engaged, 395 intelligence and, 1 24-125 wait, 442 Time-out, 253, 266, 420 Token reinforcement systems, 246-247, 424-425, 427 Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, 1 48 Total-point systems, 540-54 1 , 544 Total-time hypothesis, 274, 308 Tracking, 1 43, 144, 1 54

Traditional assessment tests, 5 1 4-528 istering, 5 1 6-5 1 7 authentic assessments versus, 533-534 essay, developing, 524-527 implications for teaching, 527-528 material to cover with, 5 1 4-5 1 6 objective questions for, developing, 5 1 7-524 timing and methods for, 5 1 6-5 1 7 Transfer o f learning phase, instruc tional events ing, 44 1 Transfers, 334-337, 344 teaching for, 336-337 types of, 334-336 Transience, of memory, 298 Transitions, smooth, creating, 398, 399 Transitive relations, 3 1 9-320 Trial and error strategy, 330, 343 Triangle of thinking, 5 Triarchic theory of intelligence, 5, 33, 123, 1 29-134, 154 implications for teaching, 1 32-134 teaching and learning about, 1 34 True/false items, 5 1 8, 521 True scores, 493-494, 504 Trust versus mistrust stage, 78, 80, 1 16 T-scores, 494, 504 Twin studies, 1 37-138 Two-word utterances, 63 Unconditioned response (UR), 238-240, 266 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 238-240, 266

Underconfidence, 322-323, 344 Underextension errors, 63, 73 Undifferentiated perspective taking, 97 Unoccupied children, 95 Unstructured discovery, 455, 468 Utility-maximization, 338 Validity, 486-488, 504 of assessments, 5 1 0 o f tests, 486-488 Variable-interval reinforcement schedule, 250 Variable-ratio reinforcement sched ule, 250 Variance, 49 1 , 504 Verbal comprehension, 57-58, 73, 123 Verbal fluency, 123 Verbal skills development of, 57-58 sentences in paragraphs, 58 words in sentence, 58 Vicarious reinforcement, 260, 266 Violence factors related to, 422 increase in, classroom management and, 393-395 in schools, coping with, 421-423 violent behavior, I I I Visual impairment, 1 86-1 87, 1 92 Vocational interest tests, 48 1 , 504 Voicing problems, 1 88 Volition, 27-28, 3 3 Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development, 5 1-57

comparison with other approaches to cognitive development, 57, 6 1 evaluating, 56 implications for teaching, 56-57 internalization and, 5 1-52 scaffolding and, 53-55 theory of mind, 62 zone of proximal development and, 52-53 Wait time, 442, 468 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS III), 477, 478 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III), 477 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) , 477 Well-structured problems, 326, 344 White Americans. See Ethnic diver sity Wisdom, 1 50-1 52 Within-class grouping, 142-143, 144, 154 With-it-ness, 397, 399, 427 Word processors, 461 Working backward, 330, 344 Working forward, 330, 344 Working-memory model, 285-286, 308 Zero-tolerance policies, I I I Zone of proximal (potential) devel opment (ZPD), 52-53, 73 Z-scores (standard scores), 494, 504

S U BJECT I N DEX

61 5

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