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Folded plates Folded Plate Structure a thin-walled building structure of the shell type. Folded plate structures consist of flat components, or plates, that are interconnected at some dihedral angle. Structures composed of rectangular plates are said to be prismatic. In modern construction practice the most widely used folded plate structures are made of cast-in-situ or precast reinforced concrete (including prestressed and reinforced-cement structures). The structures are used as roofs for industrial and public buildings. The main advantage of folded plate structures over other shells (such as cylindrical) is the simplicity of manufacture. Approximate static calculations of folded plate structures are based on the membrane theory of shells; more exact static calculations are based on limit equilibrium and on P. L. Pasternak’s and V. Z. Vlasov’s general theory of shells.

Roman Architecturecite this article Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on email Share on print Share on gmail Share on stumbleupon More Sharing Services 26 

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1 Background Information o 1.1 Important Definitions o 1.2 Ages of Western Art 2 Overall Summary 3 Main Article o 3.1 Introduction o 3.2 Triumphal Structures o 3.3 Late Republic Architecture o 3.4 Pax Romana Architecture o 3.5 Late Empire Architecture o 3.6 Early Christian Architecture

Background Information Important Definitions The Essential Humanities definition of art is ―a beautiful human creation‖. Art can be divided into two basic types: fine art (aka ―pure art‖), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture), and applied art (aka ―decorative art‖), which is actually used (e.g. furniture, clothing, tableware). Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities. Five ―great fine arts‖ are recognized: literature, music, and three great

visual arts (painting, sculpture, and architecture). Arguably, these are the most universally experienced and appreciated of all fine arts.

Ages of Western Art Western art history can be divided into eight ages. For discussion of the overall course of Western art, see Core Regions of Western Art and Western Aesthetics. Ages of Western Art 3000-2000 BC 2000-1000 BC 1000 BC-0 0-1000 1 2 3 4 1 Aegean ca. 30001200 BC

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1000-present 5 6 8 7 7

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Greek Roman Medieval Renaissance Baroque Modern ca. Neoclassical/Romantic ca. 250 ca. 500- ca. 1400ca. 1600ca. 1200 ca. 1750-1900 BC-500 1500 1600 1800 1850BC-0

Overall Summary Late Republic ca. 250 BC-0 development of arched construction, rapid expansion of roads and aqueducts

Tiny Summary of Roman Architecture Pax Romana Late Empire ca. 0-200 ca. 200-500 temples (Maison-Carrée, Pantheon), Colosseum

Baths of Caracalla Early Christian church designs (basilica > Latin cross & central-plan), earliest churches (Old St Peter’s, Santa Sabina)

Main Article Introduction The Romans embraced Greek culture so eagerly that it became the foundation of Roman culture. Consequently, Roman forms of art and architecture emerged largely from the adoption and reshaping of Greek models. In of architecture, this entailed the adoption of the three orders (basic styles) of Greek temples (see Classical Orders). In one respect, however, Roman architecture stands clearly apart from its Greek predecessors. The Romans were the first civilization to fully exploit arched construction, in which a roof is ed by arches (as opposed to post-and-beam construction, in which a

roof sits directly on columns). Among older cultures, arched construction was either relatively simple (e.g. Mesopotamia) or virtually absent (e.g. Greece). Post-and-beam Construction vs Arched Construction

In architecture, vertical s are often referred to as ―posts‖ or ―pillars‖. A circular is known as a column, while a square or rectangular is often called a pier. Prior to the age of steel framing, the interior space of a post-and-beam structure was necessarily crowded with columns. Arches, on the other hand, could redirect a building’s weight over long distances to thick posts, allowing for vast, relatively unobstructed rooms (see Tension and Compression).2 The principal building materials of ancient Rome were stone and concrete. Though concrete dates to the earliest civilizations, the Romans were the first to build with it extensively. Concrete walls were often coated in facings of stone or brick.4,20,21 The heart of a Roman city was the forum: a public square, typically paved and surrounded by the city’s principal civic buildings. Larger cities might feature multiple forums.7,9 Reconstruction of a Roman Forum

Image Credit: public domain

Triumphal Structures One of the most enduringly popular forms of Roman architecture is the triumphal arch, a free-standing archway built to commemorate a great event (e.g. a military campaign). A triumphal arch often features sculpture relevant to the event in question, such as narrative reliefs or crowning statues.7 Large triumphal arches sometimes have two sub-arches flanking the main central arch. Image Gallery: Ancient Roman Triumphal Architecture

Triumphal Arch in Libya Image credit: Franzfoto

Triumphal Arch in Athens Image credit: Юкатан

Triumphal Arch in Rome Image credit: Alexander Z.

