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Faults on Power System A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference come in with each other. These faults may be caused by sudden failure of a piece of equipment, accidental damage or short-circuit to overhead lines or by insulation failure resulting from lightning surges. Most of the faults on the power system lead to a short-circuit condition. When such a condition occurs, a heavy current (called short circuit current) flows through the equipment, causing considerable damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the consumers. Short circuit studies provide the information about currents and voltages at different points in the system during various fault conditions. These are necessary in order to design the power system equipments, insulation level and conductor diameter. It is also essential to design effective and adequate relaying as well as switching system. Under fault conditions, the relay should trip and isolate the faulty part from the healthy system as quickly as possible without damaging itself. These studies also provide the information about short circuit MVA capacity required for circuit breakers. The circuit breaker installed at different locations must be capable of carrying short circuit MVA momentarily and open its s. Thus short circuit studies are required during planning, deg and at various operating stages. The faults in power system are categorized as (i) symmetrical faults, (ii) unsymmetrical faults. During symmetrical fault, system remains in balanced condition. The power system can be analyzed on single-phase basis. However, during unsymmetrical faults, system remains in unbalanced condition. Therefore such a power system cannot be analyzed on single-phase basis. It can be solved on three-phase basis or by using the symmetrical component transformation 0,1,2. The following table summarizes fault statistics. Causes of Faults Percentage Types of Fault Probability of failure Lightning 6% Single phase to ground 10% Sleet, wind, Mech* 10% Phase to phase 15% Apparatus Failure 10% Two phase to ground 10% Switching a fault 10% Three phase faults 05% Misc, Tree falling etc 10% *mechanical damage to the equipment, bridging of conductors by birds. For the effective design of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of frequency of occurrence of these faults. Usually, generation plants are located far away from load centers. The distance between the two is few hundred kilometers that exposes large number of equipments to the varying atmospheric conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects on the lines, flashover resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc, are greater for overhead lines than other parts of the power system. The occurrence of fault drive a very large current called short circuit currents to flow in the circuit. The determination of fault current is the basis for selection of appropriate protective devices such as relays and circuit breakers. It also helps in estimating the withstanding forces that arises out of fault currents during the period prior to the interrupting device clearing the fault. The short circuit currents may cause heavy damage to equipment and would also cause intolerable interruption of service to consumer. The modern power system is designed on two aspects: one is to design the system so that faults cannot occur and the other is to accept the possibility of faults and take necessary safety measures to safeguard the costly equipments from getting damaged temporarily or permanently. In an electric power system, a fault or fault current is any abnormal electric current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current byes the normal load. I Load Current

Generator

Load

G

Fig.1 Normal Operation of Power System Page 1 of 5

Generator

G

If >> I

Load

For Short circuit analysis, in most of the cases, the load currents are ignored

Fig.2 Power System during fault Symmetrical Faults A fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal fault currents in the lines with 120o displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a 3-phase line are brought together simultaneously into a short- circuit condition as shown in Fig.3. This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical currents i.e. equal fault currents with 120o displacement. Thus referring to Fig. 3, fault currents IR, IY and IB will be equal in magnitude with 120o displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase need be considered in calculations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar. The following points may be particularly noted: (i) The symmetrical fault rarely occurs in practice as majority of the faults are of unsymmetrical nature. However, symmetrical fault calculations are being discussed in this chapter to enable the reader to understand the problems that short circuit conditions present to the power system. (ii) The symmetrical fault is the most severe and imposes heavy duty on the circuit breaker.

Fig. 3

Current Limiting Reactors

Fig.4 When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is limited by the impedance of the system upto the point of fault. Thus referring to Fig. 4, if a fault occurs on the feeder at point F, then the short circuit current from the generating station will have a value limited by the impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance of the line between the generator and the point of fault. This shows that the knowledge of the impedances of various equipment and circuits in the line of the system is very important for the determination of short-circuit currents.