Triumphal Arch in Jordan Image credit: Yosemite

Trajan’s Column, Rome Image credit: Mihai A popular cousin of the triumphal arch was the triumphal column. The surface of a triumphal column is ideal for illustrating long stories, as it can be wrapped in a continuous, spiralling series of narrative reliefs. By far the most famous example is Trajan's Column, Rome.

Late Republic Architecture ca. 250 BC-0 The Republic (ca. 500 BC-0) was the formative age of the Roman state and culture. Roman territory was limited to Italy during the Early Republic (ca. 500-250 BC), then expanded rapidly across Mediterranean lands during the Late Republic (ca. 250 BC-0); thus, the Late Republic marks the rise of Rome as a great power. Likewise, it was during the Late Republic that Roman art and architecture truly began to flourish. Rome’s most famous buildings date to the Empire period (ca. 0-500 AD). The Late Republic period, on the other hand, is most notable for several key general developments. One of these was innovation in arched construction. An arch-shaped ceiling is known as a vault. Vaults come in various forms; the simplest is the tunnel vault (aka barrel vault), which can be described as a ―continuous arch‖. The weight of such a vault demanded thick ive walls with limited gaps. Moreover, since the height of a tunnel vault must increase along with its width, there was a practical limit on its size.22 Image Gallery: Tunnel Vault

Tunnel Vault Image credit: Yosemite

Tunnel Vault Image credit: José Antonio Gil Martínez Roman architects overcame these limitations in two ways. One was the dome, which can cover a large circular area. The other was the groin vault: a structure formed by the intersection of two tunnel vaults, which concentrates the weight at four points and allows the ive walls to be reduced to four posts. A grid of groin vaults could enclose an unlimited area with a minimum of vertical s.22 Image Gallery: Groin Vault and Dome

Groin Vault Image credit: Yosemite

Groin Vaults Image credit: Camster2

Dome Image credit: Rainer Zenz

Dome Image credit: Baku Two other general developments of the Late Republic were the rapid expansion of Roman road and aqueduct networks. Many modern European roads (from city streets to highways) lie atop Roman originals. (Many Roman buildings, for that matter, are still used today.) Roman aqueducts, which provided gravity-fed streams of water for drinking supplies and baths, were essentially narrow stone channels ed by continuous pier-and-arch construction.G139,H200,9 Image Gallery: Roman Roads and Aqueducts

Ancient Roman Road Image credit: Kleuske

Map of Ancient Roman Highways Image credit: Andrein (modified by Essential Humanities)

Roman Aqueduct Image credit: Guenter Wieschendahl

Roman Aqueduct Channel Image credit: Till F. Teenck

Pax Romana Architecture ca. 0-200 While the building types covered in the remainder of this article generally date to the Republic, it was during the Empire period that the most extraordinary specimens of each type were constructed. Roman temples can be divided into two varieties: post-and-beam (like those of the Greeks) and vaulted. Post-and-beam Roman temples are distinguished from their Greek predecessors in various ways. Typically, the three-stepped floor was replaced with a tall platform, and the columns along the sides of the temple were converted to engaged columns.G139,7 Both transformations apply to the finest surviving Roman post-and-beam temple, the MaisonCarrée, in . Image Gallery: Maison-Carrée

Maison-Carrée Image credit: ChrisO

Engaged Columns (Maison-Carrée) Image credit: Steffen Heilfort An engaged column (―attached column‖), the decorative version of a true column, has the appearance of being partly embedded in a wall. A flattened engaged column is called a pilaster. The decorative version of an arch is a blind arch: a shallow, arched depression in a wall. Image Gallery: Pilasters and Blind Arches

Pilasters Image credit: Derek Jensen

Series of Blind Arches (i.e. a “blind arcade”) Image credit: Stephan M. Höhne The Pantheon, perhaps the most celebrated of all Roman buildings, is certainly the most famous vaulted Roman temple. It features a vast dome (the world’s largest until the Renaissance, with the construction of Brunelleschi's dome) pierced with a circular skylight. The Pantheon is often upheld as the masterpiece of the Corinthian order; as such, it may be considered the final piece of the classical ―set‖, along with the Parthenon (the Doric masterpiece) and Erechtheum (the Ionic masterpiece). Image Gallery: Pantheon

The Pantheon (Rome) Image credit: Xeo

Pantheon Interior Image credit: Rolf Süßbrich

Circular Skylight in the Dome of the Pantheon Image credit: Dave Amos The ancient Greeks constructed performance areas (e.g. theatre stages, racetracks) at the bases of natural inclines, allowing them to install hillside venue seating. Using vaulted construction, the Romans could build free-standing venue seating, allowing Greek-style theatres and racetracks to be erected anywhere.11 Moreover, free-standing venue seating allowed the Romans to develop the amphitheatre (amphi=‖both‖, as in ―both sides‖), in which seating runs continuously around a central arena.7 Venue Seating: Natural Incline vs Free-standing

Largest of all Roman buildings was the amphitheatre known as the Colosseum. The layout of the modern stadium, which allows the efficient flow of thousands of spectators, was established by this building. The exterior of the Colosseum features the popular classical motif of superimposed orders (in which orders are arranged vertically, from simplest at the bottom to most elaborate at the top), which dates to the Hellenistic era.E18,G146 Image Gallery: Colosseum

Colosseum (Rome) Image credit: Paul Zangaro

Colosseum Interior Image credit: FoekeNoppert

Late Empire Architecture ca. 200-500 The Early Roman Empire (ca. 0-200), also known as the Pax Romana (―Roman Peace‖), was the most prosperous and stable age of Roman history. Unsurprisingly, the masterpieces of Roman architecture date chiefly from this period. Nonetheless, the Late Roman Empire (ca. 200-500) had its share of magnificent buildings, and holds particular interest as a transitional phase to the Middle Ages.

The most ambitious construction project of the Late Empire was the Baths of Caracalla. While baths were a standard feature of Roman cities, the Baths of Caracalla were exceptionally large and luxurious (see model). In addition to actual baths (hot, lukewarm, and cold), the complex included exercise rooms, swimming pools, lecture halls, and libraries. The interior was richly decorated with murals, sculptures, mosaics, and stucco.11,33,34 Image Gallery: Baths of Caracalla

Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla Image credit: Chris 73

Ruins of the Baths of Caracalla Image credit: Patrick Denker

Plan of the Baths of Caracalla Image credit: public domain

Reconstruction of the Baths of Caracalla Image credit: public domain

Early Christian Architecture ca. 200-500 The Late Empire was the final age of Roman art and architecture. It was also the first age of Christian art and architecture; consequently, this period is also known as the Early Christian age (ca. 200-500). (Though Jesus lived in the early first century, it took decades for Christianity to emerge as a distinct religion, and further decades for Christian-themed art to develop.) Early Christian art features the adaptation of Roman art forms to Christian purposes (see Early Christian Art). In the field of architecture, the most important development was the embrace of the Roman basilica as the standard design for the Christian church (see Standard Church Layouts).13 While Early Christian churches typically featured plain exteriors, interiors were often richly decorated. The best-preserved Early Christian church may be Santa Sabina (Rome), whose fifth-century appearance remains little changed today.G173 Image Gallery: Santa Sabina

Exterior of Santa Sabina Image credit: MM

Interior of Santa Sabina Image credit: Tango7174 Santa Sabina is a basilica church; that is, it features the same layout as a Roman basilica. From the Early Christian period onward, the basilica layout remained a popular choice throughout Europe. Yet the most prevalent church layouts became the Latin cross church (in Western Europe) and central-plan church (in Eastern Europe), both of which evolved (during the Early Christian period) from the basilica church. The Latin cross design essentially adds two lateral extensions (―transepts‖) to the basilica layout, while the centralplan design essentially compresses the basilica layout into a square (atop which a great dome is placed). Image Gallery: Standard Church Layouts

Basilica Church

Latin Cross Church vs Central-plan Church The foremost Early Christian church (and the world’s largest church until the High Middle Ages) was Old Saint Peter’s in Rome, which was replaced by the current Saint Peter’s during the Renaissance. This church was built under Constantine, the first Christian emperor. The building site is traditionally considered the burial place of Saint Peter (who is considered the first pope).G172,31 Image Gallery: Old Saint Peter’s