Page 2 of 5

The fault MVA is mathematically expressed as:

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 The power demand is growing at the rate of 7 to 8% per annum. This needs addition of generators into the system. The fault current and hence fault level also increases on of increased voltamperes and decreased impedance. It becomes necessary to replace the old switchgear with a new one with higher rating which is not economically viable. The alternative way is to cope up with this situation is to use the current limiting reactors. In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers can handle, additional reactances known as reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable points. A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as compared to its ohmic resistance. The forces on the turns of these reactors under short-circuit conditions are considerable and, therefore, the windings must be solidly braced. It may be added that due to very small resistance of reactors, there is very little change in the efficiency of the system. Advantages 1) Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the equipment from overheating as well as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces. 2) Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate without communicating their disturbing effects to other parts of the power system. This increases the chances of continuity of supply. 3) They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating. 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑀𝑉𝐴 =

Location of Reactors

Generator Reactor When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they are known as generator reactors. In this case, the reactor may be considered as a part of leakage reactance of the generator; hence its effect is to protect the generator in the case of any short-circuit beyond the reactors. But these generator reactors causes a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation. If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will be reduced to a low value, thereby causing the generators to fall out of step. If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to other is likely to be affected. Due to these disadvantages and also since modern power station generators have sufficiently large leakage reactance to protect them against short-circuit, it is not a common practice to use separate reactors for the generators.

Page 3 of 5

Feeder Reactor

When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as feeder reactors. Since most of short-circuits occur on feeder, a large number of reactors are used for such circuits. Two principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors. Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not affect the bus-bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the generator to lose synchronism. Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders and consequently the effects of fault are localised. Disadvantages There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal operation.

Ring system bus bar reactor

The above two methods of locating reactors suffer from the disadvantage that there is considerable voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation. This disadvantage can be overcome by locating the reactors in the bus-bars. Under normal operating conditions, each generator will supply its own section of the load and very little power will be fed by other generators. This results in low power loss and voltage drop in the reactors. However, the principal advantage of the system is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator (to which the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault current while the current fed from other generators is small due to the presence of reactors. Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which the feeder is connected, the other sections being able to continue in normal operation.

Page 4 of 5

Tie bar system

Comparing the ring system with tie-bar system, it is clear that in the tie-bar system, there are effectively two reactors in series between sections so that reactors must have approximately half the reactance of those used in a comparable ring system. Another advantage of tiebar system is that additional generators may be connected to the system without requiring changes in the existing reactors. However, this system has the disadvantage that it requires an additional bus-bar i.e. the tiebar.

STEPS FOR SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATION It has already been discussed that 3-phase short-circuit faults result in symmetrical fault currents i.e. fault currents in the three phases are equal in magnitude and have an inter-phase difference of 120o from each other. Therefore, problems involving such faults can be solved by considering one phase only as the same conditions prevail in the other two phases. The procedure for the solution of such faults involves the following steps: i) Draw a single line diagram of the complete network indicating the rating, voltage and percentage reactance (per unit) of each element of the network. ii) Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and convert all percentage reactances to this base value. iii) Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, draw the reactance diagram showing one phase of the system and the neutral. iv) Indicate the % reactances on the base kVA in the reactance diagram. v) The transformer in the system should be represented by a reactance in series. vi) Find the total % reactance of the network upto the point of fault. For example, let the reactance upto fault point be X% or X p.u. Find the full-load current corresponding to the selected base kVA and the normal system voltage at the fault point. Let it be I. Then various short-circuit calculations are: Short-circuit current, 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑜 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 Percentage Reactance The machine reactance is expressed in percentage. All transformer, generator reactance have reactive voltage drop equal to IX. Hence percentage reactance = Or

𝑋=

(%𝑋)𝑉 100 𝐼

=

%𝑋

𝑉2

𝐼𝑋 𝑉

𝑥 100

100 𝑉𝐼

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