Reconstruction of Old Saint Peter’s (note the plaza before the church, framed by colonnades) Image credit: public domain

Reconstruction of Old Saint Peter’s (cross-section) Image credit: public domain Along with churches, the Early Christian period featured a variety of other Christian buildings, including the chapel (small church), baptistry (baptism chamber), shrine (a building that honours a holy person or place, and often contains relics), and mausoleum (above-ground tomb). These structures may be referred to collectively as minor Christian buildings. Like Eastern European churches, minor Christian buildings typically feature central-plan layouts.14 (The term ―central-plan‖ denotes rotational symmetry: if the plan is rotated around its central point, it looks the same at multiple points of rotation.) Central-plan Layouts

It should be noted that Christian architecture emerged later than other forms of Christian art (e.g. painting, sculpture), simply because it could not be produced covertly. Christian architecture only really began to flourish after 313, when persecution of Christians was greatly alleviated by Constantine’s proclamation of official tolerance. Prior to this edict, Christian meetings and worship were usually conducted secretly, in homes of the faithful.13

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE The early Roman town house was little more than a single room known as the atrium. The roof sloped inwards and downwards from all sides to a rectangular opening, beneath which was a basin, the impluvium, set into the floor to catch the rainwater. As time went on, small extra rooms were built inside the atrium against its walls, or separated off by partitions. Click here for a diagram and description of the typical plan of a Roman house. Town houses did not usually consist of more than one storey, though upstairs dining-rooms are sometimes referred to. Apartments above shops, however, reached by an outside staircase, were a feature of small towns.

Reconstruction of a street in Pompeii. (Illustration by John Pittaway from Picture Reference Ancient Romans, Brockhampton Press 1970) Urban congestion was a problem in Rome from early times. It has been estimated from statistics compiled at the time that in the second century AD there were 1782 houses in the city, providing accommodation for 50,000 people, many of whom would have been household slaves. The other 1.5 million lived in tenement blocks, six or even seven storeys high. Augustus limited their height to 20 metres: Trajan lowered this to 18. Many were cheaply built on unsound foundations. Collapsed blocks were commonplace, rent irregularities were rife, and sanitation was superficial.

Model of a Roman room in a well-to-do home. (VRoma: Museum of London: Paula Chabot)

Reconstruction of a simple room based on Roman houses excavated in Newgate, London. Furniture, food, and room are replicas. Artefacts on the table - tablets and stylus, dishes, board game - are original. (VRoma: Museum of London: Barbara McManus) Comparatively wealthy flat-dwellers lived on the ground floor and had access to a public sewer. Even in the purpose-built new-town apartment blocks in in Ostia, it would appear that upstairs private latrines were not connected to any public sewer. Upper-floor tenants in Rome had to make their own arrangements, though there were public lavatories for those who could afford them. The rest had recourse to chamber-pots, the contents of which they emptied into a well at the foot of the stairs, or threw out of the window into the streets below, a practice still prevailing in eighteenth-century Edinburgh, which had a similar population problem.

Public latrines, such as this one in Rome, also served a social function. The trend extended to private houses: the villa at Settefinestre, near Cosa, built in 75 BC, sports a communal lavatory seating twenty people at a time. (VRoma: Leslie Flood) For the rich, there were two kinds of villa, or country house. The villa rustica was a glorified farmhouse for the owner of the estate when he happened to be in residence.

From Helen and Richard Leacroft, The Buildings of Ancient Rome, Brockhampton Press 1969. The villa urbana was where you luxuriated or retreated for a holiday from the bustle of life in Rome, or stopped off for a night on a journey. Cicero, who was by no means one of the richest men of his age, had seven country houses, each of which he used from time to time. Pliny the Younger, who was very rich, had at least four, including one in Etruria where he spent the summer, and the especially opulent one on the seashore at Laurentum, which was near enough to Rome, with a good road between, for him to be able to ride or drive home after a full day’s business in the city.

Central heating was invented by Sergius Oresta in about 100 BC. 1] Marble wall facings. 2] Mosaic floor on cement. 3] Bricks on brick piers. 4] Wall flues. 5] Hot air from furnaces. (From Helen and Richard Leacroft, The Buildings of Ancient Rome, Brockhampton Press 1969)

Domus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Domus (Roman House) Ancient Roman structure A Roman Domus was limited in size because of the confines of the city walls. In the older parts of the city the rich could not build out, so they built up. Social structure Patrician, Senatorial class, Equestrian Social classes class, Plebian, Freedman The Roman Domus has its history in both Etruscan and Greek origins. The Etruscan Atrium House and the traditional Greek Peristyle House are combined to make a modern Roman Domus  v  t  e

In ancient Rome, the domus (plural domūs, genitive domūs or domī) was the type of house occupied by the upper classes and some wealthy freedmen during the Republican and Imperial eras.[1] It comes from the Ancient Greek word domi ("δομή") meaning structure since it was the standard type of housing in Ancient Greece. It could be found in almost all the major cities throughout the Roman territories. The modern English word domestic comes from Latin domesticus, which is derived from the word domus.[2] The word dom in modern Slavic languages means "home" and is a cognate of the Latin word, going back to Proto-IndoEuropean. Along with a domus in the city, many of the richest families of ancient Rome also owned a separate country house known as a villa. While many chose to live primarily, or even exclusively, in their villas, these homes were generally much grander in scale and on larger acres of land due to more space outside the walled and fortified city. The elite classes of Roman society constructed their residences with elaborate marble decorations, inlaid marble ing, door jambs and columns as well as expensive paintings and frescoes.[3] Many poor and lower middle class Romans lived in crowded, dirty and mostly rundown rental apartments, known as insulae. These multi-level apartment blocks were built as high and tightly together as possible and held far less status and convenience than the private homes of the prosperous.

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1 History 2 Interior o 2.1 Interior architectural elements 3 Exterior

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3.1 Exterior architectural elements 4 Archaeology 5 The home in Roman culture o 5.1 Roman domestic law 6 See also 7 References

History The homes of the early Etruscans(predecessors of the Romans) were simple, even for the wealthy or ruling classes. They were small familiar huts constructed on the axial plan of a central hall with an open skylight. It is believed that the Temple of Vesta was, in form, copied from the these early dwellings because the worship of Vesta began in individual homes.[4] The huts were probably made of mud and wood with thatched roofs and a centre opening for the hearth's smoke to escape. This could have been the beginnings of the atrium, which was common in later homes. As Rome became more and more prosperous from trade and conquest, the homes of the wealthy increased in both size and luxury emulating both the Etruscan atrium house and Hellenistic peristyle house.[5]

Interior

A late 19th-century artist's reimagining of an atrium in a Pompeian domus The domus included multiple rooms, indoor courtyards, gardens and beautifully painted walls that were elaborately laid out. The vestibulum (entrance hall) led into a large central hall: the atrium, which was the focal point of the domus and contained a statue of an altar to the household gods. Leading off the Atrium were cubicula (bedrooms), a dining room triclinium where guests could recline on couches and eat dinner whilst reclining, a tablinum (living room or study) and tabernae (shops on the outside, facing the street).[6] In cities throughout the Roman Empire, wealthy homeowners lived in buildings with few exterior windows. Glass windows weren't readily available: glass production was in its

infancy. Thus a wealthy Roman citizen lived in a large house separated into two parts, and linked together through the tablinum or study or by a small ageway. To protect the family from intruders, it would not face the streets, only its entrance providing more room for living spaces and gardens behind. Surrounding the atrium were arranged the master's families' main rooms: the small cubicula or bedrooms, the tablinum or study, and the triclinium or dining-room. Roman homes were like Greek homes. Only two objects were present in the atrium of Caecilius in Pompeii: a small bronze box that stored precious family items and the lararium, a small shrine to the household gods, the Lares. In the master bedroom was a small wooden bed and couch which usually consisted of some slight padding. As the domus developed, the tablinum took on a role similar to that of the study. In each of the other bedrooms there was usually just a bed. The triclinium had three couches surrounding a table. The triclinium often was similar in size to the master bedroom. The study was used as a ageway. If the master of the house was a banker or merchant the study often was larger because of the greater need for materials. Roman houses lay on an axis, so that a visitor was provided with a view through the fauces, atrium, and tablinum to the peristyle.

Interior architectural elements

A schematic of a domus.

Vestibulum (Fauces) The vestibulum was a main entrance hall of the Roman Domus. It is usually only seen in grander structures, however many urban homes had shops or rental space directly off the streets with the front door between. The vestibulum would run the length of these front Tabernae shops. This created security by keeping the main portion of the domus off the street. In homes that did not have spaces for let in front, either rooms or a closed area would still be separated by a separate vestibulum. Atrium (plural atria) The atrium was the most important part of the house, where guests and dependents (clientes) were greeted. The atrium was open in the centre, surrounded at least in part by high-ceilinged porticoes that often contained only sparse furnishings to give the effect of a large space. In the centre was a square roof opening called the compluvium in which rainwater could come, draining inwards from the slanted tiled roof. Directly below the compluvium was the impluvium. Impluvium An impluvium was basically a drain pool, a shallow rectangular sunken portion of the Atrium to gather rainwater, which drained into an underground cistern. The impluvium was often lined with marble, and around which usually was a floor of small mosaic. Fauces These were similar in design and function of the vestibulum but were found deeper into the domus. Separated by the length of another room, entry to a different portion of the residence was accessed by these age way we would call halls or hallways. Tablinum Between the atrium and the peristyle was the tablinum, an office of sorts for the dominus, who would receive his clients for the morning salutatio. The dominus was able to command the house visually from this vantage point as the head of the social authority of the paterfamilias. Triclinium The Roman dining room. The area had three couches, klinai, on three sides of a low square table. Alae The open rooms on each side of the atrium. Their use is unknown. Cubiculum Bedroom. The floor mosaics of the cubiculum often marked out a rectangle where the bed should be placed. Culina The kitchen in a Roman house. It was dark and gloomy and smoke filled the room because there was no chimney. This is where slaves prepared food for their masters and guests in Roman times. Posticum A servants' entrance also used by family wanting to leave the house unobserved.

Exterior

The exterior of the domus depicting the entrance with ostium The back part of the house was centred around the peristyle much as the front centred on the atrium. The peristylium was a small garden often surrounded by a columned age, the model of the medieval cloister. Surrounding the peristyle were the bathrooms, kitchen and summer triclinium. The kitchen was usually a very small room with a small masonry counter wood-burning stove. The wealthy had a slave who worked as a cook and spent nearly all his or her time in the kitchen. During a hot summer day the family ate their meals in the summer triclinium to stave off the heat. Most of the light came from the compluvium and the open peristylium. There were no clearly defined separate spaces for slaves or for women. Slaves were ubiquitous in a Roman household and slept outside their masters' doors at night; women used the atrium and other spaces to work once the men had left for the forum. There was also no clear distinction between rooms meant solely for private use and public rooms, as any private room could be opened to guests at a moment's notice.

Exterior architectural elements   

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Ostium Tabernae Compluvium, The roof over atrium which was purposely slanted to drain rain water into the impluvium pool. This was generally sloped inwards but many designs have the roofs sloping the opposite direction away from the centre opening. Peristyle Piscina Exedra

Archaeology Much of what is known about the Roman Domus comes from excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum. While there are excavations of homes in the city of Rome, none of them retained the original integrity of the structures. The homes of Rome are mostly bare foundations, converted churches or other community buildings. The most famous of the Roman domus is the Domus of Livia and Augustus. Little of the original architecture survives; only a single multi level section of the vast complex remains. Even in its original state, however, the House of Livia and Augustus is not a good representation of a typical domus, as the home belonged to one of Rome's most powerful, wealthy and influential citizens. In contrast, homes in Pompeii were preserved intact exactly as they were when they were occupied by Roman people 2000 years ago. The rooms of the Pompeian domus were often painted in one of four styles: the first style imitated ashlar masonry, the second style represented public architecture, the third style focused on mystical creatures, and the fourth style combined the architecture and mythical creatures of the second and third styles.

The home in Roman culture Roman domestic law The home's importance as a universally recognized safe haven was written about by Cicero after an early morning assassination attempt. He speaks of a commune perfugium, a universal haven or the agreed normal refuge of an individual: I am the consul for neither the forum... nor the campus...nor the Senate House...nor house, the common refuge of all, or bed, the place granted us for repose, nor the seat of honour have ever been free from ambush and peril of death — Cicero[7] The concept of legal abode such as "Domicilium" or today's usage "Domicile" is a documented and legal standard, common in western society for thousands of years.[8] An early reference to domicilium is found in the Lex Plautia Papiria, a Roman plebiscite enacted in 89 BCE. Under this law, Italian communities that had previously been denied could now gain citizenship.

Ancient Roman architecture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Roman architecture) Jump to: navigation, search

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy Ancient Roman architecture adopted certain aspects of Ancient Greek architecture, creating a new architectural style. The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for future architectural solutions, such as hydraulics in the construction of arches. Later they absorbed Greek and Phoenician influence, apparent in many aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana.

Contents         

1 Context 2 The arch and the dome o 2.1 Housing 3 Common building types 4 Materials 5 Modern influence 6 List of buildings, features and types of buildings 7 Further reading 8 References 9 External links

Context Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain. The Ancient Romans intended that public buildings should be made to impress, as well as perform a public function. The Romans did not feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.[citation needed] The Pantheon is an example of this, particularly in the version rebuilt by Hadrian, which remains perfectly preserved, and which over the centuries has served, particularly in the Western

Hemisphere, as the inspiration for countless public buildings[citation needed] . The same emperor left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine wall was built to replace Hadrian's Wall.

The arch and the dome

Dome of the Pantheon, inner view

The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain Main articles: Roman aqueduct, Roman bridge, and List of Roman domes The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete and bricks facilitated the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julian and the bridge at Vaison-laRomaine, both in Provence, . The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings without crossbeams and provided large covered public space such as public baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their architecture on the dome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla. The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, Byzantine and Islamic architecture. Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 1920s identified the Roman architectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch. This symbol of power was transformed and utilised

within the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs: The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ and the afterlife. The arch is seen in aqueducts, especially in the many surviving examples, such as the Pont du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and design. The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans, and implemented it in their own building. An arch transmits load evenly and is still commonly used in architecture today.

Housing

Insula in Ostia Antica Main article: Insula (building) The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia). Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest and darkest rooms were at the bottom; the lightest and most desirable at the top. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements[citation needed] . There are examples in the Roman port town of Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan. External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" and interiors in "Opus Incertum", which would then be plastered and sometimes painted. To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford a degree of luxury painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe l'oeil) were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined.

Common building types Main articles: Thermae, Roman temple, Amphitheatre, List of Roman amphitheatres, Roman theatre (structure), Roman Forum, and Forum (Roman) All Roman cities had at least one Thermae, a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as swimming.

Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies which was then scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone. Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now. Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas, town houses and forts. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct. The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De Architectura.

Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey Roman architecture was often at its most beautiful and impressive when adapted to the needs of Roman religion. The Pantheon in Rome has survived structurally intact because it has been continuously used for worship since it was built, over 2000 years ago[citation needed] . Although its interiors were altered when worship changed from paganism to Christianity, it is the finest and largest example of a dome built in antiquity still surviving. Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles, as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the tradition of which still survives in Spain. Every city had a forum of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is probably in Rome, Italy,[1] and is the site of the earliest forum of the empire.

Panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum with the Trajan's Column on the far left.

Tower of Hercules Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

Materials

Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli Angeli Tile covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars ing broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment[citation needed] . Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius writing in the first century AD in his work De Architectura. Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman concrete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and a great deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa sometime after 273 BCE. Ancient Roman concrete was a mixture of lime mortar, sand with stone rubble, pozzolana, water, and stones, and stronger than previously-used concrete.

The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently) bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive stucco or thin s of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently. On return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla returned with what is probably the most well-known element of the early imperial period: the mosaic, a decoration of colourful chips of stone inset into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home ed the well known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs. Though most would consider concrete the Roman contribution most relevant to the modern world, the Empire's style of architecture can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and domes of many governmental and religious buildings[citation needed] .

Modern influence During the Baroque and the Renaissance periods, Roman and Greek architectural styles again became fashionable, not only in Italy, but all over Europe. Today we still see those influences all around us, in banks, government buildings, great houses, even small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric columns and a pediment[citation needed(doric columns not mentioned in article)], or in a fireplace or a mosaic shower floor copied from an original in Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where in Washington DC not only do we see the Capitol Building, the White House and the Lincoln Memorial, but there exists a Senate and the same (in name) Republican and Democrat parties, who ran the Roman Empire. All across the US the seats of regional government were normally built in the grand traditions of Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to towering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or decorated inside with the same or similar themes that were popular in Rome. In wealthy provincial parts of the US such as the great plantations of 18th and 19th century Louisiana, there too are the pillars and porticoes, the symmetrical façades with their pilasters, the domes and statuary that would have seemed familiar to Caesar and Augustus. In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construction of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the grandest country houses and mansions are purely Classical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham Palace.

List of buildings, features and types of buildings

Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome

The Roman Forum

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

Hadrian's Wall Public architecture    

Amphitheatre Basilica Circus (building) Forum (Roman)

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Horreum Insulae Temple (Roman) Roman theatre Thermae Triumphal arch

Public buildings               

List of Roman amphitheatres Baths of Trajan Baths of Diocletian Baths of Caracalla Colosseum Trajan's Column, in Rome Circus Maximus, in Rome Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome Domus Aurea (former building) Roman Forum Pantheon Tower of Hercules Tropaeum Traiani Hadrian's Villa Verona Arena, in Verona

Private architecture     

Roman gardens Alyscamps, a necropolis in Arles, Domus Catacombs of Rome Roman villa

Civil engineering      

Roman engineering Roman aqueduct Roman bridge Roman lighthouse Roman road Roman watermill

Military engineering   

Antonine Wall, in Scotland Hadrian's Wall Limes Germanicus

Architectural elements

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Hypocaust Mosaics Roman brick Roman roofs Roman spiral stairs

Amphitheatre From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the town in Victoria, Australia, see Amphitheatre, Victoria.

Arles Amphitheatre, a Roman arena in Arles, , still in use today[1] for bullfighting, plays and summer concerts. An amphitheatre (or amphitheater) is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek ἀμφιθέατρον (amphitheatron),[2] from ἀμφί (amphi), meaning "on both sides" or "around"[3] and θέατρον (théātron), meaning "place for viewing".[4][5] Ancient Greek theatres were built to a semicircular plan, with tiered seating above a performance area. Ancient Roman amphitheatres were oval or circular in plan, with seating tiers that surrounded the central performance area, like a modern open-air stadium. Modern usage for "amphitheater" does not always respect the ancient usage, and so the word can embrace theatre-style stages with the audience only on one side, theatres in the round, and stadiums. Natural formations shaped like man-made theatres or amphitheatres are sometimes known as natural amphitheatres.

Contents       

1 Roman amphitheatres 2 Contemporary amphitheatres 3 Natural amphitheatres 4 See also 5 Footnotes 6 References 7 External links

Roman amphitheatres Main article: Roman amphitheatre

Interior of the Colosseum Ancient Roman amphitheatres were major public venues, circular or oval in shape, and used for events such as gladiator combats, chariot races, venationes (animal slayings) and executions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are usually semicircular in shape; from the circuses (akin to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.[6] The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.[7] Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[8] After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of animal killings in the sixth, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.[9]

Contemporary amphitheatres

The Hollywood Bowl, Hollywood, California A contemporary amphitheatre, the sense in which the word has come to be used now, is a curved, acoustically vibrant performance space, particularly one located outdoors. Contemporary amphitheatres often include standing structures, called bandshells, sometimes

curved or bowl-shaped, both behind the stage and behind the audience, creating an area which echoes or amplifies sound, making the amphitheatre ideal for musical or theatrical performances. Most are semicircular in shape, so they should not properly be called amphitheatres. Notable modern amphitheatres include the Shoreline Amphitheatre and the Hollywood Bowl. The term "amphitheatre" is also used (incorrectly) for some indoor venues such as the Gibson Amphitheatre.

Natural amphitheatres

Bryce Canyon Amphitheatre. A natural amphitheatre is a performance space located in a spot where a steep mountain or a particular rock formation naturally amplifies or echoes sound, making it ideal for musical and theatrical performances. The term amphitheatre can also be used to describe naturally occurring formations which would be ideal for this purpose, even if no theatre has been constructed there. Notable natural amphitheatres include the Drakensberg amphitheatre in Drakensberg, South Africa, Slane Castle in Ireland, the Supernatural Amphitheatre in Victoria, Australia, and Echo amphitheatre, Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Colorado and The Gorge Amphitheatre in Washington State, United States.

See also        

Arena Ludus Magnus Stadium Thingplatz List of Roman amphitheatres List of contemporary amphitheatres List of indoor arenas open air, approximately semi-circular, theatres, built of stone or Roman concrete: o List of ancient Greek theatres o Roman theatre (structure)